diff --git a/.cargo/config b/.cargo/config.toml similarity index 100% rename from .cargo/config rename to .cargo/config.toml diff --git a/.git-blame-ignore-revs b/.git-blame-ignore-revs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3c71ce4186 --- /dev/null +++ b/.git-blame-ignore-revs @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +# Ran dprint fmt on the repo +3a30e4c1fbe641afc066b3af9eb01dcdf5ed8b24 diff --git a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md index c1157112fa..2423c4cd4f 100644 --- a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md +++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md @@ -3,8 +3,12 @@ name: Bug report about: Create a report to help us improve --- -- [ ] I have checked the latest `main` branch to see if this has already been fixed -- [ ] I have searched existing issues and pull requests for duplicates +- I have searched open and closed issues and pull requests for duplicates, using these search terms: + - + - + - +- I have checked the latest `main` branch to see if this has already been fixed, in this file: + - URL to the section(s) of the book with this problem: diff --git a/.github/workflows/main.yml b/.github/workflows/main.yml index 3c51dc40d0..34fc9ae0a8 100644 --- a/.github/workflows/main.yml +++ b/.github/workflows/main.yml @@ -12,20 +12,50 @@ jobs: - name: Install Rust run: | rustup set profile minimal - rustup toolchain install 1.59 -c rust-docs - rustup default 1.59 + rustup toolchain install 1.82 -c rust-docs + rustup default 1.82 - name: Install mdbook run: | mkdir bin - curl -sSL https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook/releases/download/v0.4.14/mdbook-v0.4.14-x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu.tar.gz | tar -xz --directory=bin - echo "$(pwd)/bin" >> ${GITHUB_PATH} + curl -sSL https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook/releases/download/v0.4.21/mdbook-v0.4.21-x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu.tar.gz | tar -xz --directory=bin + echo "$(pwd)/bin" >> "${GITHUB_PATH}" - name: Report versions run: | rustup --version rustc -Vv mdbook --version + + # mdBook does not currently have particularly good support for “external” + # crates. To make the test suite work correctly with `trpl`, we must first + # build `trpl` itself (`mdbook` will not do it), and then explicitly pass + # its `deps` path as a library search path for `mdbook test`. That will make + # sure all the crates can be resolved when running the tests. + - name: Build `trpl` crate + run: | + cd packages/trpl + cargo build - name: Run tests - run: mdbook test + run: + mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps + package_tests: + name: Run package tests + runs-on: ubuntu-latest + steps: + - uses: actions/checkout@master + - name: Update rustup + run: rustup self update + - name: Install Rust + run: | + rustup set profile minimal + rustup toolchain install 1.82 -c rust-docs + rustup default 1.82 + - name: Run `tools` package tests + run: | + cargo test + - name: Run `mdbook-trpl` package tests + working-directory: packages/mdbook-trpl + run: | + cargo test lint: name: Run lints runs-on: ubuntu-latest @@ -41,8 +71,10 @@ jobs: - name: Install mdbook run: | mkdir bin - curl -sSL https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook/releases/download/v0.4.14/mdbook-v0.4.14-x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu.tar.gz | tar -xz --directory=bin - echo "$(pwd)/bin" >> ${GITHUB_PATH} + curl -sSL https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook/releases/download/v0.4.21/mdbook-v0.4.21-x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu.tar.gz | tar -xz --directory=bin + echo "$(pwd)/bin" >> "${GITHUB_PATH}" + - name: Install mdbook-trpl binaries + run: cargo install --path packages/mdbook-trpl - name: Install aspell run: sudo apt-get install aspell - name: Install shellcheck @@ -55,7 +87,7 @@ jobs: aspell --version shellcheck --version - name: Shellcheck - run: find . -name '*.sh' | xargs shellcheck + run: find . -name '*.sh' -print0 | xargs -0 shellcheck - name: Spellcheck run: bash ci/spellcheck.sh list - name: Lint for local file paths diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore index 4c699f440a..6bd6995e09 100644 --- a/.gitignore +++ b/.gitignore @@ -5,3 +5,6 @@ book/ target tmp +.nova +.vscode +.zed diff --git a/2018-edition/book.toml b/2018-edition/book.toml index 9c71e2a918..03b59090b4 100644 --- a/2018-edition/book.toml +++ b/2018-edition/book.toml @@ -3,5 +3,5 @@ title = "The Rust Programming Language" author = "Steve Klabnik and Carol Nichols, with Contributions from the Rust Community" [output.html] -additional-css = ["ferris.css", "src/theme/2018-edition.css"] +additional-css = ["ferris.css"] additional-js = ["ferris.js"] diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md index c731bbc95b..6ff4dc33e8 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-00-oop.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-00-oop.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md index ed1ec4013d..28835201bf 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md index 1999647aae..b83ab904ee 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 1b74425fe2..9513538f57 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md index f3da1f40d2..213bac305d 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index ccf3884069..f2dfa71a32 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md index a3e2bcff76..3eddb4dcd5 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-02-refutability.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-02-refutability.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md index 0e0929e7b8..44c73500e1 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md index b34d6b9b67..16c72a906a 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-00-advanced-features.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-00-advanced-features.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md index 34b569fee6..7316eb44a9 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md index 4219b208b9..88ca1a55b4 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md index fecbd52dc8..c7c24439f9 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 1bf0450904..c46fd485e1 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md index bf019c5d68..838a0b8328 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch19-06-macros.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-06-macros.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch19-06-macros.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md index f9b9e5c2d2..cac5584895 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md index 30d0884adb..e1b4200be8 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-01-single-threaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-01-single-threaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md index e8b592ad22..7d54d56bc8 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-02-multithreaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-02-multithreaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md index 928d199bee..f4879c4ac7 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). diff --git a/2018-edition/src/theme/2018-edition.css b/2018-edition/src/theme/2018-edition.css deleted file mode 100644 index b1dcf93641..0000000000 --- a/2018-edition/src/theme/2018-edition.css +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -span.caption { - font-size: .8em; - font-weight: 600; -} - -span.caption code { - font-size: 0.875em; - font-weight: 400; -} diff --git a/2018-edition/src/theme/index.hbs b/2018-edition/src/theme/index.hbs deleted file mode 100644 index f3f1b52fa8..0000000000 --- a/2018-edition/src/theme/index.hbs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - Outdated link: {{ title }} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - {{#each additional_css}} - - {{/each}} - - -
-
- {{> header}} -
-
- {{{ content }}} -
-
-
-
- - diff --git a/ADMIN_TASKS.md b/ADMIN_TASKS.md index 7c152577f1..b91b2ef96c 100644 --- a/ADMIN_TASKS.md +++ b/ADMIN_TASKS.md @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ occasional maintenance tasks. does) - Inspect the changes (by looking at the files changed according to git) and their effects (by looking at the files in `tmp/book-before` and - `tmp/book-after`) and commit them if they look good + `tmp/book-after`) and commit them if they look good - Grep for `manual-regeneration` and follow the instructions in those places to update output that cannot be generated by a script @@ -23,6 +23,11 @@ occasional maintenance tasks. To update the `edition = "[year]"` metadata in all the listings' `Cargo.toml`s, run the `./tools/update-editions.sh` script and commit the changes. +## Update the `edition` in mdBook config + +Open `book.toml` and `nostarch/book.toml` and set the `edition` value in the +`[rust]` table to the new edition. + ## Release a new version of the listings We now make `.tar` files of complete projects containing every listing @@ -31,9 +36,8 @@ create a new release artifact, for example if there have been code changes due to edits or due to updating Rust and `rustfmt`, do the following: - Create a git tag for the release and push it to GitHub, or create a new tag - by going to the GitHub UI, [drafting a new - release](https://github.com/rust-lang/book/releases/new), and entering a new - tag instead of selecting an existing tag + by going to the GitHub UI, [drafting a new release](https://github.com/rust-lang/book/releases/new), and entering a new + tag instead of selecting an existing tag - Run `cargo run --bin release_listings`, which will generate `tmp/listings.tar.gz` - Upload `tmp/listings.tar.gz` in the GitHub UI for the draft release @@ -49,50 +53,50 @@ extracted into a file. To do that: - Find where the new listing should go in the `listings` directory. - There is one subdirectory for each chapter - Numbered listings should use `listing-[chapter num]-[listing num]` for - their directory names. + their directory names. - Listings without a number should start with `no-listing-` followed by a - number that indicates its position in the chapter relative to the other - listings without numbers in the chapter, then a short description that - someone could read to find the code they're looking for. + number that indicates its position in the chapter relative to the other + listings without numbers in the chapter, then a short description that + someone could read to find the code they're looking for. - Listings used only for displaying the output of the code (for example, when - we say "if we had written x instead of y, we would get this compiler - error:" but we don't actually show code x) should be named with - `output-only-` followed by a number that indicates its position in the - chapter relative to the other listings used only for output, then a short - description that authors or contributors could read to find the code - they're looking for. + we say "if we had written x instead of y, we would get this compiler + error:" but we don't actually show code x) should be named with + `output-only-` followed by a number that indicates its position in the + chapter relative to the other listings used only for output, then a short + description that authors or contributors could read to find the code + they're looking for. - **Remember to adjust surrounding listing numbers as appropriate!** - Create a full Cargo project in that directory, either by using `cargo new` or copying another listing as a starting point. - Add the code and any surrounding code needed to create a full working example. - If you only want to show part of the code in the file, use anchor comments (`// ANCHOR: some_tag` and `// ANCHOR_END: some_tag`) to mark the parts of - the file you want to show. -- For Rust code, use the `{{#rustdoc_include [fileame:some_tag]}}` directive + the file you want to show. +- For Rust code, use the `{{#rustdoc_include [filename:some_tag]}}` directive within the code blocks in the text. The `rustdoc_include` directive gives the - code that doesn't get displayed to `rustdoc` for `mdbook test` purposes. + code that doesn't get displayed to `rustdoc` for `mdbook test` purposes. - For anything else, use the `{{#include [filename:some_tag]}}` directive. - If you want to display the output of a command in the text as well, create an `output.txt` file in the listing's directory as follows: - Run the command, like `cargo run` or `cargo test`, and copy all of the - output. + output. - Create a new `output.txt` file with the first line `$ [the command you ran]`. - Paste the output you just copied. - Run `./tools/update-rustc.sh`, which should perform some normalization on - the compiler output. + the compiler output. - Include the output in the text with the `{{#include [filename]}}` directive. - Add and commit output.txt. - If you want to display output but for some reason it can't be generated by a script (say, because of user input or external events like making a web - request), keep the output inline but make a comment that contains - `manual-regeneration` and instructions for manually updating the inline - output. + request), keep the output inline but make a comment that contains + `manual-regeneration` and instructions for manually updating the inline + output. - If you don't want this example to even be attempted to be formatted by `rustfmt` (for example because the example doesn't parse on purpose), add a - `rustfmt-ignore` file in the listing's directory and the reason it's not - being formatted as the contents of that file (in case it's a rustfmt bug that - might get fixed someday). + `rustfmt-ignore` file in the listing's directory and the reason it's not + being formatted as the contents of that file (in case it's a rustfmt bug that + might get fixed someday). ## See the effect of some change on the rendered book @@ -113,7 +117,12 @@ To check, say, updating `mdbook` or changing the way files get included: ## Produce markdown from docx for diffing -- TODO Carol to document this next time she does it +- Save the docx file to `tmp/chapterXX.docx`. +- In Word, go to the review tab, choose "Accept all changes and stop tracking" +- Save the docx again and close Word +- Run `./tools/doc-to-md.sh` +- This should write `nostarch/chapterXX.md`. Adjust the XSL in + `tools/doc-to-md.xsl` and run `./tools/doc-to-md.sh` again if needed. ## Generate Graphviz dot @@ -128,3 +137,13 @@ $ dot dot/trpl04-01.dot -Tsvg > src/img/trpl04-01.svg In the generated SVG, remove the width and the height attributes from the `svg` element and set the `viewBox` attribute to `0.00 0.00 1000.00 1000.00` or other values that don't cut off the image. + +## Publish a preview to GitHub Pages + +We sometimes publish to GitHub Pages for in-progress previews. The recommended +flow for publishing is: + +- Install the `ghp-import` tool by running `pip install ghp-import` (or `pipx install ghp-import`, using [pipx][pipx]). +- In the root, run `tools/generate-preview.sh` + +[pipx]: https://pipx.pypa.io/stable/#install-pipx diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md index e1c7e186f4..68a2dc0c28 100644 --- a/CONTRIBUTING.md +++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md @@ -2,6 +2,58 @@ We'd love your help! Thanks for caring about the book. +## Where to Edit + +All edits should be made in the `src` directory. + +The `nostarch` directory contains snapshots for sending edits to the publishers +of the print version. The snapshot files reflect what has been sent or not, so +they only get updated when edits are sent to No Starch. **Do not submit pull +requests changing files in the `nostarch` directory, they will be closed.** + +We use [`rustfmt`][rustfmt] to apply standard formatting to Rust code in the +repo and [`dprint`][dprint] to apply standing formatting to the Markdown source +and the non-Rust code in the project. + +[rustfmt]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rustfmt +[dprint]: https://dprint.dev + +You will normally have `rustfmt` installed if you have a Rust toolchain +installed; if for some reason you do not have a copy of `rustfmt`, you can add +it by running the following command: + +```sh +rustup component add rustfmt +``` + +To install `dprint`, you can run the following command: + +```sh +cargo install dprint +``` + +Or follow the [instructions][install-dprint] on the `dprint` website. + +[install-dprint]: https://dprint.dev/install/ + +To format Rust code, you can run `rustfmt `, and to format other +files, you can pass `dprint `. Many text editors also have native +support or extensions for both `rustfmt` and `dprint`. + +## Checking for Fixes + +The book rides the Rust release trains. Therefore, if you see a problem on +https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book, it may already be fixed on the `main` +branch in this repo, but the fix hasn't gone through nightly -> beta -> stable +yet. Please check the `main` branch in this repo before reporting an issue. + +Looking at the history for a particular file can also give more information on +how or whether an issue has been fixed or not if you're trying to figure that +out. + +Please also search open and closed issues and open and closed PRs before +reporting a new issue or opening a new PR. + ## Licensing This repository is under the same license as Rust itself, MIT/Apache2. You @@ -15,13 +67,14 @@ that governs all sub-projects, including this one. Please respect it! ## Expectations -Because the book is [printed](https://nostarch.com/rust), and because we want +Because the book is [printed][nostarch], and because we want to keep the online version of the book close to the print version when possible, it may take longer than you're used to for us to address your issue or pull request. -So far, we've been doing a larger revision to coincide with [Rust -Editions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/). Between those larger +[nostarch]: https://nostarch.com/rust-programming-language-2nd-edition + +So far, we've been doing a larger revision to coincide with [Rust Editions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/). Between those larger revisions, we will only be correcting errors. If your issue or pull request isn't strictly fixing an error, it might sit until the next time that we're working on a large revision: expect on the order of months or years. Thank you @@ -45,4 +98,4 @@ a new language! We're waiting on [mdbook support] for multiple languages before we merge any in, but feel free to start! [Translations]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/issues?q=is%3Aopen+is%3Aissue+label%3ATranslations -[mdbook support]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/mdBook/issues/5 +[mdbook support]: https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook/issues/5 diff --git a/COPYRIGHT b/COPYRIGHT index dfe614df93..0fc3ea43fe 100644 --- a/COPYRIGHT +++ b/COPYRIGHT @@ -1,290 +1,3 @@ -Short version for non-lawyers: - -The Rust Project is dual-licensed under Apache 2.0 and MIT -terms. - - -Longer version: - -The Rust Project is copyright 2010, The Rust Project -Developers. - -Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 - or the MIT -license , -at your option. All files in the project carrying such -notice may not be copied, modified, or distributed except -according to those terms. - - -The Rust Project includes packages written by third parties. -The following third party packages are included, and carry -their own copyright notices and license terms: - -* The src/rt/miniz.c file, carrying an implementation of - RFC1950/RFC1951 DEFLATE, by Rich Geldreich - . All uses of this file are - permitted by the embedded "unlicense" notice - (effectively: public domain with warranty disclaimer). - -* LLVM. Code for this package is found in src/llvm. - - Copyright (c) 2003-2013 University of Illinois at - Urbana-Champaign. 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Such copyright can be determined - on a case-by-case basis by examining the author of each - portion of a file in the revision-control commit records - of the project, or by consulting representative comments - claiming copyright ownership for a file. - - For example, the text: - - "Copyright (c) 2011 Google Inc." - - appears in some files, and these files thereby denote - that their author and copyright-holder is Google Inc. - - In all such cases, the absence of explicit licensing text - indicates that the contributor chose to license their work - for distribution under identical terms to those Mozilla - has chosen for the collective work, enumerated at the top - of this file. The only difference is the retention of - copyright itself, held by the contributor. +This repository is licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 + or the MIT +license , at your option. diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock index b3469e3513..493ab8e687 100644 --- a/Cargo.lock +++ b/Cargo.lock @@ -1,275 +1,392 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] -name = "adler32" -version = "1.0.4" +name = "adler" +version = "1.0.2" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f26201604c87b1e01bd3d98f8d5d9a8fcbb815e8cedb41ffccbeb4bf593a35fe" [[package]] name = "aho-corasick" -version = "0.7.6" +version = "1.1.3" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "8e60d3430d3a69478ad0993f19238d2df97c507009a52b3c10addcd7f6bcb916" dependencies = [ - "memchr 2.3.0 (registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index)", + "memchr", ] +[[package]] +name = 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"tools/src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs" - -[[bin]] -name = "remove_links" -path = "tools/src/bin/remove_links.rs" - -[[bin]] -name = "remove_markup" -path = "tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs" - -[dependencies] +[workspace] +members = ["packages/tools"] +default-members = ["packages/tools"] +resolver = "2" +exclude = [ + "linkchecker", # linkchecker is part of the CI workflow + "listings", # these are intentionally distinct from the workspace + "tmp", # listings are built here when updating output via tools/update-rustc.sh +] + +[workspace.dependencies] walkdir = "2.3.1" docopt = "1.1.0" serde = "1.0" diff --git a/LICENSE-APACHE b/LICENSE-APACHE index 16fe87b06e..38634daab0 100644 --- a/LICENSE-APACHE +++ b/LICENSE-APACHE @@ -186,7 +186,7 @@ APPENDIX: How to apply the Apache License to your work. same "printed page" as the copyright notice for easier identification within third-party archives. -Copyright [yyyy] [name of copyright owner] +Copyright 2010 The Rust Project Developers Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index 91c64ce25d..2ff16818b5 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ This repository contains the source of "The Rust Programming Language" book. [The book is available in dead-tree form from No Starch Press][nostarch]. -[nostarch]: https://nostarch.com/rust +[nostarch]: https://nostarch.com/rust-programming-language-2nd-edition You can also read the book for free online. Please see the book as shipped with the latest [stable], [beta], or [nightly] Rust releases. Be aware that issues @@ -26,11 +26,20 @@ See the [releases] to download just the code of all the code listings that appea Building the book requires [mdBook], ideally the same version that rust-lang/rust uses in [this file][rust-mdbook]. To get it: -[mdBook]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/mdBook +[mdBook]: https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook [rust-mdbook]: https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/src/tools/rustbook/Cargo.toml ```bash -$ cargo install mdbook --vers [version-num] +$ cargo install mdbook --locked --version +``` + +The book also uses two mdbook plugins which are part of this repository. If you +do not install them, you will see warnings when building and the output will not +look right, but you _will_ still be able to build the book. To use the plugins, +you should run: + +```bash +$ cargo install --locked --path packages/mdbook-trpl ``` ## Building @@ -45,6 +54,7 @@ The output will be in the `book` subdirectory. To check it out, open it in your web browser. _Firefox:_ + ```bash $ firefox book/index.html # Linux $ open -a "Firefox" book/index.html # OS X @@ -53,6 +63,7 @@ $ start firefox.exe .\book\index.html # Windows (Cmd) ``` _Chrome:_ + ```bash $ google-chrome book/index.html # Linux $ open -a "Google Chrome" book/index.html # OS X @@ -63,7 +74,8 @@ $ start chrome.exe .\book\index.html # Windows (Cmd) To run the tests: ```bash -$ mdbook test +$ cd packages/trpl +$ mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps ``` ## Contributing @@ -73,13 +85,12 @@ kinds of contributions we're looking for. [contrib]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/blob/main/CONTRIBUTING.md -Because the book is [printed](https://nostarch.com/rust), and because we want +Because the book is [printed][nostarch], and because we want to keep the online version of the book close to the print version when possible, it may take longer than you're used to for us to address your issue or pull request. -So far, we've been doing a larger revision to coincide with [Rust -Editions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/). Between those larger +So far, we've been doing a larger revision to coincide with [Rust Editions](https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/). Between those larger revisions, we will only be correcting errors. If your issue or pull request isn't strictly fixing an error, it might sit until the next time that we're working on a large revision: expect on the order of months or years. Thank you @@ -93,13 +104,13 @@ a new language! We're waiting on [mdbook support] for multiple languages before we merge any in, but feel free to start! [Translations]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/issues?q=is%3Aopen+is%3Aissue+label%3ATranslations -[mdbook support]: https://github.com/rust-lang-nursery/mdBook/issues/5 +[mdbook support]: https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook/issues/5 ## Spellchecking To scan source files for spelling errors, you can use the `spellcheck.sh` script available in the `ci` directory. It needs a dictionary of valid words, which is provided in `ci/dictionary.txt`. If the script produces a false -positive (say, you used word `BTreeMap` which the script considers invalid), +positive (say, you used the word `BTreeMap` which the script considers invalid), you need to add this word to `ci/dictionary.txt` (keep the sorted order for consistency). diff --git a/TODO.md b/TODO.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b61f853145 --- /dev/null +++ b/TODO.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +# In each chapter + +- [ ] Manual regeneration +- [ ] Check for upstream changes from last snapshot +- [ ] Propagate updated output to docx +- [ ] Extract docx and check diff +- [ ] Answer all comments +- [ ] Check cross references +- [ ] Check indentation of --snip-- +- [ ] Numbered lines, Gray out unchanged lines +- [ ] Check line wrapping +- [ ] Check for unneeded command/compiling/running output +- [ ] Check println style and error messages +- [ ] Add alt text to images +- [ ] Index tags + - [ ] search for "convention" conventions:naming:of blah + - [ ] check for double spaces, spaces at the end of paragraphs diff --git a/book.toml b/book.toml index 31419fde8d..491916a1cc 100644 --- a/book.toml +++ b/book.toml @@ -1,8 +1,40 @@ +# Sync any changes to this *other than where explicitly specified* with the copy +# in `nostarch/book.toml`! + [book] title = "The Rust Programming Language" -authors = ["Steve Klabnik", "Carol Nichols", "Contributions from the Rust Community"] +authors = ["Steve Klabnik", "Carol Nichols", "Chris Krycho", "Contributions from the Rust Community"] [output.html] -additional-css = ["ferris.css", "theme/2018-edition.css"] +additional-css = ["ferris.css", "theme/2018-edition.css", "theme/semantic-notes.css", "theme/listing.css"] additional-js = ["ferris.js"] git-repository-url = "https://github.com/rust-lang/book" + +[output.html.redirect] +"ch17-00-oop.html" = "ch18-00-oop.html" +"ch17-01-what-is-oo.html" = "ch18-01-what-is-oo.html" +"ch17-02-trait-objects.html" = "ch18-02-trait-objects.html" +"ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html" = "ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html" +"ch18-00-patterns.html" = "ch19-00-patterns.html" +"ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html" = "ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html" +"ch18-02-refutability.html" = "ch19-02-refutability.html" +"ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html" = "ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html" +"ch19-00-advanced-features.html" = "ch20-00-advanced-features.html" +"ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html" = "ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html" +"ch19-03-advanced-traits.html" = "ch20-03-advanced-traits.html" +"ch19-04-advanced-types.html" = "ch20-04-advanced-types.html" +"ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html" = "ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html" +"ch19-06-macros.html" = "ch20-06-macros.html" +"ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html" = "ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html" +"ch20-01-single-threaded.html" = "ch21-01-single-threaded.html" +"ch20-02-multithreaded.html" = "ch21-02-multithreaded.html" +"ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html" = "ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html" + +# Do not sync this preprocessor; it is for the HTML renderer only. +[preprocessor.trpl-note] + +[preprocessor.trpl-listing] +output-mode = "default" + +[rust] +edition = "2021" diff --git a/ci/dictionary.txt b/ci/dictionary.txt index 6e8a51ee50..9f305940c0 100644 --- a/ci/dictionary.txt +++ b/ci/dictionary.txt @@ -2,8 +2,6 @@ personal_ws-1.1 en 0 utf-8 abcabcabc abcd abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz -adaptor -adaptors AddAssign Addr adfb @@ -35,6 +33,7 @@ backtraces BACKTRACE Backtraces Baz's +beefeb benchmarking bioinformatics bitand @@ -54,6 +53,7 @@ bool boolean Boolean Booleans +booleans Bors BorrowMutError BoxMeUp @@ -61,6 +61,7 @@ BTreeSet BufRead BufReader BuildHasher +byteorder Cacher cacher Cagain @@ -83,6 +84,7 @@ combinator ConcreteType config Config +confignew const consts constant's @@ -103,10 +105,12 @@ CustomSmartPointer CustomSmartPointers data's DataStruct +dbea deallocate deallocated deallocating deallocation +debounce debuginfo decl decrementing @@ -131,6 +135,7 @@ destructuring Destructuring deterministically DevOps +devtools didn Dobrý doccargo @@ -142,10 +147,12 @@ DisplayBacktrace DivAssign DraftPost DSTs +durations ebook ebooks Edsger egular +ElementRef else's emoji encodings @@ -157,8 +164,10 @@ Enums eprintln Erlang ErrorKind +Español eval executables +ExitCode expr extern favicon @@ -175,6 +184,7 @@ filesystem's filesystems filmmaking Firefox +FirstAwaitPoint FnMut FnOnce formatter @@ -183,6 +193,8 @@ FrenchToast FromIterator FromResidual frontend +FuturesUnordered +GetAwaitPoint getrandom getter getters @@ -193,6 +205,7 @@ grapheme Grapheme growable gzip +handoff hardcode hardcoded hardcoding @@ -237,7 +250,9 @@ inline instantiation internet interoperate +IntoFuture IntoIterator +intra InvalidDigit invariants ioerror @@ -252,10 +267,12 @@ isize iter iterator's JavaScript +JoinAll JoinHandle Kay's kinded Klabnik +Krycho lang LastWriteTime latin @@ -284,14 +301,19 @@ lval macOS Matsakis mathematic +mdbook memoization metadata Metadata metaprogramming mibbit Mibbit +microcontroller +microcontrollers millis minigrep +Miri +miri mixup mkdir MockMessenger @@ -303,10 +325,12 @@ monomorphized MoveMessage Mozilla mpsc +MSRV msvc MulAssign multibyte multithreaded +multithreading mutex mutex's Mutex @@ -314,6 +338,7 @@ mutexes Mutexes MutexGuard mutext +MyAsyncStateMachine MyBox myprogram namespace @@ -350,10 +375,13 @@ OsString other's otherinstall OtherError +OurError OutlinePrint overloadable overread +PageTitleFuture PanicPayload +parallelizable param parameterize ParseIntError @@ -365,7 +393,9 @@ PendingReviewPost PlaceholderType polymorphism PoolCreationError +por portia +postfix powershell PowerShell powi @@ -391,6 +421,8 @@ RangeTo RangeFull README READMEs +ReadFinished +ReceiverStream rect recurse recv @@ -424,14 +456,17 @@ Rustaceans rUsT rustc rustdoc +RUSTFLAGS Rustonomicon rustfix rustfmt +RustLangES rustup sampleproject screenshot searchstring SecondaryColor +SecondAwaitPoint SelectBox semver SemVer @@ -449,6 +484,7 @@ SliceIndex Smalltalk snuck someproject +SomeType someusername SPDX spdx @@ -464,6 +500,7 @@ stdlib stdout steveklabnik's stringify +StreamExt Stroustrup Stroustrup's struct @@ -484,6 +521,7 @@ Submodules submodule’s suboptimal subpath +subslices substring subteams subtree @@ -495,10 +533,12 @@ TcpListener TcpStream templating test's +TextAwaitPoint TextField That'd there'd ThreadPool +threadpool timestamp Tiếng timeline @@ -506,6 +546,8 @@ tlborm tlsv TODO TokenStream +Tokio +tokio toml TOML toolchain @@ -530,8 +572,11 @@ uncomment Uncomment uncommenting unevaluated +unhandled +unicode Uninstalling uninstall +unittests unix unpopulated unoptimized @@ -539,12 +584,15 @@ UnsafeCell unsafety unsized unsynchronized +Unyank +UpperCamelCase URIs UsefulType username USERPROFILE usize UsState +util utils vals variable's @@ -558,6 +606,7 @@ Vlissides vscode vtable waitlist +wasi wasn weakt WeatherForecast @@ -576,4 +625,5 @@ WriteMessage xcode xpression yyyy +zerocopy ZipImpl diff --git a/dot/trpl04-05.dot b/dot/trpl04-05.dot index ca1f7e06e9..ccdad725aa 100644 --- a/dot/trpl04-05.dot +++ b/dot/trpl04-05.dot @@ -1,32 +1,38 @@ digraph { - rankdir=LR; - overlap=false; - dpi=300.0; - node [shape="plaintext"]; - - table0[label=< - - - -
s
namevalue
ptr
>]; - table1[label=< - - - - - -
s1
namevalue
ptr
len5
capacity5
>]; - table2[label=< - - - - - - -
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
>]; - - edge[tailclip="false"]; - table1:pointer:c -> table2:pointee; - table0:borrower:c -> table1:borrowee; -} - + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + s [label = < + + + + + +
s
namevalue
ptr
len4
capacity4
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_heap { + peripheries = 0; + rank = "same"; + + hello [label = < + + + + + + +
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
>;]; + + ahoy [label = < + + + + + +
indexvalue
0a
1h
2o
3y
>;]; + } + + s -> ahoy [tailport = "pointer:c"; headport = "pointee"; tailclip = false;]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl04-06.dot b/dot/trpl04-06.dot index a23f179a77..ca1f7e06e9 100644 --- a/dot/trpl04-06.dot +++ b/dot/trpl04-06.dot @@ -5,37 +5,28 @@ digraph { node [shape="plaintext"]; table0[label=< - + - - +
world
s
namevalue
ptr
len5
ptr
>]; - - table3[label=< - + table1[label=<
s
+ - - - + + +
s1
namevalue
ptr
len11
capacity11
ptr
len5
capacity5
>]; - table4[label=< + table2[label=<
- - - - - -
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
5
6w
7o
8r
9l
10d
>]; - edge[tailclip="false"]; - table0:pointer2:c -> table4:pointee2; - table3:pointer:c -> table4:pointee; + table1:pointer:c -> table2:pointee; + table0:borrower:c -> table1:borrowee; } diff --git a/dot/trpl04-07.dot b/dot/trpl04-07.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a23f179a77 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl04-07.dot @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +digraph { + rankdir=LR; + overlap=false; + dpi=300.0; + node [shape="plaintext"]; + + table0[label=< + + + + +
world
namevalue
ptr
len5
>]; + + table3[label=< + + + + + +
s
namevalue
ptr
len11
capacity11
>]; + table4[label=< + + + + + + + + + + + + +
indexvalue
0h
1e
2l
3l
4o
5
6w
7o
8r
9l
10d
>]; + + + edge[tailclip="false"]; + table0:pointer2:c -> table4:pointee2; + table3:pointer:c -> table4:pointee; +} + diff --git a/dot/trpl17-01.dot b/dot/trpl17-01.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ed2d969f2f --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-01.dot @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + + // makes ordering between subgraphs work + newrank = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + subgraph cluster_task_a { + label = "Task A"; + + A1; + A2; + A3; + A4; + + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + + // for vertical alignment purposes only + A0 [style = invis;]; + + // Makes the heights line up between the boxes. + A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_task_b { + label = "Task B"; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + + B1; + B2; + B3; + + B0 -> B1 -> B2 -> B3 [style = invis;]; + } + + A1 -> B1 -> A2 -> B2 -> A3 -> A4 -> B3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-02.dot b/dot/trpl17-02.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3e4116a7de --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-02.dot @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task B"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + B3 -> B0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_ColleagueA { + newrank = true; + label = "Task A"; + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4; + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-03.dot b/dot/trpl17-03.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7d5a4971cf --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-03.dot @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task A"; + A1; + A2; + A0_1 [style = invis;]; + A3; + + A1 -> A2; + A2 -> A0_1 [arrowhead = "tee"; headport = "A0_1:c"; headclip = false;]; + A0_1; + A0_1 -> A3 [dir = both; arrowtail = "tee"; tailclip = false;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_ColleagueA { + newrank = true; + label = "Task B"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3 -> B4; + } + + B3 -> A3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-04.dot b/dot/trpl17-04.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6c63b7bde4 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-04.dot @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = RL; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + fut1 [label = < + + + + +
fut1
0
1
>;]; + + edge [tailclip = "false";]; + fut1:source:c -> fut1:target [dir = forward;]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-05.dot b/dot/trpl17-05.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..afcf8e77a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-05.dot @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = RL; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + // Group the two together, which results in the desired alignment. + subgraph { + // But don't show the frame! + style = "invis"; + + fut1 [label = < + + + + +
fut1
?
?
?
>;]; + + fut2 [label = < + + + + +
fut2
0
1
>;]; + + edge [tailclip = "false"; dir = forward]; + fut2:source:c -> fut1:target:e; + } +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-06.dot b/dot/trpl17-06.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e036a385c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-06.dot @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + dpi = 300.0; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_box { + label = ""; + peripheries = 0; + + subgraph cluster_box_internal { + peripheries = 1; + label = "b1"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + pin [shape = "point";]; + } + } + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = bold; + label = "pinned"; + + box [label = < + + + + + +
fut
0
...
1
>;]; + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> box [headport = "target";]; + box -> box [tailport = "source:c"; headport = "internal";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-07.dot b/dot/trpl17-07.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..11b79574c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-07.dot @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + newrank = true; + dpi = 300.0; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + + subgraph cluster_not_fut { + peripheries = 0; + + pin [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_boxes { + peripheries = 0; + rank = same; + + subgraph cluster_box_1 { + subgraph cluster_box_2_internal { + label = "b1"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + style = filled; + peripheries = 1; + box1 [shape = "point";style = "invis";]; + } + } + + subgraph cluster_box_2 { + subgraph cluster_box_2_internal { + label = "b2"; + shape = box; + style = solid; + peripheries = 1; + box2 [shape = "point";]; + } + } + } + } + subgraph cluster_target { + style = bold; + label = "pinned"; + + fut [label = < + + + + + +
fut
0
...
1
>;]; + } + + + box1 -> box2 [rankdir = TB; style = invis;]; + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pin -> box1 [style = "invis";]; + pin -> box2 [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + box2 -> fut [headport = "target";]; + fut -> fut [tailport = "source:c"; headport = "internal";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-08.dot b/dot/trpl17-08.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8e9897f46d --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-08.dot @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + newrank = true; + outputorder = in; + compound = true; + labelloc = "c"; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = dashed; + label = "String"; + + pin [shape = "point";]; + + fut [label = < + + + + + + +
5usizehello
>;]; + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> fut [headport = "target";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-09.dot b/dot/trpl17-09.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..de73007511 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-09.dot @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +digraph { + rankdir = LR; + overlap = false; + dpi = 300.0; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + newrank = true; + outputorder = in; + compound = true; + labelloc = "c"; + + node [shape = "plaintext";]; + + pinned_box [label = < + + +
Pin
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_both { + peripheries = 0; + + + + string1 [label = < + + + + + + + + + +
s1
5usizehello
>;]; + + subgraph cluster_deref { + style = dashed; + label = "String"; + peripheries = 1; + + pin [shape = "point";]; + + string2 [label = < + + + + + + + + + + + +
s2
7usizegoodbye
>;]; + } + } + + edge [tailclip = false;]; + pinned_box -> pin [tailport = "source:c"; arrowhead = "none";]; + pin -> string2 [headport = "target";]; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dprint.jsonc b/dprint.jsonc new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bf34e5b4de --- /dev/null +++ b/dprint.jsonc @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +{ + "typescript": { + }, + "json": { + }, + "markdown": { + }, + "malva": { + }, + "excludes": [ + "**/node_modules", + "**/*-lock.json", + "**/target", + // We don’t to apply auto-formatting to this *yet*, at a minimum. It may be + // helpful as a way of replacing some of the manual formatting we do in both + // the nostarch script and the script for pulling data back over from docx, + // though, so we may *start* doing so in the future. + "nostarch", + // These should never change at this point + "2018-edition", + "first-edition", + "second-edition", + "redirects", + // has empty list items which look like headings to a formatter + ".github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/bug_report.md", + ], + "plugins": [ + "https://plugins.dprint.dev/typescript-0.93.3.wasm", + "https://plugins.dprint.dev/json-0.19.4.wasm", + "https://plugins.dprint.dev/markdown-0.17.8.wasm", + "https://plugins.dprint.dev/g-plane/malva-v0.11.0.wasm", + ], +} diff --git a/ferris.js b/ferris.js index bb601a4e28..08f3292816 100644 --- a/ferris.js +++ b/ferris.js @@ -1,65 +1,100 @@ -var ferrisTypes = [ +// @ts-check + +/** + * @typedef {{ attr: string, title: string }} FerrisType + */ + +/** @type {Array} */ +const FERRIS_TYPES = [ { - attr: 'does_not_compile', - title: 'This code does not compile!' + attr: "does_not_compile", + title: "This code does not compile!", }, { - attr: 'panics', - title: 'This code panics!' + attr: "panics", + title: "This code panics!", }, { - attr: 'not_desired_behavior', - title: 'This code does not produce the desired behavior.' - } -] + attr: "not_desired_behavior", + title: "This code does not produce the desired behavior.", + }, +]; -document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', () => { - for (var ferrisType of ferrisTypes) { - attachFerrises(ferrisType) +document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", () => { + for (let ferrisType of FERRIS_TYPES) { + attachFerrises(ferrisType); } -}) +}); +/** + * @param {FerrisType} type + */ function attachFerrises(type) { - var elements = document.getElementsByClassName(type.attr) + let elements = document.getElementsByClassName(type.attr); + + for (let codeBlock of elements) { + // Skip SVG etc.: in principle, these should never be attached to those, but + // this means if someone happens to have a browser extension which *is* + // attaching them, it will not break the code. + if (!(codeBlock instanceof HTMLElement)) { + continue; + } + + let lines = codeBlock.innerText.replace(/\n$/, "").split(/\n/).length; + + /** @type {'small' | 'large'} */ + let size = lines < 4 ? "small" : "large"; - for (var codeBlock of elements) { - var lines = codeBlock.innerText.replace(/\n$/, '').split(/\n/).length - var size = 'large' - if (lines < 4) { - size = 'small' + let container = prepareFerrisContainer(codeBlock, size == "small"); + if (!container) { + continue; } - var container = prepareFerrisContainer(codeBlock, size == 'small') - container.appendChild(createFerris(type, size)) + container.appendChild(createFerris(type, size)); } } +/** + * @param {HTMLElement} element - Code block element to attach a Ferris to. + * @param {boolean} useButtons - Whether to attach to existing buttons. + * @returns {Element | null} - The container element to use. + */ function prepareFerrisContainer(element, useButtons) { - var foundButtons = element.parentElement.querySelector('.buttons') + let foundButtons = element.parentElement?.querySelector(".buttons"); if (useButtons && foundButtons) { - return foundButtons + return foundButtons; } - var div = document.createElement('div') - div.classList.add('ferris-container') + let div = document.createElement("div"); + div.classList.add("ferris-container"); + + if (!element.parentElement) { + console.error(`Could not install Ferris on ${element}, which is missing a parent`); + return null; + } - element.parentElement.insertBefore(div, element) + element.parentElement.insertBefore(div, element); - return div + return div; } +/** + * @param {FerrisType} type + * @param {'small' | 'large'} size + * @returns {HTMLAnchorElement} - The generated anchor element. + */ function createFerris(type, size) { - var a = document.createElement('a') - a.setAttribute('href', 'ch00-00-introduction.html#ferris') - a.setAttribute('target', '_blank') + let a = document.createElement("a"); + a.setAttribute("href", "ch00-00-introduction.html#ferris"); + a.setAttribute("target", "_blank"); - var img = document.createElement('img') - img.setAttribute('src', 'img/ferris/' + type.attr + '.svg') - img.setAttribute('title', type.title) - img.classList.add('ferris') - img.classList.add('ferris-' + size) + let img = document.createElement("img"); + img.setAttribute("src", "img/ferris/" + type.attr + ".svg"); + img.setAttribute("title", type.title); + img.classList.add("ferris"); + img.classList.add("ferris-" + size); - a.appendChild(img) + a.appendChild(img); - return a + return a; } diff --git a/first-edition/book.toml b/first-edition/book.toml index d365a01cfb..3a3189c4d7 100644 --- a/first-edition/book.toml +++ b/first-edition/book.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [book] title = "The Rust Programming Language" author = "The Rust Project Developers" - -[output.html] -additional-css = ["src/theme/first-edition.css"] diff --git a/first-edition/src/associated-types.md b/first-edition/src/associated-types.md index 626048e9e6..be78034984 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/associated-types.md +++ b/first-edition/src/associated-types.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md b/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md index aa634112b2..7e667e50c6 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md +++ b/first-edition/src/const-and-static.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/ffi.md b/first-edition/src/ffi.md index 2adaff9d8f..a8c3f818ee 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/ffi.md +++ b/first-edition/src/ffi.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#calling-rust-functions-from-other-languages) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#calling-rust-functions-from-other-languages) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/macros.md b/first-edition/src/macros.md index 6bafdc1e43..eb9871ca4a 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/macros.md +++ b/first-edition/src/macros.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md b/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md index 921a2a6854..a13f444376 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md +++ b/first-edition/src/operators-and-overloading.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#default-generic-type-parameters-and-operator-overloading) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#default-generic-type-parameters-and-operator-overloading) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/patterns.md b/first-edition/src/patterns.md index d722d397e9..7bc6949b2f 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/patterns.md +++ b/first-edition/src/patterns.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md b/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md index 9778383d80..3b683a9759 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md +++ b/first-edition/src/procedural-macros.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html?highlight=procedural#procedural-macros-for-generating-code-from-attributes) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html?highlight=procedural#procedural-macros-for-generating-code-from-attributes) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md b/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md index c149da8681..a4cc68d474 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md +++ b/first-edition/src/raw-pointers.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/theme/first-edition.css b/first-edition/src/theme/first-edition.css deleted file mode 100644 index 6ff716b48d..0000000000 --- a/first-edition/src/theme/first-edition.css +++ /dev/null @@ -1,56 +0,0 @@ -.warning { - display: flex; - justify-content: space-between; - align-items: center; - background-color: rgb(242, 222, 222); - border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 211, 215); - border-bottom-left-radius: 4px; - border-bottom-right-radius: 4px; - border-bottom-style: solid; - border-bottom-width: 0.666667px; - border-image-outset: 0 0 0 0; - border-image-repeat: stretch stretch; - border-image-slice: 100% 100% 100% 100%; - border-image-source: none; - border-image-width: 1 1 1 1; - border-left-color: rgb(238, 211, 215); - border-left-style: solid; - border-left-width: 0.666667px; - border-right-color: rgb(238, 211, 215); - border-right-style: solid; - border-right-width: 0.666667px; - border-top-color: rgb(238, 211, 215); - border-top-left-radius: 4px; - border-top-right-radius: 4px; - border-top-style: solid; - border-top-width: 0.666667px; - color: rgb(185, 74, 72); - margin-bottom: 0px; - margin-left: 0px; - margin-right: 0px; - margin-top: 30px; - padding-bottom: 8px; - padding-left: 14px; - padding-right: 35px; - padding-right: 14px; - padding-top: 8px; -} -.warning strong { - color: rgb(185, 74, 72) -} -.warning a { - color: rgb(0, 136, 204) -} -.warning .message { - margin-right: 14px; -} -.warning .message:last-child { - margin-right: 21px; -} -.warning .button { - border: none; - background: none; - color: inherit; - cursor: pointer; - font-size: 14px; -} diff --git a/first-edition/src/theme/header.hbs b/first-edition/src/theme/header.hbs deleted file mode 100644 index 77a747868a..0000000000 --- a/first-edition/src/theme/header.hbs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ -
- You are reading an outdated edition of TRPL. For more, go here. - -
- - diff --git a/first-edition/src/theme/index.hbs b/first-edition/src/theme/index.hbs deleted file mode 100644 index f3f1b52fa8..0000000000 --- a/first-edition/src/theme/index.hbs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - Outdated link: {{ title }} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - {{#each additional_css}} - - {{/each}} - - -
-
- {{> header}} -
-
- {{{ content }}} -
-
-
-
- - diff --git a/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md b/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md index 871bad6140..a04d16b4b2 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md +++ b/first-edition/src/trait-objects.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md b/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md index 7ac51ff191..d79974e550 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md +++ b/first-edition/src/type-aliases.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/unsafe.md b/first-edition/src/unsafe.md index be816dfd3d..187fef52e1 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/unsafe.md +++ b/first-edition/src/unsafe.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md b/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md index 4ec43ecadf..5fb51b1fd2 100644 --- a/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md +++ b/first-edition/src/unsized-types.md @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ The first edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs index d44e290d70..b822b89ff3 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs @@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: expect // ANCHOR: print_guess - println!("You guessed: {guess}"); + println!("You guessed: {}", guess); // ANCHOR_END: print_guess } // ANCHOR: all diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2aa1298037 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,13 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "byteorder" +version = "1.5.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "1fd0f2584146f6f2ef48085050886acf353beff7305ebd1ae69500e27c67f64b" + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -8,9 +16,9 @@ checksum = "baf1de4339761588bc0619e3cbc0120ee582ebb74b53b4efbf79117bd2da40fd" [[package]] name = "getrandom" -version = "0.2.2" +version = "0.2.15" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "c9495705279e7140bf035dde1f6e750c162df8b625267cd52cc44e0b156732c8" +checksum = "c4567c8db10ae91089c99af84c68c38da3ec2f087c3f82960bcdbf3656b6f4d7" dependencies = [ "cfg-if", "libc", @@ -26,33 +34,53 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "libc" -version = "0.2.86" +version = "0.2.161" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "b7282d924be3275cec7f6756ff4121987bc6481325397dde6ba3e7802b1a8b1c" +checksum = "8e9489c2807c139ffd9c1794f4af0ebe86a828db53ecdc7fea2111d0fed085d1" [[package]] name = "ppv-lite86" -version = "0.2.10" +version = "0.2.20" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" +checksum = "77957b295656769bb8ad2b6a6b09d897d94f05c41b069aede1fcdaa675eaea04" +dependencies = [ + "zerocopy", +] + +[[package]] +name = "proc-macro2" +version = "1.0.89" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f139b0662de085916d1fb67d2b4169d1addddda1919e696f3252b740b629986e" +dependencies = [ + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "quote" +version = "1.0.37" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "b5b9d34b8991d19d98081b46eacdd8eb58c6f2b201139f7c5f643cc155a633af" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", +] [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] name = "rand_chacha" -version = "0.3.0" +version = "0.3.1" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "e12735cf05c9e10bf21534da50a147b924d555dc7a547c42e6bb2d5b6017ae0d" +checksum = "e6c10a63a0fa32252be49d21e7709d4d4baf8d231c2dbce1eaa8141b9b127d88" dependencies = [ "ppv-lite86", "rand_core", @@ -60,24 +88,53 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "rand_core" -version = "0.6.2" +version = "0.6.4" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "34cf66eb183df1c5876e2dcf6b13d57340741e8dc255b48e40a26de954d06ae7" +checksum = "ec0be4795e2f6a28069bec0b5ff3e2ac9bafc99e6a9a7dc3547996c5c816922c" dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] [[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" +name = "syn" +version = "2.0.87" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" +checksum = "25aa4ce346d03a6dcd68dd8b4010bcb74e54e62c90c573f394c46eae99aba32d" dependencies = [ - "rand_core", + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "unicode-ident", ] +[[package]] +name = "unicode-ident" +version = "1.0.13" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "e91b56cd4cadaeb79bbf1a5645f6b4f8dc5bde8834ad5894a8db35fda9efa1fe" + [[package]] name = "wasi" -version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" +version = "0.11.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "9c8d87e72b64a3b4db28d11ce29237c246188f4f51057d65a7eab63b7987e423" + +[[package]] +name = "zerocopy" +version = "0.7.35" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "fd6fbd9a79829dd1ad0cc20627bf1ed606756a7f77edff7b66b7064f9cb327c6" +checksum = "1b9b4fd18abc82b8136838da5d50bae7bdea537c574d8dc1a34ed098d6c166f0" +dependencies = [ + "byteorder", + "zerocopy-derive", +] + +[[package]] +name = "zerocopy-derive" +version = "0.7.35" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "fa4f8080344d4671fb4e831a13ad1e68092748387dfc4f55e356242fae12ce3e" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "syn", +] diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt index ac8b5c6584..35e21b0a25 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt @@ -5,41 +5,23 @@ $ cargo build Compiling ppv-lite86 v0.2.10 Compiling rand_core v0.6.2 Compiling rand_chacha v0.3.0 - Compiling rand v0.8.3 + Compiling rand v0.8.5 Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:22:21 - | -22 | match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected struct `String`, found integer - | - = note: expected reference `&String` - found reference `&{integer}` - -error[E0283]: type annotations needed for `{integer}` - --> src/main.rs:8:44 - | -8 | let secret_number = rand::thread_rng().gen_range(1..=100); - | ------------- ^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer type for type `{integer}` - | | - | consider giving `secret_number` a type + --> src/main.rs:22:21 | - = note: multiple `impl`s satisfying `{integer}: SampleUniform` found in the `rand` crate: - - impl SampleUniform for i128; - - impl SampleUniform for i16; - - impl SampleUniform for i32; - - impl SampleUniform for i64; - and 8 more -note: required by a bound in `gen_range` - --> /Users/carolnichols/.cargo/registry/src/github.com-1ecc6299db9ec823/rand-0.8.3/src/rng.rs:129:12 +22 | match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { + | --- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected `&String`, found `&{integer}` + | | + | arguments to this method are incorrect | -129 | T: SampleUniform, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `gen_range` -help: consider specifying the type arguments in the function call + = note: expected reference `&String` + found reference `&{integer}` +note: method defined here + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/core/src/cmp.rs:838:8 | -8 | let secret_number = rand::thread_rng().gen_range::(1..=100); - | ++++++++ +838 | fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering; + | ^^^ -Some errors have detailed explanations: E0283, E0308. -For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0283`. -error: could not compile `guessing_game` due to 2 previous errors +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. +error: could not compile `guessing_game` (bin "guessing_game") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-06/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml index 78c94fef95..4e348c8d26 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.toml @@ -3,6 +3,4 @@ name = "guessing_game" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" -# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt index 2724c145d3..f55ab06302 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.50s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.20s Running `target/debug/guessing_game` Hello, world! diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-02-without-expect/output.txt b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-02-without-expect/output.txt index 8095bbd8db..417d4e3cb9 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-02-without-expect/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-02-without-expect/output.txt @@ -4,10 +4,14 @@ warning: unused `Result` that must be used --> src/main.rs:10:5 | 10 | io::stdin().read_line(&mut guess); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ | - = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default = note: this `Result` may be an `Err` variant, which should be handled + = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default +help: use `let _ = ...` to ignore the resulting value + | +10 | let _ = io::stdin().read_line(&mut guess); + | +++++++ warning: `guessing_game` (bin "guessing_game") generated 1 warning - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-03-convert-string-to-number/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-04-looping/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-05-quitting/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-02/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-02/output.txt index 3eb8d102a5..3b0deaec6c 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-02/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-02/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.30s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.30s Running `target/debug/branches` The value of number is: 5 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-04/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-04/output.txt index 35c0f804a7..82408ac823 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-04/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling loops v0.1.0 (file:///projects/loops) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.32s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.32s Running `target/debug/loops` the value is: 10 the value is: 20 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt index ed87cb2c87..85efb431ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt @@ -4,13 +4,15 @@ error[E0384]: cannot assign twice to immutable variable `x` --> src/main.rs:4:5 | 2 | let x = 5; - | - - | | - | first assignment to `x` - | help: consider making this binding mutable: `mut x` + | - first assignment to `x` 3 | println!("The value of x is: {x}"); 4 | x = 6; | ^^^^^ cannot assign twice to immutable variable + | +help: consider making this binding mutable + | +2 | let mut x = 5; + | +++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0384`. -error: could not compile `variables` due to previous error +error: could not compile `variables` (bin "variables") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-02-adding-mut/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-02-adding-mut/output.txt index 8ed6598ff1..ed0c0c3429 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-02-adding-mut/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-02-adding-mut/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling variables v0.1.0 (file:///projects/variables) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.30s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.30s Running `target/debug/variables` The value of x is: 5 The value of x is: 6 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-03-shadowing/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-03-shadowing/output.txt index f310e9ffa2..6ff531b559 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-03-shadowing/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-03-shadowing/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling variables v0.1.0 (file:///projects/variables) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s Running `target/debug/variables` The value of x in the inner scope is: 12 The value of x is: 6 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-05-mut-cant-change-types/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-05-mut-cant-change-types/output.txt index 31a07efc4b..578a1f4aa5 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-05-mut-cant-change-types/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-05-mut-cant-change-types/output.txt @@ -9,4 +9,4 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected `&str`, found `usize` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `variables` due to previous error +error: could not compile `variables` (bin "variables") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-07-numeric-operations/src/main.rs b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-07-numeric-operations/src/main.rs index 9d3b4813bb..77c716c145 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-07-numeric-operations/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-07-numeric-operations/src/main.rs @@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ fn main() { // division let quotient = 56.7 / 32.2; - let floored = 2 / 3; // Results in 0 + let truncated = -5 / 3; // Results in -1 // remainder let remainder = 43 % 5; diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-16-functions/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-16-functions/output.txt index 723fad32ad..898cf5fb63 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-16-functions/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-16-functions/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.28s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.28s Running `target/debug/functions` Hello, world! Another function. diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-17-functions-with-parameters/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-17-functions-with-parameters/output.txt index 546bbc0473..377f72886c 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-17-functions-with-parameters/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-17-functions-with-parameters/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.21s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.21s Running `target/debug/functions` The value of x is: 5 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-18-functions-with-multiple-parameters/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-18-functions-with-multiple-parameters/output.txt index 6210234c9e..91e71c174d 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-18-functions-with-multiple-parameters/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-18-functions-with-multiple-parameters/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s Running `target/debug/functions` The measurement is: 5h diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-19-statements-vs-expressions/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-19-statements-vs-expressions/output.txt index b33f8bd4b3..504fdd6ec7 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-19-statements-vs-expressions/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-19-statements-vs-expressions/output.txt @@ -1,21 +1,12 @@ $ cargo run Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions) -error: expected expression, found statement (`let`) +error: expected expression, found `let` statement --> src/main.rs:2:14 | 2 | let x = (let y = 6); - | ^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^ | - = note: variable declaration using `let` is a statement - -error[E0658]: `let` expressions in this position are experimental - --> src/main.rs:2:14 - | -2 | let x = (let y = 6); - | ^^^^^^^^^ - | - = note: see issue #53667 for more information - = help: you can write `matches!(, )` instead of `let = ` + = note: only supported directly in conditions of `if` and `while` expressions warning: unnecessary parentheses around assigned value --> src/main.rs:2:13 @@ -28,8 +19,7 @@ help: remove these parentheses | 2 - let x = (let y = 6); 2 + let x = let y = 6; - | + | -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0658`. warning: `functions` (bin "functions") generated 1 warning -error: could not compile `functions` due to 2 previous errors; 1 warning emitted +error: could not compile `functions` (bin "functions") due to 1 previous error; 1 warning emitted diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-21-function-return-values/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-21-function-return-values/output.txt index a457e33996..e66e4b980a 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-21-function-return-values/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-21-function-return-values/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.30s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.30s Running `target/debug/functions` The value of x is: 5 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-23-statements-dont-return-values/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-23-statements-dont-return-values/output.txt index 4566ab780e..18fdfd1b41 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-23-statements-dont-return-values/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-23-statements-dont-return-values/output.txt @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types | | | implicitly returns `()` as its body has no tail or `return` expression 8 | x + 1; - | - help: consider removing this semicolon + | - help: remove this semicolon to return this value For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `functions` due to previous error +error: could not compile `functions` (bin "functions") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-26-if-true/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-26-if-true/output.txt index 3d8c7dc333..d39b3b5fcb 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-26-if-true/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-26-if-true/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s Running `target/debug/branches` condition was true diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-27-if-false/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-27-if-false/output.txt index e40da961c9..3aa1e1c054 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-27-if-false/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-27-if-false/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s Running `target/debug/branches` condition was false diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-28-if-condition-must-be-bool/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-28-if-condition-must-be-bool/output.txt index 735bfe758e..c9c0b0c469 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-28-if-condition-must-be-bool/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-28-if-condition-must-be-bool/output.txt @@ -7,4 +7,4 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types | ^^^^^^ expected `bool`, found integer For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `branches` due to previous error +error: could not compile `branches` (bin "branches") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-30-else-if/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-30-else-if/output.txt index b218941ad0..d5195248a9 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-30-else-if/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-30-else-if/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31s Running `target/debug/branches` number is divisible by 3 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-31-arms-must-return-same-type/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-31-arms-must-return-same-type/output.txt index e922acd29c..7fb857f035 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-31-arms-must-return-same-type/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-31-arms-must-return-same-type/output.txt @@ -9,4 +9,4 @@ error[E0308]: `if` and `else` have incompatible types | expected because of this For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `branches` due to previous error +error: could not compile `branches` (bin "branches") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-32-5-loop-labels/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-32-5-loop-labels/output.txt index d4d322fb49..4977b2b34d 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-32-5-loop-labels/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-32-5-loop-labels/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling loops v0.1.0 (file:///projects/loops) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s Running `target/debug/loops` count = 0 remaining = 10 diff --git a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/output-only-01-no-type-annotations/output.txt b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/output-only-01-no-type-annotations/output.txt index d9807cee0a..ee6a979432 100644 --- a/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/output-only-01-no-type-annotations/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/output-only-01-no-type-annotations/output.txt @@ -1,10 +1,16 @@ $ cargo build Compiling no_type_annotations v0.1.0 (file:///projects/no_type_annotations) -error[E0282]: type annotations needed +error[E0284]: type annotations needed --> src/main.rs:2:9 | 2 | let guess = "42".parse().expect("Not a number!"); - | ^^^^^ consider giving `guess` a type + | ^^^^^ ----- type must be known at this point + | + = note: cannot satisfy `<_ as FromStr>::Err == _` +help: consider giving `guess` an explicit type + | +2 | let guess: /* Type */ = "42".parse().expect("Not a number!"); + | ++++++++++++ -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0282`. -error: could not compile `no_type_annotations` due to previous error +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0284`. +error: could not compile `no_type_annotations` (bin "no_type_annotations") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-01/src/main.rs index 148ad84c97..ebcd3691be 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-01/src/main.rs @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ fn main() { // do stuff with s } // this scope is now over, and s is no longer valid // ANCHOR_END: here -} \ No newline at end of file +} diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs index b001cc5f4a..87284dc6ba 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs @@ -6,18 +6,18 @@ fn main() { let x = 5; // x comes into scope - makes_copy(x); // x would move into the function, - // but i32 is Copy, so it's okay to still - // use x afterward + makes_copy(x); // because i32 implements the Copy trait, + // x does NOT move into the function, + println!("{}", x); // so it's okay to use x afterward } // Here, x goes out of scope, then s. But because s's value was moved, nothing // special happens. fn takes_ownership(some_string: String) { // some_string comes into scope - println!("{}", some_string); + println!("{some_string}"); } // Here, some_string goes out of scope and `drop` is called. The backing // memory is freed. fn makes_copy(some_integer: i32) { // some_integer comes into scope - println!("{}", some_integer); + println!("{some_integer}"); } // Here, some_integer goes out of scope. Nothing special happens. diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-05/src/main.rs index 22aee1419e..2782483a77 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-05/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ fn main() { let (s2, len) = calculate_length(s1); - println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s2, len); + println!("The length of '{s2}' is {len}."); } fn calculate_length(s: String) -> (String, usize) { diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-06/output.txt b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-06/output.txt index 1176f4e3ac..c78cd5d3de 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-06/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-06/output.txt @@ -3,10 +3,13 @@ $ cargo run error[E0596]: cannot borrow `*some_string` as mutable, as it is behind a `&` reference --> src/main.rs:8:5 | -7 | fn change(some_string: &String) { - | ------- help: consider changing this to be a mutable reference: `&mut String` 8 | some_string.push_str(", world"); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `some_string` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ `some_string` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable + | +help: consider changing this to be a mutable reference + | +7 | fn change(some_string: &mut String) { + | +++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0596`. -error: could not compile `ownership` due to previous error +error: could not compile `ownership` (bin "ownership") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-08/src/main.rs index 942553b88c..48106c6344 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-08/src/main.rs @@ -18,7 +18,8 @@ fn main() { s.clear(); // this empties the String, making it equal to "" - // word still has the value 5 here, but there's no more string that - // we could meaningfully use with the value 5 as word is now totally invalid! + // `word` still has the value `5` here, but `s` no longer has any content + // that we could meaningfully use with the value `5`, so `word` is now + // totally invalid! } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-01-can-mutate-string/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-01-can-mutate-string/src/main.rs index b68f0f1e78..15bc9d9220 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-01-can-mutate-string/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-01-can-mutate-string/src/main.rs @@ -4,6 +4,6 @@ fn main() { s.push_str(", world!"); // push_str() appends a literal to a String - println!("{}", s); // This will print `hello, world!` - // ANCHOR_END: here + println!("{s}"); // This will print `hello, world!` + // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/output.txt b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/output.txt index 6435eeb449..73e6115d68 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/output.txt @@ -1,17 +1,21 @@ $ cargo run Compiling ownership v0.1.0 (file:///projects/ownership) error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `s1` - --> src/main.rs:5:28 + --> src/main.rs:5:15 | 2 | let s1 = String::from("hello"); | -- move occurs because `s1` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait 3 | let s2 = s1; | -- value moved here -4 | -5 | println!("{}, world!", s1); - | ^^ value borrowed here after move +4 | +5 | println!("{s1}, world!"); + | ^^^^ value borrowed here after move | - = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) + = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) +help: consider cloning the value if the performance cost is acceptable + | +3 | let s2 = s1.clone(); + | ++++++++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. -error: could not compile `ownership` due to previous error +error: could not compile `ownership` (bin "ownership") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/src/main.rs index d0b9f18795..e35f6d8034 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/src/main.rs @@ -3,6 +3,6 @@ fn main() { let s1 = String::from("hello"); let s2 = s1; - println!("{}, world!", s1); + println!("{s1}, world!"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b2d0846c11 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +fn main() { + // ANCHOR: here + let mut s = String::from("hello"); + s = String::from("ahoy"); + + println!("{s}, world!"); + // ANCHOR_END: here +} diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-05-clone/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-05-clone/src/main.rs index 4e61cc1a16..0b65e5f611 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-05-clone/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-05-clone/src/main.rs @@ -3,6 +3,6 @@ fn main() { let s1 = String::from("hello"); let s2 = s1.clone(); - println!("s1 = {}, s2 = {}", s1, s2); + println!("s1 = {s1}, s2 = {s2}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-06-copy/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-06-copy/src/main.rs index 63a1fae248..b6fd2445d0 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-06-copy/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-06-copy/src/main.rs @@ -3,6 +3,6 @@ fn main() { let x = 5; let y = x; - println!("x = {}, y = {}", x, y); + println!("x = {x}, y = {y}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-07-reference/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-07-reference/src/main.rs index fd32a5fc95..6f6d5fb239 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-07-reference/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-07-reference/src/main.rs @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ fn main() { let len = calculate_length(&s1); // ANCHOR_END: here - println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s1, len); + println!("The length of '{s1}' is {len}."); } fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize { diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-08-reference-with-annotations/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-08-reference-with-annotations/src/main.rs index 6686a801c0..e9894fab67 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-08-reference-with-annotations/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-08-reference-with-annotations/src/main.rs @@ -3,12 +3,12 @@ fn main() { let len = calculate_length(&s1); - println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s1, len); + println!("The length of '{s1}' is {len}."); } // ANCHOR: here fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize { // s is a reference to a String s.len() -} // Here, s goes out of scope. But because it does not have ownership of what - // it refers to, it is not dropped. +} // Here, s goes out of scope. But because s does not have ownership of what + // it refers to, the value is not dropped. // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-10-multiple-mut-not-allowed/output.txt b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-10-multiple-mut-not-allowed/output.txt index 71c29f68f1..97be4a2586 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-10-multiple-mut-not-allowed/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-10-multiple-mut-not-allowed/output.txt @@ -7,9 +7,9 @@ error[E0499]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable more than once at a time | ------ first mutable borrow occurs here 5 | let r2 = &mut s; | ^^^^^^ second mutable borrow occurs here -6 | +6 | 7 | println!("{}, {}", r1, r2); | -- first borrow later used here For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0499`. -error: could not compile `ownership` due to previous error +error: could not compile `ownership` (bin "ownership") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-12-immutable-and-mutable-not-allowed/output.txt b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-12-immutable-and-mutable-not-allowed/output.txt index df94c30e98..4548823230 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-12-immutable-and-mutable-not-allowed/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-12-immutable-and-mutable-not-allowed/output.txt @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ error[E0502]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immuta 5 | let r2 = &s; // no problem 6 | let r3 = &mut s; // BIG PROBLEM | ^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here -7 | +7 | 8 | println!("{}, {}, and {}", r1, r2, r3); | -- immutable borrow later used here For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0502`. -error: could not compile `ownership` due to previous error +error: could not compile `ownership` (bin "ownership") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-13-reference-scope-ends/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-13-reference-scope-ends/src/main.rs index 8619449669..c005414d8e 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-13-reference-scope-ends/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-13-reference-scope-ends/src/main.rs @@ -4,10 +4,10 @@ fn main() { let r1 = &s; // no problem let r2 = &s; // no problem - println!("{} and {}", r1, r2); + println!("{r1} and {r2}"); // variables r1 and r2 will not be used after this point let r3 = &mut s; // no problem - println!("{}", r3); + println!("{r3}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-14-dangling-reference/output.txt b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-14-dangling-reference/output.txt index fddca683bd..0339433f26 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-14-dangling-reference/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-14-dangling-reference/output.txt @@ -7,10 +7,22 @@ error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier | ^ expected named lifetime parameter | = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but there is no value for it to be borrowed from -help: consider using the `'static` lifetime +help: consider using the `'static` lifetime, but this is uncommon unless you're returning a borrowed value from a `const` or a `static` | 5 | fn dangle() -> &'static String { - | ~~~~~~~~ + | +++++++ +help: instead, you are more likely to want to return an owned value + | +5 - fn dangle() -> &String { +5 + fn dangle() -> String { + | + +error[E0515]: cannot return reference to local variable `s` + --> src/main.rs:8:5 + | +8 | &s + | ^^ returns a reference to data owned by the current function -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. -error: could not compile `ownership` due to previous error +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0106, E0515. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. +error: could not compile `ownership` (bin "ownership") due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/output.txt b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/output.txt index 62dc4ad526..c29ddf5bf0 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/output.txt @@ -5,12 +5,12 @@ error[E0502]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immuta | 16 | let word = first_word(&s); | -- immutable borrow occurs here -17 | +17 | 18 | s.clear(); // error! | ^^^^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here -19 | -20 | println!("the first word is: {}", word); - | ---- immutable borrow later used here +19 | +20 | println!("the first word is: {word}"); + | ------ immutable borrow later used here For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0502`. -error: could not compile `ownership` due to previous error +error: could not compile `ownership` (bin "ownership") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/src/main.rs b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/src/main.rs index 99e04018d2..b23e45f435 100644 --- a/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/src/main.rs @@ -18,6 +18,6 @@ fn main() { s.clear(); // error! - println!("the first word is: {}", word); + println!("the first word is: {word}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-02/src/main.rs index e0f7a6cd3c..122d251647 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-02/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-02/src/main.rs @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ struct User { // ANCHOR: here fn main() { let user1 = User { - email: String::from("someone@example.com"), - username: String::from("someusername123"), active: true, + username: String::from("someusername123"), + email: String::from("someone@example.com"), sign_in_count: 1, }; } diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-03/src/main.rs index 7a078e7e80..35eea8a9a1 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-03/src/main.rs @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ struct User { // ANCHOR: here fn main() { let mut user1 = User { - email: String::from("someone@example.com"), - username: String::from("someusername123"), active: true, + username: String::from("someusername123"), + email: String::from("someone@example.com"), sign_in_count: 1, }; diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-04/src/main.rs index aa7823af4a..8614561c1f 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-04/src/main.rs @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ struct User { // ANCHOR: here fn build_user(email: String, username: String) -> User { User { - email: email, - username: username, active: true, + username: username, + email: email, sign_in_count: 1, } } diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-05/src/main.rs index 8d84a3060e..c893c86a92 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-05/src/main.rs @@ -8,9 +8,9 @@ struct User { // ANCHOR: here fn build_user(email: String, username: String) -> User { User { - email, - username, active: true, + username, + email, sign_in_count: 1, } } diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-08/output.txt b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-08/output.txt index c44b58238d..79b8307772 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-08/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-08/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s Running `target/debug/rectangles` The area of the rectangle is 1500 square pixels. diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-11/output.txt b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-11/output.txt index b761fccd60..ee169726d0 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-11/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-11/output.txt @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ error[E0277]: `Rectangle` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` | = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Rectangle` = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead - = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) + = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `rectangles` due to previous error +error: could not compile `rectangles` (bin "rectangles") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/output.txt b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/output.txt index c37be6b5bf..0c810b1f44 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s Running `target/debug/rectangles` rect1 is Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50 } diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/src/main.rs index 2ffc4b8e7b..67e0b92a47 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/src/main.rs @@ -10,5 +10,5 @@ fn main() { height: 50, }; - println!("rect1 is {:?}", rect1); + println!("rect1 is {rect1:?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-02-reference-in-struct/output.txt b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-02-reference-in-struct/output.txt index e28da599c7..5f9344c512 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-02-reference-in-struct/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-02-reference-in-struct/output.txt @@ -28,4 +28,4 @@ help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. -error: could not compile `structs` due to 2 previous errors +error: could not compile `structs` (bin "structs") due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-05-dbg-macro/output.txt b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-05-dbg-macro/output.txt index 2685859954..1c1f07dfbc 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-05-dbg-macro/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-05-dbg-macro/output.txt @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ $ cargo run Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s Running `target/debug/rectangles` -[src/main.rs:10] 30 * scale = 60 -[src/main.rs:14] &rect1 = Rectangle { +[src/main.rs:10:16] 30 * scale = 60 +[src/main.rs:14:5] &rect1 = Rectangle { width: 60, height: 50, } diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-01-debug/output.txt b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-01-debug/output.txt index 8b9c2abb33..71de1f7bd3 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-01-debug/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-01-debug/output.txt @@ -8,7 +8,12 @@ error[E0277]: `Rectangle` doesn't implement `Debug` | = help: the trait `Debug` is not implemented for `Rectangle` = note: add `#[derive(Debug)]` to `Rectangle` or manually `impl Debug for Rectangle` - = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) + = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) +help: consider annotating `Rectangle` with `#[derive(Debug)]` + | +1 + #[derive(Debug)] +2 | struct Rectangle { + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `rectangles` due to previous error +error: could not compile `rectangles` (bin "rectangles") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/output.txt b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/output.txt index db6deed9b7..4a6c5a9a14 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s Running `target/debug/rectangles` rect1 is Rectangle { width: 30, diff --git a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/src/main.rs b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/src/main.rs index 84e32aee49..f763b50d3b 100644 --- a/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/src/main.rs @@ -10,5 +10,5 @@ fn main() { height: 50, }; - println!("rect1 is {:#?}", rect1); + println!("rect1 is {rect1:#?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-06/src/main.rs index dc2bffb911..0a037517ab 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-06/src/main.rs @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let config_max = Some(3u8); match config_max { - Some(max) => println!("The maximum is configured to be {}", max), + Some(max) => println!("The maximum is configured to be {max}"), _ => (), } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt index 343b9d236a..1eb76de43f 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt @@ -7,6 +7,11 @@ error[E0277]: cannot add `Option` to `i8` | ^ no implementation for `i8 + Option` | = help: the trait `Add>` is not implemented for `i8` + = help: the following other types implement trait `Add`: + `&'a i8` implements `Add` + `&i8` implements `Add<&i8>` + `i8` implements `Add<&i8>` + `i8` implements `Add` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `enums` due to previous error +error: could not compile `enums` (bin "enums") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-09-variable-in-pattern/src/main.rs b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-09-variable-in-pattern/src/main.rs index a4d500c11c..298215d405 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-09-variable-in-pattern/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-09-variable-in-pattern/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 { Coin::Nickel => 5, Coin::Dime => 10, Coin::Quarter(state) => { - println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state); + println!("State quarter from {state:?}!"); 25 } } diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt index 8054e7dfa5..8cf3aa0749 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt @@ -6,8 +6,20 @@ error[E0004]: non-exhaustive patterns: `None` not covered 3 | match x { | ^ pattern `None` not covered | - = help: ensure that all possible cases are being handled, possibly by adding wildcards or more match arms +note: `Option` defined here + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/core/src/option.rs:571:1 + | +571 | pub enum Option { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ +... +575 | None, + | ---- not covered = note: the matched value is of type `Option` +help: ensure that all possible cases are being handled by adding a match arm with a wildcard pattern or an explicit pattern as shown + | +4 ~ Some(i) => Some(i + 1), +5 ~ None => todo!(), + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0004`. -error: could not compile `enums` due to previous error +error: could not compile `enums` (bin "enums") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-12-if-let/src/main.rs b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-12-if-let/src/main.rs index 735086d4ed..7d7254ea0f 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-12-if-let/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-12-if-let/src/main.rs @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let config_max = Some(3u8); if let Some(max) = config_max { - println!("The maximum is configured to be {}", max); + println!("The maximum is configured to be {max}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-13-count-and-announce-match/src/main.rs b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-13-count-and-announce-match/src/main.rs index 12c4c0fec1..d0d7d80271 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-13-count-and-announce-match/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-13-count-and-announce-match/src/main.rs @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let mut count = 0; match coin { - Coin::Quarter(state) => println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state), + Coin::Quarter(state) => println!("State quarter from {state:?}!"), _ => count += 1, } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-14-count-and-announce-if-let-else/src/main.rs b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-14-count-and-announce-if-let-else/src/main.rs index ba7eda27b4..3bb3630350 100644 --- a/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-14-count-and-announce-if-let-else/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-14-count-and-announce-if-let-else/src/main.rs @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let mut count = 0; if let Coin::Quarter(state) = coin { - println!("State quarter from {:?}!", state); + println!("State quarter from {state:?}!"); } else { count += 1; } diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/output.txt b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/output.txt index 481dcb3f74..2d06c7fd15 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/output.txt @@ -4,7 +4,9 @@ error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private --> src/lib.rs:9:28 | 9 | crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); - | ^^^^^^^ private module + | ^^^^^^^ --------------- function `add_to_waitlist` is not publicly re-exported + | | + | private module | note: the module `hosting` is defined here --> src/lib.rs:2:5 @@ -16,7 +18,9 @@ error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private --> src/lib.rs:12:21 | 12 | front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); - | ^^^^^^^ private module + | ^^^^^^^ --------------- function `add_to_waitlist` is not publicly re-exported + | | + | private module | note: the module `hosting` is defined here --> src/lib.rs:2:5 @@ -25,4 +29,4 @@ note: the module `hosting` is defined here | ^^^^^^^^^^^ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`. -error: could not compile `restaurant` due to 2 previous errors +error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/output.txt b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/output.txt index 63eb89a146..98d8d6e2aa 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/output.txt @@ -25,4 +25,4 @@ note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`. -error: could not compile `restaurant` due to 2 previous errors +error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-12/output.txt b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-12/output.txt index 39b6505401..0eda253125 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-12/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-12/output.txt @@ -5,6 +5,11 @@ error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared crate or module `hosting` | 11 | hosting::add_to_waitlist(); | ^^^^^^^ use of undeclared crate or module `hosting` + | +help: consider importing this module through its public re-export + | +10 + use crate::hosting; + | warning: unused import: `crate::front_of_house::hosting` --> src/lib.rs:7:5 @@ -16,4 +21,4 @@ warning: unused import: `crate::front_of_house::hosting` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0433`. warning: `restaurant` (lib) generated 1 warning -error: could not compile `restaurant` due to previous error; 1 warning emitted +error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 1 previous error; 1 warning emitted diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.toml index 15b3fffcab..d508e9578d 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/Cargo.toml @@ -4,4 +4,4 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.toml index cc63f6f021..7eda67aeaf 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/Cargo.toml @@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ edition = "2021" # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/output.txt b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/output.txt index e36a45eb0d..04ac6f6c03 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling backyard v0.1.0 (file:///projects/backyard) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.36s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.36s Running `target/debug/backyard` I'm growing Asparagus! diff --git a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/main.rs b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/main.rs index 7a024a9a0d..0d9a0ca92f 100644 --- a/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/main.rs @@ -4,5 +4,5 @@ pub mod garden; fn main() { let plant = Asparagus {}; - println!("I'm growing {:?}!", plant); + println!("I'm growing {plant:?}!"); } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-04/src/main.rs index abda2db660..fca332de67 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-04/src/main.rs @@ -1,9 +1,14 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here - { - let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4]; + let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; - // do stuff with v - } // <- v goes out of scope and is freed here - // ANCHOR_END: here + let third: &i32 = &v[2]; + println!("The third element is {third}"); + + let third: Option<&i32> = v.get(2); + match third { + Some(third) => println!("The third element is {third}"), + None => println!("There is no third element."), + } + // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-05/src/main.rs index 9bfa37a4c2..783d9b110f 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-05/src/main.rs @@ -2,12 +2,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; - let third: &i32 = &v[2]; - println!("The third element is {}", third); - - match v.get(2) { - Some(third) => println!("The third element is {}", third), - None => println!("There is no third element."), - } + let does_not_exist = &v[100]; + let does_not_exist = v.get(100); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/output.txt b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/output.txt similarity index 63% rename from listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/output.txt rename to listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/output.txt index ab512a9e65..f98ab1cde7 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/output.txt @@ -5,12 +5,12 @@ error[E0502]: cannot borrow `v` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immuta | 4 | let first = &v[0]; | - immutable borrow occurs here -5 | +5 | 6 | v.push(6); | ^^^^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here -7 | -8 | println!("The first element is: {}", first); - | ----- immutable borrow later used here +7 | +8 | println!("The first element is: {first}"); + | ------- immutable borrow later used here For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0502`. -error: could not compile `collections` due to previous error +error: could not compile `collections` (bin "collections") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/src/main.rs index 783d9b110f..653ac27b0a 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/src/main.rs @@ -1,8 +1,11 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here - let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; + let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; - let does_not_exist = &v[100]; - let does_not_exist = v.get(100); + let first = &v[0]; + + v.push(6); + + println!("The first element is: {first}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/src/main.rs index 1b42274a6d..aebf855a92 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/src/main.rs @@ -1,11 +1,8 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here - let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; - - let first = &v[0]; - - v.push(6); - - println!("The first element is: {}", first); + let v = vec![100, 32, 57]; + for i in &v { + println!("{i}"); + } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-08/src/main.rs index 38b97784be..c62ba21b4f 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-08/src/main.rs @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here - let v = vec![100, 32, 57]; - for i in &v { - println!("{}", i); + let mut v = vec![100, 32, 57]; + for i in &mut v { + *i += 50; } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-09/src/main.rs index c62ba21b4f..c2198883b2 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-09/src/main.rs @@ -1,8 +1,15 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here - let mut v = vec![100, 32, 57]; - for i in &mut v { - *i += 50; + enum SpreadsheetCell { + Int(i32), + Float(f64), + Text(String), } + + let row = vec![ + SpreadsheetCell::Int(3), + SpreadsheetCell::Text(String::from("blue")), + SpreadsheetCell::Float(10.12), + ]; // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-10/src/main.rs index c2198883b2..abda2db660 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-10/src/main.rs @@ -1,15 +1,9 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here - enum SpreadsheetCell { - Int(i32), - Float(f64), - Text(String), - } + { + let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4]; - let row = vec![ - SpreadsheetCell::Int(3), - SpreadsheetCell::Text(String::from("blue")), - SpreadsheetCell::Float(10.12), - ]; - // ANCHOR_END: here + // do stuff with v + } // <- v goes out of scope and is freed here + // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs index f701fd578b..bf737ab446 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ fn main() { let hello = String::from("السلام عليكم"); let hello = String::from("Dobrý den"); let hello = String::from("Hello"); - let hello = String::from("שָׁלוֹם"); + let hello = String::from("שלום"); let hello = String::from("नमस्ते"); let hello = String::from("こんにちは"); let hello = String::from("안녕하세요"); diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-16/src/main.rs index 8938dc143b..db57cddba3 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-16/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-16/src/main.rs @@ -3,6 +3,6 @@ fn main() { let mut s1 = String::from("foo"); let s2 = "bar"; s1.push_str(s2); - println!("s2 is {}", s2); + println!("s2 is {s2}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-19/output.txt b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-19/output.txt index 2e5ad54777..75d9a56f54 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-19/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-19/output.txt @@ -1,12 +1,17 @@ $ cargo run Compiling collections v0.1.0 (file:///projects/collections) -error[E0277]: the type `String` cannot be indexed by `{integer}` - --> src/main.rs:3:13 +error[E0277]: the type `str` cannot be indexed by `{integer}` + --> src/main.rs:3:16 | 3 | let h = s1[0]; - | ^^^^^ `String` cannot be indexed by `{integer}` + | ^ string indices are ranges of `usize` | - = help: the trait `Index<{integer}>` is not implemented for `String` + = help: the trait `SliceIndex` is not implemented for `{integer}`, which is required by `String: Index<_>` + = note: you can use `.chars().nth()` or `.bytes().nth()` + for more information, see chapter 8 in The Book: + = help: the trait `SliceIndex<[_]>` is implemented for `usize` + = help: for that trait implementation, expected `[_]`, found `str` + = note: required for `String` to implement `Index<{integer}>` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `collections` due to previous error +error: could not compile `collections` (bin "collections") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-21/src/main.rs index 0ebd20d4e8..07551549d0 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-21/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-21/src/main.rs @@ -2,10 +2,12 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here use std::collections::HashMap; - let teams = vec![String::from("Blue"), String::from("Yellow")]; - let initial_scores = vec![10, 50]; + let mut scores = HashMap::new(); - let mut scores: HashMap<_, _> = - teams.into_iter().zip(initial_scores.into_iter()).collect(); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); + scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); + + let team_name = String::from("Blue"); + let score = scores.get(&team_name).copied().unwrap_or(0); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-23/src/main.rs index 508e33cbbf..29025b4177 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-23/src/main.rs @@ -5,9 +5,8 @@ fn main() { let mut scores = HashMap::new(); scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); - scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 25); - let team_name = String::from("Blue"); - let score = scores.get(&team_name); + println!("{scores:?}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-24/src/main.rs index e8684cf2b6..013895632e 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-24/src/main.rs @@ -3,10 +3,11 @@ fn main() { use std::collections::HashMap; let mut scores = HashMap::new(); - scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); - scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 25); - println!("{:?}", scores); + scores.entry(String::from("Yellow")).or_insert(50); + scores.entry(String::from("Blue")).or_insert(50); + + println!("{scores:?}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-25/src/main.rs index 3ad97b57af..84dd1cd4ba 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-25/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-25/src/main.rs @@ -2,12 +2,15 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here use std::collections::HashMap; - let mut scores = HashMap::new(); - scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); + let text = "hello world wonderful world"; - scores.entry(String::from("Yellow")).or_insert(50); - scores.entry(String::from("Blue")).or_insert(50); + let mut map = HashMap::new(); - println!("{:?}", scores); + for word in text.split_whitespace() { + let count = map.entry(word).or_insert(0); + *count += 1; + } + + println!("{map:?}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index d3daeff7dc..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -[[package]] -name = "collections" -version = "0.1.0" - diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/Cargo.toml deleted file mode 100644 index fe49598234..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/Cargo.toml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -[package] -name = "collections" -version = "0.1.0" -edition = "2021" - -[dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index f3f6aa166d..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - use std::collections::HashMap; - - let text = "hello world wonderful world"; - - let mut map = HashMap::new(); - - for word in text.split_whitespace() { - let count = map.entry(word).or_insert(0); - *count += 1; - } - - println!("{:?}", map); - // ANCHOR_END: here -} diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-02-format/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-02-format/src/main.rs index 4a38e63d23..db408e2b73 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-02-format/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-02-format/src/main.rs @@ -4,6 +4,6 @@ fn main() { let s2 = String::from("tac"); let s3 = String::from("toe"); - let s = format!("{}-{}-{}", s1, s2, s3); + let s = format!("{s1}-{s2}-{s3}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-03-iterate-over-hashmap/src/main.rs b/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-03-iterate-over-hashmap/src/main.rs index 2e7dc02e60..bb13c86f1d 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-03-iterate-over-hashmap/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-03-iterate-over-hashmap/src/main.rs @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ fn main() { scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); for (key, value) in &scores { - println!("{}: {}", key, value); + println!("{key}: {value}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch08-common-collections/output-only-01-not-char-boundary/output.txt b/listings/ch08-common-collections/output-only-01-not-char-boundary/output.txt index 35db879c9b..de65b05c07 100644 --- a/listings/ch08-common-collections/output-only-01-not-char-boundary/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch08-common-collections/output-only-01-not-char-boundary/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ $ cargo run Compiling collections v0.1.0 (file:///projects/collections) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s Running `target/debug/collections` -thread 'main' panicked at 'byte index 1 is not a char boundary; it is inside 'З' (bytes 0..2) of `Здравствуйте`', src/main.rs:4:14 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:19: +byte index 1 is not a char boundary; it is inside 'З' (bytes 0..2) of `Здравствуйте` note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-01/output.txt b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-01/output.txt index 89aebb952f..5f4def0091 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-01/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-01/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ $ cargo run Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s Running `target/debug/panic` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99', src/main.rs:4:5 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:6: +index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-03/src/main.rs index 0dfd10b5e5..2342904ed2 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-03/src/main.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/output.txt b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/output.txt index f776a591ce..b36bdc05fd 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ $ cargo run Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s Running `target/debug/error-handling` -thread 'main' panicked at 'Problem opening the file: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', src/main.rs:8:23 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:8:23: +Problem opening the file: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/src/main.rs index 070fc33809..832f57f0e6 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/src/main.rs @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); - let f = match f { + let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result { Ok(file) => file, - Err(error) => panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error), + Err(error) => panic!("Problem opening the file: {error:?}"), }; } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-05/src/main.rs index 8c4f773b9e..e0bc55c3f1 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-05/src/main.rs @@ -2,17 +2,17 @@ use std::fs::File; use std::io::ErrorKind; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); - let f = match f { + let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result { Ok(file) => file, Err(error) => match error.kind() { ErrorKind::NotFound => match File::create("hello.txt") { Ok(fc) => fc, - Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", e), + Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {e:?}"), }, other_error => { - panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", other_error) + panic!("Problem opening the file: {other_error:?}"); } }, }; diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-06/src/main.rs index 4f0a52163b..a70734cb53 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-06/src/main.rs @@ -3,17 +3,17 @@ use std::fs::File; use std::io::{self, Read}; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let username_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); - let mut f = match f { + let mut username_file = match username_file_result { Ok(file) => file, Err(e) => return Err(e), }; - let mut s = String::new(); + let mut username = String::new(); - match f.read_to_string(&mut s) { - Ok(_) => Ok(s), + match username_file.read_to_string(&mut username) { + Ok(_) => Ok(username), Err(e) => Err(e), } } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-07/src/main.rs index b9f6172cb2..0295949d23 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-07/src/main.rs @@ -1,13 +1,12 @@ // ANCHOR: here use std::fs::File; -use std::io; -use std::io::Read; +use std::io::{self, Read}; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { - let mut f = File::open("hello.txt")?; - let mut s = String::new(); - f.read_to_string(&mut s)?; - Ok(s) + let mut username_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; + let mut username = String::new(); + username_file.read_to_string(&mut username)?; + Ok(username) } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-08/src/main.rs index f36e4d0219..ca672caad0 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-08/src/main.rs @@ -1,14 +1,13 @@ // ANCHOR: here use std::fs::File; -use std::io; -use std::io::Read; +use std::io::{self, Read}; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { - let mut s = String::new(); + let mut username = String::new(); - File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut s)?; + File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut username)?; - Ok(s) + Ok(username) } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt index 6a8b1a4c21..9e9b206fee 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/output.txt @@ -1,15 +1,20 @@ $ cargo run Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling) error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns `Result` or `Option` (or another type that implements `FromResidual`) - --> src/main.rs:4:36 + --> src/main.rs:4:48 | -3 | / fn main() { -4 | | let f = File::open("hello.txt")?; - | | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()` -5 | | } - | |_- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?` +3 | fn main() { + | --------- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?` +4 | let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; + | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()` | = help: the trait `FromResidual>` is not implemented for `()` +help: consider adding return type + | +3 ~ fn main() -> Result<(), Box> { +4 | let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; +5 + Ok(()) + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `error-handling` due to previous error +error: could not compile `error-handling` (bin "error-handling") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/src/main.rs index 8608dc13ff..38b0054801 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/src/main.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt")?; + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-12/src/main.rs index 7f16b8e995..b0f7445f47 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-12/src/main.rs @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ use std::error::Error; use std::fs::File; fn main() -> Result<(), Box> { - let f = File::open("hello.txt")?; + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.toml index 15b3fffcab..d508e9578d 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/Cargo.toml @@ -4,4 +4,4 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d093831100 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +pub struct Guess { + value: i32, +} + +impl Guess { + pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { + if value < 1 || value > 100 { + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); + } + + Guess { value } + } + + pub fn value(&self) -> i32 { + self.value + } +} diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs index 9e07c1ee25..cda389303b 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs @@ -1,27 +1,8 @@ +use guessing_game::Guess; use rand::Rng; use std::cmp::Ordering; use std::io; -// ANCHOR: here -pub struct Guess { - value: i32, -} - -impl Guess { - pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { - if value < 1 || value > 100 { - panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value); - } - - Guess { value } - } - - pub fn value(&self) -> i32 { - self.value - } -} -// ANCHOR_END: here - fn main() { println!("Guess the number!"); diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-01-panic/output.txt b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-01-panic/output.txt index b25ed85d7c..ced4ee7198 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-01-panic/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-01-panic/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ $ cargo run Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.25s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.25s Running `target/debug/panic` -thread 'main' panicked at 'crash and burn', src/main.rs:2:5 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:2:5: +crash and burn note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/Cargo.toml deleted file mode 100644 index c496db7834..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/Cargo.toml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -[package] -name = "error-handling" -version = "0.1.0" -edition = "2021" - -[dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/output.txt b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index aa95afabe4..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo run - Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling) -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:4:18 - | -4 | let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt"); - | --- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected `u32`, found enum `Result` - | | - | expected due to this - | - = note: expected type `u32` - found enum `Result` - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `error-handling` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index a637f5f957..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7 +0,0 @@ -use std::fs::File; - -fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt"); - // ANCHOR_END: here -} diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-04-unwrap/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-04-unwrap/src/main.rs index 7b6b13ae76..92e9452f1a 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-04-unwrap/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-04-unwrap/src/main.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap(); + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap(); } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-05-expect/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-05-expect/src/main.rs index cab643bc5c..3d36fa5b1d 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-05-expect/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-05-expect/src/main.rs @@ -1,5 +1,6 @@ use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt").expect("Failed to open hello.txt"); + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt") + .expect("hello.txt should be included in this project"); } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-08-unwrap-that-cant-fail/src/main.rs b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-08-unwrap-that-cant-fail/src/main.rs index e829724c57..3e1835266b 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-08-unwrap-that-cant-fail/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-08-unwrap-that-cant-fail/src/main.rs @@ -2,6 +2,8 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here use std::net::IpAddr; - let home: IpAddr = "127.0.0.1".parse().unwrap(); + let home: IpAddr = "127.0.0.1" + .parse() + .expect("Hardcoded IP address should be valid"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.lock index 0a2f222c21..2ae9e459ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "cfg-if" version = "1.0.0" @@ -38,14 +40,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -67,15 +68,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.toml index 15b3fffcab..d508e9578d 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/Cargo.toml @@ -4,4 +4,4 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-01/src/main.rs index d2ba23b4a7..c9e9bbbd21 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-01/src/main.rs @@ -2,17 +2,17 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - let mut largest = number_list[0]; + let mut largest = &number_list[0]; - for number in number_list { + for number in &number_list { if number > largest { largest = number; } } - println!("The largest number is {}", largest); + println!("The largest number is {largest}"); // ANCHOR_END: here - assert_eq!(largest, 100); + assert_eq!(*largest, 100); // ANCHOR: here } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-02/src/main.rs index 9138dfcb44..fd43154a94 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-02/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-02/src/main.rs @@ -1,25 +1,25 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - let mut largest = number_list[0]; + let mut largest = &number_list[0]; - for number in number_list { + for number in &number_list { if number > largest { largest = number; } } - println!("The largest number is {}", largest); + println!("The largest number is {largest}"); let number_list = vec![102, 34, 6000, 89, 54, 2, 43, 8]; - let mut largest = number_list[0]; + let mut largest = &number_list[0]; - for number in number_list { + for number in &number_list { if number > largest { largest = number; } } - println!("The largest number is {}", largest); + println!("The largest number is {largest}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-03/src/main.rs index 7704ff3382..1878f5aacc 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-03/src/main.rs @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ // ANCHOR: here -fn largest(list: &[i32]) -> i32 { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest(list: &[i32]) -> &i32 { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -15,17 +15,17 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); // ANCHOR_END: here - assert_eq!(result, 100); + assert_eq!(*result, 100); // ANCHOR: here let number_list = vec![102, 34, 6000, 89, 54, 2, 43, 8]; let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); // ANCHOR_END: here - assert_eq!(result, 6000); + assert_eq!(*result, 6000); // ANCHOR: here } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-04/src/main.rs index 6b483ec976..ac3b1f7c1e 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-04/src/main.rs @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ // ANCHOR: here -fn largest_i32(list: &[i32]) -> i32 { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest_i32(list: &[i32]) -> &i32 { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -11,10 +11,10 @@ fn largest_i32(list: &[i32]) -> i32 { largest } -fn largest_char(list: &[char]) -> char { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest_char(list: &[char]) -> &char { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -27,17 +27,17 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; let result = largest_i32(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); // ANCHOR_END: here - assert_eq!(result, 100); + assert_eq!(*result, 100); // ANCHOR: here let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q']; let result = largest_char(&char_list); - println!("The largest char is {}", result); + println!("The largest char is {result}"); // ANCHOR_END: here - assert_eq!(result, 'y'); + assert_eq!(*result, 'y'); // ANCHOR: here } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/output.txt index 0530f54247..05b96ca173 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/output.txt @@ -1,17 +1,17 @@ $ cargo run Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) -error[E0369]: binary operation `>` cannot be applied to type `T` +error[E0369]: binary operation `>` cannot be applied to type `&T` --> src/main.rs:5:17 | 5 | if item > largest { - | ---- ^ ------- T + | ---- ^ ------- &T | | - | T + | &T | help: consider restricting type parameter `T` | -1 | fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { +1 | fn largest(list: &[T]) -> &T { | ++++++++++++++++++++++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0369`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` due to previous error +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/src/main.rs index e731157060..094eb416a7 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/src/main.rs @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest(list: &[T]) -> &T { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -14,10 +14,10 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q']; let result = largest(&char_list); - println!("The largest char is {}", result); + println!("The largest char is {result}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-07/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-07/output.txt index 2482c38432..5f6c3f4657 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-07/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-07/output.txt @@ -7,4 +7,4 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types | ^^^ expected integer, found floating-point number For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` due to previous error +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 7aa6a3bd22..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,23 +0,0 @@ -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { - let mut largest = list[0]; - - for &item in list { - if item > largest { - largest = item; - } - } - - largest -} - -fn main() { - let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - - let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); - - let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q']; - - let result = largest(&char_list); - println!("The largest char is {}", result); -} diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5c44142262 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) +error[E0597]: `x` does not live long enough + --> src/main.rs:6:13 + | +5 | let x = 5; + | - binding `x` declared here +6 | r = &x; + | ^^ borrowed value does not live long enough +7 | } + | - `x` dropped here while still borrowed +8 | +9 | println!("r: {r}"); + | --- borrow later used here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..773340eabc --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +fn main() { + let r; + + { + let x = 5; + r = &x; + } + + println!("r: {r}"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/Cargo.lock index e8007a19be..6388bb2b53 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,3 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. [[package]] name = "chapter10" version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 8b239e422d..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo run - Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) -error[E0597]: `x` does not live long enough - --> src/main.rs:7:17 - | -7 | r = &x; - | ^^ borrowed value does not live long enough -8 | } - | - `x` dropped here while still borrowed -9 | -10 | println!("r: {}", r); - | - borrow later used here - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/rustfmt-ignore b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/rustfmt-ignore similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/rustfmt-ignore rename to listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/rustfmt-ignore diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/src/main.rs index 16adb6a0d6..6679bcf31e 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/src/main.rs @@ -1,14 +1,10 @@ fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - { - let r; - - { - let x = 5; - r = &x; - } - - println!("r: {}", r); - } - // ANCHOR_END: here -} + let r; // ---------+-- 'a + // | + { // | + let x = 5; // -+-- 'b | + r = &x; // | | + } // -+ | + // | + println!("r: {r}"); // | +} // ---------+ diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-18/src/main.rs index 65dbf375a8..634ff9391a 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-18/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-18/src/main.rs @@ -1,14 +1,8 @@ fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - { - let r; // ---------+-- 'a - // | - { // | - let x = 5; // -+-- 'b | - r = &x; // | | - } // -+ | - // | - println!("r: {}", r); // | - } // ---------+ - // ANCHOR_END: here -} + let x = 5; // ----------+-- 'b + // | + let r = &x; // --+-- 'a | + // | | + println!("r: {r}"); // | | + // --+ | +} // ----------+ diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/Cargo.lock index 6388bb2b53..e8007a19be 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/Cargo.lock @@ -1,3 +1,5 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. [[package]] name = "chapter10" version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/src/main.rs index 94e70f00f8..8b64cd0008 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/src/main.rs @@ -1,12 +1,7 @@ fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - { - let x = 5; // ----------+-- 'b - // | - let r = &x; // --+-- 'a | - // | | - println!("r: {}", r); // | | - // --+ | - } // ----------+ - // ANCHOR_END: here + let string1 = String::from("abcd"); + let string2 = "xyz"; + + let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt similarity index 88% rename from listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/output.txt rename to listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt index 534a984a63..a6783b2ccd 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt @@ -13,4 +13,4 @@ help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | ++++ ++ ++ ++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` due to previous error +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/src/main.rs index 0f076a71db..bf41acd1f1 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/src/main.rs @@ -3,5 +3,15 @@ fn main() { let string2 = "xyz"; let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } + +// ANCHOR: here +fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { + if x.len() > y.len() { + x + } else { + y + } +} +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/src/main.rs index 6af8c9f0da..7668de1340 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/src/main.rs @@ -3,11 +3,11 @@ fn main() { let string2 = "xyz"; let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } // ANCHOR: here -fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { +fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { if x.len() > y.len() { x } else { diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-22/src/main.rs index 09c3a0daaa..fc9ff296cf 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-22/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-22/src/main.rs @@ -1,12 +1,15 @@ +// ANCHOR: here fn main() { - let string1 = String::from("abcd"); - let string2 = "xyz"; + let string1 = String::from("long string is long"); - let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + { + let string2 = String::from("xyz"); + let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); + } } +// ANCHOR_END: here -// ANCHOR: here fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { if x.len() > y.len() { x @@ -14,4 +17,3 @@ fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { y } } -// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..cb209ab8af --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) +error[E0597]: `string2` does not live long enough + --> src/main.rs:6:44 + | +5 | let string2 = String::from("xyz"); + | ------- binding `string2` declared here +6 | result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); + | ^^^^^^^ borrowed value does not live long enough +7 | } + | - `string2` dropped here while still borrowed +8 | println!("The longest string is {result}"); + | -------- borrow later used here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/src/main.rs index 836ec72959..f2e6338625 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/src/main.rs @@ -1,12 +1,12 @@ // ANCHOR: here fn main() { let string1 = String::from("long string is long"); - + let result; { let string2 = String::from("xyz"); - let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); } + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7f31ce02c4..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo run - Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) -error[E0597]: `string2` does not live long enough - --> src/main.rs:6:44 - | -6 | result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ borrowed value does not live long enough -7 | } - | - `string2` dropped here while still borrowed -8 | println!("The longest string is {}", result); - | ------ borrow later used here - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs index 2a6fa5898f..ca3cf86d21 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs @@ -1,19 +1,11 @@ -// ANCHOR: here -fn main() { - let string1 = String::from("long string is long"); - let result; - { - let string2 = String::from("xyz"); - result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); - } - println!("The longest string is {}", result); +struct ImportantExcerpt<'a> { + part: &'a str, } -// ANCHOR_END: here -fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { - if x.len() > y.len() { - x - } else { - y - } +fn main() { + let novel = String::from("Call me Ishmael. Some years ago..."); + let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().unwrap(); + let i = ImportantExcerpt { + part: first_sentence, + }; } diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.lock index e8007a19be..2aa4918e5d 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.lock @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. [[package]] -name = "chapter10" +name = "ownership" version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.toml index 489f809672..e8847526dc 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/Cargo.toml @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ [package] -name = "chapter10" +name = "ownership" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/src/main.rs index 2937b194ca..431a261d2c 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/src/main.rs @@ -1,11 +1,29 @@ -struct ImportantExcerpt<'a> { - part: &'a str, +// ANCHOR: here +fn first_word(s: &str) -> &str { + let bytes = s.as_bytes(); + + for (i, &item) in bytes.iter().enumerate() { + if item == b' ' { + return &s[0..i]; + } + } + + &s[..] } +// ANCHOR_END: here fn main() { - let novel = String::from("Call me Ishmael. Some years ago..."); - let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().expect("Could not find a '.'"); - let i = ImportantExcerpt { - part: first_sentence, - }; + let my_string = String::from("hello world"); + + // first_word works on slices of `String`s + let word = first_word(&my_string[..]); + + let my_string_literal = "hello world"; + + // first_word works on slices of string literals + let word = first_word(&my_string_literal[..]); + + // Because string literals *are* string slices already, + // this works too, without the slice syntax! + let word = first_word(my_string_literal); } diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 431a261d2c..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,29 +0,0 @@ -// ANCHOR: here -fn first_word(s: &str) -> &str { - let bytes = s.as_bytes(); - - for (i, &item) in bytes.iter().enumerate() { - if item == b' ' { - return &s[0..i]; - } - } - - &s[..] -} -// ANCHOR_END: here - -fn main() { - let my_string = String::from("hello world"); - - // first_word works on slices of `String`s - let word = first_word(&my_string[..]); - - let my_string_literal = "hello world"; - - // first_word works on slices of string literals - let word = first_word(&my_string_literal[..]); - - // Because string literals *are* string slices already, - // this works too, without the slice syntax! - let word = first_word(my_string_literal); -} diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-02-calling-default-impl/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-02-calling-default-impl/src/main.rs index 44c9c64ea1..cc9b98e313 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-02-calling-default-impl/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-02-calling-default-impl/src/main.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -use chapter10::{self, NewsArticle, Summary}; +use aggregator::{self, NewsArticle, Summary}; fn main() { // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-03-default-impl-calls-other-methods/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-03-default-impl-calls-other-methods/src/main.rs index 466dc4d59a..e05e8e1c67 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-03-default-impl-calls-other-methods/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-03-default-impl-calls-other-methods/src/main.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -use chapter10::{self, Summary, Tweet}; +use aggregator::{self, Summary, Tweet}; fn main() { // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index e8007a19be..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -[[package]] -name = "chapter10" -version = "0.1.0" - diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/Cargo.toml deleted file mode 100644 index 489f809672..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/Cargo.toml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -[package] -name = "chapter10" -version = "0.1.0" -edition = "2021" - -[dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index eca02c28be..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo run - Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) -error[E0508]: cannot move out of type `[T]`, a non-copy slice - --> src/main.rs:2:23 - | -2 | let mut largest = list[0]; - | ^^^^^^^ - | | - | cannot move out of here - | move occurs because `list[_]` has type `T`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - | help: consider borrowing here: `&list[0]` - -error[E0507]: cannot move out of a shared reference - --> src/main.rs:4:18 - | -4 | for &item in list { - | ----- ^^^^ - | || - | |data moved here - | |move occurs because `item` has type `T`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - | help: consider removing the `&`: `item` - -Some errors have detailed explanations: E0507, E0508. -For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 525ce815a0..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,25 +0,0 @@ -// ANCHOR: here -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { - // ANCHOR_END: here - let mut largest = list[0]; - - for &item in list { - if item > largest { - largest = item; - } - } - - largest -} - -fn main() { - let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - - let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); - - let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q']; - - let result = largest(&char_list); - println!("The largest char is {}", result); -} diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-where-clause/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-where-clause/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4dbde90901 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-where-clause/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "chapter10" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-where-clause/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-where-clause/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..05b07c31ad --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-where-clause/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +// ANCHOR: here +fn some_function(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 +where + T: Display + Clone, + U: Clone + Debug, +{ + // ANCHOR_END: here + unimplemented!() +} diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-08-only-one-reference-with-lifetime/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-08-only-one-reference-with-lifetime/src/main.rs index d144305cb0..4c35d90e3a 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-08-only-one-reference-with-lifetime/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-08-only-one-reference-with-lifetime/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ fn main() { let string2 = "efghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"; let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/output.txt b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/output.txt index 0c628b6977..9b9ef2338c 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/output.txt @@ -1,10 +1,13 @@ $ cargo run Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) -error[E0515]: cannot return reference to local variable `result` +error[E0515]: cannot return value referencing local variable `result` --> src/main.rs:11:5 | 11 | result.as_str() - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ returns a reference to data owned by the current function + | ------^^^^^^^^^ + | | + | returns a value referencing data owned by the current function + | `result` is borrowed here For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0515`. -error: could not compile `chapter10` due to previous error +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/src/main.rs index aca4be0a78..4d596ec434 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ fn main() { let string2 = "xyz"; let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs index 32ad530b51..c04ec38236 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-10-lifetimes-on-methods/src/main.rs @@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ impl<'a> ImportantExcerpt<'a> { // ANCHOR: 3rd impl<'a> ImportantExcerpt<'a> { fn announce_and_return_part(&self, announcement: &str) -> &str { - println!("Attention please: {}", announcement); + println!("Attention please: {announcement}"); self.part } } @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ impl<'a> ImportantExcerpt<'a> { fn main() { let novel = String::from("Call me Ishmael. Some years ago..."); - let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().expect("Could not find a '.'"); + let first_sentence = novel.split('.').next().unwrap(); let i = ImportantExcerpt { part: first_sentence, }; diff --git a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-11-generics-traits-and-lifetimes/src/main.rs b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-11-generics-traits-and-lifetimes/src/main.rs index cfafa9a6d3..4b0201fb16 100644 --- a/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-11-generics-traits-and-lifetimes/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-11-generics-traits-and-lifetimes/src/main.rs @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ fn main() { string2, "Today is someone's birthday!", ); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } // ANCHOR: here @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn longest_with_an_announcement<'a, T>( where T: Display, { - println!("Announcement! {}", ann); + println!("Announcement! {ann}"); if x.len() > y.len() { x } else { diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index d37189b337..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -[[package]] -name = "adder" -version = "0.1.0" - diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt index c07ffd25d6..3b09a15ece 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (file:///projects/adder/target/debug/deps/adder-7acb243c25ffd9dc) running 1 test test tests::it_works ... ok @@ -13,4 +13,3 @@ test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; fini running 0 tests test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs index 1b4a90c938..b93cf3ffd9 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs @@ -1,8 +1,14 @@ +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn it_works() { - let result = 2 + 2; + let result = add(2, 2); assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/output.txt index 9680e7c208..cf2c206aac 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.72s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.72s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests test tests::another ... FAILED @@ -10,7 +10,8 @@ test tests::exploration ... ok failures: ---- tests::another stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Make this test fail', src/lib.rs:10:9 +thread 'tests::another' panicked at src/lib.rs:17:9: +Make this test fail note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -19,4 +20,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs index a9ec008919..336ea081a1 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,15 @@ -// ANCHOR: here +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn exploration() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } #[test] @@ -11,4 +17,3 @@ mod tests { panic!("Make this test fail"); } } -// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs index 0f1bc4e084..0a03a2b447 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,3 @@ -// ANCHOR: here #[derive(Debug)] struct Rectangle { width: u32, @@ -10,4 +9,3 @@ impl Rectangle { self.width > other.width && self.height > other.height } } -// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-06/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-06/output.txt index 820c75b1ab..e03add2290 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-06/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-06/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) running 1 test test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/output.txt index aa30cdb629..908ed572c6 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test tests::it_adds_two ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs index 3e5d66bfaf..682e8ae172 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/output.txt index 6c17acfd98..a5a764377d 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/src/lib.rs index 9391be5b1f..54e447bb93 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/src/lib.rs @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ pub struct Guess { impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 || value > 100 { - panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value); + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } Guess { value } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-09/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-09/src/lib.rs index 475d4b91cd..1bb464137b 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-09/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-09/src/lib.rs @@ -4,17 +4,16 @@ pub struct Guess { // ANCHOR: here // --snip-- + impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 { panic!( - "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {value}." ); } else if value > 100 { panic!( - "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {value}." ); } @@ -27,7 +26,7 @@ mod tests { use super::*; #[test] - #[should_panic(expected = "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100")] + #[should_panic(expected = "less than or equal to 100")] fn greater_than_100() { Guess::new(200); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt index ce983169d2..c67b607d8c 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling silly-function v0.1.0 (file:///projects/silly-function) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) running 2 tests test tests::this_test_will_fail ... FAILED @@ -11,9 +11,10 @@ failures: ---- tests::this_test_will_fail stdout ---- I got the value 8 -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `5`, - right: `10`', src/lib.rs:19:9 +thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 10 + right: 5 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -22,4 +23,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs index 6fd76ce006..3fbde2a1ed 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ fn prints_and_returns_10(a: i32) -> i32 { - println!("I got the value {}", a); + println!("I got the value {a}"); 10 } @@ -10,12 +10,12 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn this_test_will_pass() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(4); - assert_eq!(10, value); + assert_eq!(value, 10); } #[test] fn this_test_will_fail() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(8); - assert_eq!(5, value); + assert_eq!(value, 5); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/output.txt index 9be5abe619..a0fe55df11 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 3 tests test tests::add_three_and_two ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs index f56715263e..ccf1eb2a2f 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -8,16 +8,19 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn add_two_and_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } #[test] fn add_three_and_two() { - assert_eq!(5, add_two(3)); + let result = add_two(3); + assert_eq!(result, 5); } #[test] fn one_hundred() { - assert_eq!(102, add_two(100)); + let result = add_two(100); + assert_eq!(result, 102); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f62..9ba15d8b22 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/output.txt index 12e231cf26..84344add72 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.31s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-1082c4b063a8fbe6) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.31s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-1082c4b063a8fbe6) running 1 test test tests::internal ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f62..9ba15d8b22 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs index e26fa71096..d6b88a7505 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ -use adder; +use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/output.txt index 5de1386739..79d3ae25ce 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test tests::exploration ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/src/lib.rs index 330bddf6ac..5014a76f2b 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/src/lib.rs @@ -1,7 +1,14 @@ +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn exploration() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-02-adding-another-rectangle-test/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-02-adding-another-rectangle-test/output.txt index 29320be50d..63044036d1 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-02-adding-another-rectangle-test/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-02-adding-another-rectangle-test/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) running 2 tests test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-03-introducing-a-bug/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-03-introducing-a-bug/output.txt index 6629b53850..6d616db377 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-03-introducing-a-bug/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-03-introducing-a-bug/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) running 2 tests test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... FAILED @@ -10,7 +10,8 @@ test tests::smaller_cannot_hold_larger ... ok failures: ---- tests::larger_can_hold_smaller stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: larger.can_hold(&smaller)', src/lib.rs:28:9 +thread 'tests::larger_can_hold_smaller' panicked at src/lib.rs:28:9: +assertion failed: larger.can_hold(&smaller) note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -19,4 +20,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt index 2c0ffe83ae..927f89144c 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test tests::it_adds_two ... FAILED @@ -9,9 +9,10 @@ test tests::it_adds_two ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::it_adds_two stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `4`, - right: `5`', src/lib.rs:11:9 +thread 'tests::it_adds_two' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 5 + right: 4 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -20,4 +21,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs index f186625261..aed772b0ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-04-bug-in-add-two/src/lib.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ // ANCHOR: here -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 3 } // ANCHOR_END: here @@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-05-greeter/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-05-greeter/src/lib.rs index 3ba3d8819e..433cf148ea 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-05-greeter/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-05-greeter/src/lib.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ pub fn greeting(name: &str) -> String { - format!("Hello {}!", name) + format!("Hello {name}!") } #[cfg(test)] diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-06-greeter-with-bug/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-06-greeter-with-bug/output.txt index d54451fd4b..0a7d44dce8 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-06-greeter-with-bug/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-06-greeter-with-bug/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling greeter v0.1.0 (file:///projects/greeter) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.91s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.91s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) running 1 test test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED @@ -9,7 +9,8 @@ test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::greeting_contains_name stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: result.contains(\"Carol\")', src/lib.rs:12:9 +thread 'tests::greeting_contains_name' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +assertion failed: result.contains("Carol") note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -18,4 +19,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/output.txt index 2ecf804590..d2015d56b2 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling greeter v0.1.0 (file:///projects/greeter) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.93s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.93s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) running 1 test test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED @@ -9,7 +9,8 @@ test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::greeting_contains_name stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Greeting did not contain name, value was `Hello!`', src/lib.rs:12:9 +thread 'tests::greeting_contains_name' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +Greeting did not contain name, value was `Hello!` note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -18,4 +19,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs index 519c7a4c6f..8bbaca53fd 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-07-custom-failure-message/src/lib.rs @@ -12,8 +12,7 @@ mod tests { let result = greeting("Carol"); assert!( result.contains("Carol"), - "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{}`", - result + "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{result}`" ); } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/output.txt index 9d64476ff1..9b7ec43f79 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... FAILED @@ -16,4 +16,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/src/lib.rs index 32540ba83c..0f962fcd79 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-08-guess-with-bug/src/lib.rs @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ pub struct Guess { impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 { - panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value); + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } Guess { value } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/output.txt index ca13febae3..f30b55ab18 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... FAILED @@ -9,15 +9,16 @@ test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::greater_than_100 stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200.', src/lib.rs:13:13 +thread 'tests::greater_than_100' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:13: +Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200. note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace note: panic did not contain expected string panic message: `"Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200."`, - expected substring: `"Guess value must be less than or equal to 100"` + expected substring: `"less than or equal to 100"` failures: tests::greater_than_100 test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/src/lib.rs index 21650040da..fb5fc0e77b 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-09-guess-with-panic-msg-bug/src/lib.rs @@ -7,13 +7,11 @@ impl Guess { // ANCHOR: here if value < 1 { panic!( - "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {value}." ); } else if value > 100 { panic!( - "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {value}." ); } // ANCHOR_END: here @@ -27,7 +25,7 @@ mod tests { use super::*; #[test] - #[should_panic(expected = "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100")] + #[should_panic(expected = "less than or equal to 100")] fn greater_than_100() { Guess::new(200); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs index 6284f4f291..06b1a03e1f 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs @@ -1,11 +1,21 @@ +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + + // ANCHOR: here #[test] fn it_works() -> Result<(), String> { - if 2 + 2 == 4 { + let result = add(2, 2); + + if result == 4 { Ok(()) } else { Err(String::from("two plus two does not equal four")) } } + // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt index fcdff2517e..bc40c96eb8 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests -test expensive_test ... ignored -test it_works ... ok +test tests::expensive_test ... ignored +test tests::it_works ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 1 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs index d54a6095d7..05fbe1af0a 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs @@ -1,10 +1,22 @@ -#[test] -fn it_works() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { + left + right } -#[test] -#[ignore] -fn expensive_test() { - // code that takes an hour to run +// ANCHOR: here +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn it_works() { + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); + } + + #[test] + #[ignore] + fn expensive_test() { + // code that takes an hour to run + } } +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/output.txt index 0afdb52ee6..e258394593 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.89s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.89s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test tests::internal ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f62..9ba15d8b22 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs index e26fa71096..d6b88a7505 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-12-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ -use adder; +use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f62..9ba15d8b22 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs index 58b8b7b89b..d18b5b689b 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-13-fix-shared-test-code-problem/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -1,9 +1,11 @@ -use adder; +use adder::add_two; mod common; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { common::setup(); - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt index 94b0b4b906..b6fa60de53 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test -- --show-output Compiling silly-function v0.1.0 (file:///projects/silly-function) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) running 2 tests test tests::this_test_will_fail ... FAILED @@ -20,9 +20,10 @@ failures: ---- tests::this_test_will_fail stdout ---- I got the value 8 -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `5`, - right: `10`', src/lib.rs:19:9 +thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 10 + right: 5 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -31,4 +32,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs index 43c4c92f9a..141d51ee6e 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-01-show-output/src/lib.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ pub fn prints_and_returns_10(a: i32) -> i32 { - println!("I got the value {}", a); + println!("I got the value {a}"); 10 } @@ -10,12 +10,12 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn this_test_will_pass() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(4); - assert_eq!(10, value); + assert_eq!(value, 10); } #[test] fn this_test_will_fail() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(8); - assert_eq!(5, value); + assert_eq!(value, 5); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-02-single-test/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-02-single-test/output.txt index e5e9ffdd7a..47e2a478e6 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-02-single-test/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-02-single-test/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test one_hundred Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.69s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.69s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test tests::one_hundred ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-03-multiple-tests/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-03-multiple-tests/output.txt index 822cbb5ee5..d08940aeed 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-03-multiple-tests/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-03-multiple-tests/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test add Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests test tests::add_three_and_two ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-04-running-ignored/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-04-running-ignored/output.txt index 009ac4a5b4..4c7782d074 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-04-running-ignored/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-04-running-ignored/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test -- --ignored Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test expensive_test ... ok diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/output.txt b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/output.txt index 260beaa2d6..2745d0f81a 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo test --test integration_test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.64s + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.64s Running tests/integration_test.rs (target/debug/deps/integration_test-82e7799c1bc62298) running 1 test diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs index c3961b1f62..9ba15d8b22 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/src/lib.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs index e26fa71096..d6b88a7505 100644 --- a/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs +++ b/listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/tests/integration_test.rs @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ -use adder; +use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/output.txt index d0ef998122..d2abb056be 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -["target/debug/minigrep"] +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ + "target/debug/minigrep", +] diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/src/main.rs index aa3056de60..ae7def53d6 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/src/main.rs @@ -2,5 +2,5 @@ use std::env; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - println!("{:?}", args); + dbg!(args); } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/output.txt index f759eea008..ad87dcf06d 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ -$ cargo run test sample.txt +$ cargo run -- test sample.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep test sample.txt` Searching for test In file sample.txt diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/src/main.rs index 8daf125c67..afc3c3c9f9 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/src/main.rs @@ -4,8 +4,8 @@ fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); let query = &args[1]; - let filename = &args[2]; + let file_path = &args[2]; - println!("Searching for {}", query); - println!("In file {}", filename); + println!("Searching for {query}"); + println!("In file {file_path}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-03/src/main.rs index 8daf125c67..afc3c3c9f9 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-03/src/main.rs @@ -4,8 +4,8 @@ fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); let query = &args[1]; - let filename = &args[2]; + let file_path = &args[2]; - println!("Searching for {}", query); - println!("In file {}", filename); + println!("Searching for {query}"); + println!("In file {file_path}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/output.txt index 5f31c8c292..d8cfe392df 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ -$ cargo run the poem.txt +$ cargo run -- the poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` Searching for the In file poem.txt diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/src/main.rs index 9a0eade562..f343249797 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/src/main.rs @@ -8,15 +8,15 @@ fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); let query = &args[1]; - let filename = &args[2]; + let file_path = &args[2]; - println!("Searching for {}", query); + println!("Searching for {query}"); // ANCHOR: here - println!("In file {}", filename); + println!("In file {file_path}"); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-05/src/main.rs index fb8805687e..838cacf39a 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-05/src/main.rs @@ -5,25 +5,25 @@ use std::fs; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let (query, filename) = parse_config(&args); + let (query, file_path) = parse_config(&args); // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - println!("Searching for {}", query); - println!("In file {}", filename); + println!("Searching for {query}"); + println!("In file {file_path}"); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); // ANCHOR: here } fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> (&str, &str) { let query = &args[1]; - let filename = &args[2]; + let file_path = &args[2]; - (query, filename) + (query, file_path) } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-06/src/main.rs index b5d89bc98f..c77e848d80 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-06/src/main.rs @@ -8,27 +8,27 @@ fn main() { let config = parse_config(&args); println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); // ANCHOR: here } struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> Config { let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Config { query, filename } + Config { query, file_path } } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/output.txt index d3fa7777d5..e14b954de6 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1', src/main.rs:27:21 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:27:21: +index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/src/main.rs index 36d35ceafb..ff6c294200 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/src/main.rs @@ -9,12 +9,12 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); // ANCHOR: here // --snip-- @@ -25,16 +25,16 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } // ANCHOR: here impl Config { fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Config { query, filename } + Config { query, file_path } } } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/output.txt index de2abd1afc..c1aa1a93f9 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,7 @@ $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'not enough arguments', src/main.rs:26:13 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:26:13: +not enough arguments note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/src/main.rs index dddf10bd44..cecd15abf9 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/src/main.rs @@ -7,17 +7,17 @@ fn main() { let config = Config::new(&args); println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } impl Config { @@ -31,8 +31,8 @@ impl Config { // ANCHOR_END: here let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Config { query, filename } + Config { query, file_path } } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-09/src/main.rs index 83f46ee37f..3418e718c1 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-09/src/main.rs @@ -7,30 +7,30 @@ fn main() { let config = Config::new(&args); println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } // ANCHOR: here impl Config { - fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/output.txt index 7aad57f52d..c5e085b45e 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s Running `target/debug/minigrep` Problem parsing arguments: not enough arguments diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/src/main.rs index c8aeb1d37e..ab6d3e5487 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/src/main.rs @@ -6,8 +6,8 @@ use std::process; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); @@ -15,28 +15,28 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } impl Config { - fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-11/src/main.rs index 974b503b72..3f476b9751 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-11/src/main.rs @@ -9,23 +9,23 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); // ANCHOR: here println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); run(config); } fn run(config: Config) { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } // --snip-- @@ -33,18 +33,18 @@ fn run(config: Config) { struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } impl Config { - fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/output.txt index c18902518e..6c5e67ba45 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/output.txt @@ -1,16 +1,20 @@ -$ cargo run the poem.txt +$ cargo run -- the poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) warning: unused `Result` that must be used --> src/main.rs:19:5 | 19 | run(config); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ | - = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default = note: this `Result` may be an `Err` variant, which should be handled + = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default +help: use `let _ = ...` to ignore the resulting value + | +19 | let _ = run(config); + | +++++++ warning: `minigrep` (bin "minigrep") generated 1 warning - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.71s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.71s Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` Searching for the In file poem.txt diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/src/main.rs index f2e0e6b9f3..ab5fdb894d 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/src/main.rs @@ -11,22 +11,22 @@ use std::error::Error; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); run(config); } // ANCHOR: here fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); Ok(()) } @@ -34,18 +34,18 @@ fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } impl Config { - fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/lib.rs index 5b2850a5df..1a3c480893 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/lib.rs @@ -4,11 +4,11 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here if args.len() < 3 { @@ -16,9 +16,9 @@ impl Config { } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) // ANCHOR: here } } @@ -26,9 +26,9 @@ impl Config { pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); Ok(()) // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/main.rs index b2447dce97..09756ca3f0 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/main.rs @@ -4,17 +4,16 @@ use std::process; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); if let Err(e) = run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/lib.rs index 2ba2fd1961..4f3a4e865b 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/lib.rs @@ -3,26 +3,26 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/main.rs index 5eb4024f5c..3b76009b50 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/main.rs @@ -9,20 +9,19 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); // ANCHOR: here if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); // ANCHOR: here } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/lib.rs index c677188393..20c4a782b9 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/lib.rs @@ -3,24 +3,24 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/output.txt index 63ea400f86..9f4c64d29d 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 1 test test tests::one_result ... FAILED @@ -9,9 +9,10 @@ test tests::one_result ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::one_result stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `["safe, fast, productive."]`, - right: `[]`', src/lib.rs:44:9 +thread 'tests::one_result' panicked at src/lib.rs:44:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: ["safe, fast, productive."] + right: [] note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -20,4 +21,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/lib.rs index 8729c32f4d..f5e593484a 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/lib.rs @@ -3,24 +3,24 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/lib.rs index 0b094ce28a..cb9fab4016 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/lib.rs @@ -3,24 +3,24 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/lib.rs index c9d1f529da..a05d046d7d 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/lib.rs @@ -3,24 +3,24 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/output.txt index 176d1b9baf..ed87e4f582 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/output.txt @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ $ cargo test Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.22s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.22s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 1 test test tests::one_result ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 0 tests diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/lib.rs index de8897b8d1..f5d3ffa9f6 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/lib.rs @@ -3,24 +3,24 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/lib.rs index 542d08874d..a757f7f550 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/lib.rs @@ -3,27 +3,27 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; for line in search(&config.query, &contents) { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/output.txt index 97ae4a40aa..945df3fd52 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.33s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.33s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 2 tests test tests::case_insensitive ... ok @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ test tests::case_sensitive ... ok test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 0 tests diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/lib.rs index 10f6dea094..3aaa04082c 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/lib.rs @@ -3,27 +3,27 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; for line in search(&config.query, &contents) { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/lib.rs index cb24d1cf08..c3f4723f10 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/lib.rs @@ -4,27 +4,27 @@ use std::fs; // ANCHOR: here pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } // ANCHOR_END: here impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } // ANCHOR: there pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/output.txt index 0f0f07f751..5c6fc0c53b 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ -$ cargo run to poem.txt +$ cargo run -- to poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep to poem.txt` Are you nobody, too? How dreary to be somebody! diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/lib.rs index f1eb263f6c..20eda21975 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/lib.rs @@ -8,25 +8,25 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } // ANCHOR: here impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } @@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ impl Config { // ANCHOR_END: here pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/lib.rs index 0a3478f46a..292b097897 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/lib.rs @@ -4,31 +4,31 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/main.rs index 9e38553c56..1278a6c174 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/main.rs @@ -7,14 +7,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - eprintln!("Application error: {}", e); - + eprintln!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-01-handling-errors-in-main/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-01-handling-errors-in-main/src/main.rs index 44bcfeab30..e51319efea 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-01-handling-errors-in-main/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-01-handling-errors-in-main/src/main.rs @@ -10,45 +10,44 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); // ANCHOR: here println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); if let Err(e) = run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } // ANCHOR_END: here fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); Ok(()) } struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } impl Config { - fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/output.txt index 91532d0cd5..44b203620b 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ -$ cargo run frog poem.txt +$ cargo run -- frog poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s Running `target/debug/minigrep frog poem.txt` How public, like a frog diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/lib.rs index ede4eb49a0..e06eae4cda 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/lib.rs @@ -3,28 +3,28 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } // ANCHOR: here pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; for line in search(&config.query, &contents) { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/output.txt index eb88d9a9b1..5f733a7dd6 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,9 @@ -$ cargo run needle haystack +$ cargo run -- needle haystack Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.57s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.57s Running `target/debug/minigrep needle haystack` -["target/debug/minigrep", "needle", "haystack"] +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ + "target/debug/minigrep", + "needle", + "haystack", +] diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/src/main.rs index aa3056de60..ae7def53d6 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-01-with-args/src/main.rs @@ -2,5 +2,5 @@ use std::env; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - println!("{:?}", args); + dbg!(args); } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/output.txt index 93116dd5ed..7e46576b4a 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/output.txt @@ -13,4 +13,4 @@ help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | ++++ ++ ++ ++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. -error: could not compile `minigrep` due to previous error +error: could not compile `minigrep` (lib) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/lib.rs index 65af968d95..df623bdeaa 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/lib.rs @@ -3,24 +3,24 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; Ok(()) } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-02-missing-lifetimes/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/output.txt index 2b19bf956e..704df25909 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ -$ cargo run body poem.txt +$ cargo run -- body poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep body poem.txt` I'm nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody, too? diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/lib.rs index ede4eb49a0..e06eae4cda 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/lib.rs @@ -3,28 +3,28 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } // ANCHOR: here pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; for line in search(&config.query, &contents) { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/output.txt b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/output.txt index 4cd6c8a0ae..57f3a617c4 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/output.txt @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -$ cargo run monomorphization poem.txt +$ cargo run -- monomorphization poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep monomorphization poem.txt` diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/lib.rs index ede4eb49a0..e06eae4cda 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/lib.rs @@ -3,28 +3,28 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } // ANCHOR: here pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; for line in search(&config.query, &contents) { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/main.rs b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/lib.rs index ab7e567602..e54343d242 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/lib.rs @@ -4,25 +4,25 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } // ANCHOR: ch13 impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } @@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ impl Config { // ANCHOR_END: ch13 pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/main.rs index 53af83fdbc..a4f8a74114 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/main.rs @@ -6,14 +6,13 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/lib.rs index 0a3478f46a..292b097897 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/lib.rs @@ -4,31 +4,31 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/main.rs index ec27e67f99..f9d179c8ce 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/main.rs @@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ use minigrep::Config; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); @@ -16,8 +16,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: ch13 if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - eprintln!("Application error: {}", e); - + eprintln!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } // ANCHOR: ch13 diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-01/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-01/output.txt index b64a4d8dc4..28c829f4e9 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-01/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-01/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling shirt-company v0.1.0 (file:///projects/shirt-company) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s Running `target/debug/shirt-company` The user with preference Some(Red) gets Red The user with preference None gets Blue diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-03/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-03/output.txt index 37d83618a2..16716c3ac1 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-03/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-03/output.txt @@ -4,9 +4,23 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types --> src/main.rs:5:29 | 5 | let n = example_closure(5); - | ^- help: try using a conversion method: `.to_string()` - | | - | expected struct `String`, found integer + | --------------- ^- help: try using a conversion method: `.to_string()` + | | | + | | expected `String`, found integer + | arguments to this function are incorrect + | +note: expected because the closure was earlier called with an argument of type `String` + --> src/main.rs:4:29 + | +4 | let s = example_closure(String::from("hello")); + | --------------- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected because this argument is of type `String` + | | + | in this closure call +note: closure parameter defined here + --> src/main.rs:2:28 + | +2 | let example_closure = |x| x; + | ^ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `closure-example` due to previous error +error: could not compile `closure-example` (bin "closure-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt index 64d763b511..fbc00b5dfc 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,8 @@ $ cargo run + Locking 1 package to latest compatible version + Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04) Compiling closure-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/closure-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s Running `target/debug/closure-example` Before defining closure: [1, 2, 3] Before calling closure: [1, 2, 3] diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/src/main.rs index 43b91bb30e..19f51a6f71 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/src/main.rs @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ fn main() { let list = vec![1, 2, 3]; - println!("Before defining closure: {:?}", list); + println!("Before defining closure: {list:?}"); - let only_borrows = || println!("From closure: {:?}", list); + let only_borrows = || println!("From closure: {list:?}"); - println!("Before calling closure: {:?}", list); + println!("Before calling closure: {list:?}"); only_borrows(); - println!("After calling closure: {:?}", list); + println!("After calling closure: {list:?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt index ce0ad5e37f..695ee4bee3 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,8 @@ $ cargo run + Locking 1 package to latest compatible version + Adding closure-example v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05) Compiling closure-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/closure-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s Running `target/debug/closure-example` Before defining closure: [1, 2, 3] After calling closure: [1, 2, 3, 7] diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/src/main.rs index 37f8130e2c..f6c2a53de6 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/src/main.rs @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ fn main() { let mut list = vec![1, 2, 3]; - println!("Before defining closure: {:?}", list); + println!("Before defining closure: {list:?}"); let mut borrows_mutably = || list.push(7); borrows_mutably(); - println!("After calling closure: {:?}", list); + println!("After calling closure: {list:?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-06/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8085ade0f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-06/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "closure-example" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-06/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ee9ca04570 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-06/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@ +use std::thread; + +fn main() { + let list = vec![1, 2, 3]; + println!("Before defining closure: {list:?}"); + + thread::spawn(move || println!("From thread: {list:?}")) + .join() + .unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/.rustfmt.toml b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/.rustfmt.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ee10c634b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/.rustfmt.toml @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +struct_lit_width = 50 + diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/output.txt index f18fce46ed..8c11d84dc6 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.41s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.41s Running `target/debug/rectangles` [ Rectangle { diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/src/main.rs index 00f4f515da..e7ab8d3402 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/src/main.rs @@ -6,20 +6,11 @@ struct Rectangle { fn main() { let mut list = [ - Rectangle { - width: 10, - height: 1, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 3, - height: 5, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 7, - height: 12, - }, + Rectangle { width: 10, height: 1 }, + Rectangle { width: 3, height: 5 }, + Rectangle { width: 7, height: 12 }, ]; list.sort_by_key(|r| r.width); - println!("{:#?}", list); + println!("{list:#?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/.rustfmt.toml b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/.rustfmt.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ee10c634b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/.rustfmt.toml @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +struct_lit_width = 50 + diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt index 3129d5d537..979868dc39 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/output.txt @@ -1,18 +1,20 @@ $ cargo run Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) error[E0507]: cannot move out of `value`, a captured variable in an `FnMut` closure - --> src/main.rs:27:30 + --> src/main.rs:18:30 | -24 | let value = String::from("by key called"); - | ----- captured outer variable -25 | -26 | list.sort_by_key(|r| { - | ______________________- -27 | | sort_operations.push(value); - | | ^^^^^ move occurs because `value` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait -28 | | r.width -29 | | }); - | |_____- captured by this `FnMut` closure +15 | let value = String::from("closure called"); + | ----- captured outer variable +16 | +17 | list.sort_by_key(|r| { + | --- captured by this `FnMut` closure +18 | sort_operations.push(value); + | ^^^^^ move occurs because `value` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | +help: consider cloning the value if the performance cost is acceptable + | +18 | sort_operations.push(value.clone()); + | ++++++++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. -error: could not compile `rectangles` due to previous error +error: could not compile `rectangles` (bin "rectangles") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/src/main.rs index 2fd15e500b..e00fec70fc 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/src/main.rs @@ -6,26 +6,17 @@ struct Rectangle { fn main() { let mut list = [ - Rectangle { - width: 10, - height: 1, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 3, - height: 5, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 7, - height: 12, - }, + Rectangle { width: 10, height: 1 }, + Rectangle { width: 3, height: 5 }, + Rectangle { width: 7, height: 12 }, ]; let mut sort_operations = vec![]; - let value = String::from("by key called"); + let value = String::from("closure called"); list.sort_by_key(|r| { sort_operations.push(value); r.width }); - println!("{:#?}", list); + println!("{list:#?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/.rustfmt.toml b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/.rustfmt.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ee10c634b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/.rustfmt.toml @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +struct_lit_width = 50 + diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/src/main.rs index f262525810..f007e3c04d 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/src/main.rs @@ -6,18 +6,9 @@ struct Rectangle { fn main() { let mut list = [ - Rectangle { - width: 10, - height: 1, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 3, - height: 5, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 7, - height: 12, - }, + Rectangle { width: 10, height: 1 }, + Rectangle { width: 3, height: 5 }, + Rectangle { width: 7, height: 12 }, ]; let mut num_sort_operations = 0; @@ -25,5 +16,5 @@ fn main() { num_sort_operations += 1; r.width }); - println!("{:#?}, sorted in {num_sort_operations} operations", list); + println!("{list:#?}, sorted in {num_sort_operations} operations"); } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-11/src/main.rs index 712aff4085..b4e85169ab 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-11/src/main.rs @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ fn main() { let v1_iter = v1.iter(); for val in v1_iter { - println!("Got: {}", val); + println!("Got: {val}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-14/output.txt b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-14/output.txt index 228c764ed2..d46dd5c421 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-14/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-14/output.txt @@ -4,11 +4,15 @@ warning: unused `Map` that must be used --> src/main.rs:4:5 | 4 | v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ | - = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default = note: iterators are lazy and do nothing unless consumed + = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default +help: use `let _ = ...` to ignore the resulting value + | +4 | let _ = v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1); + | +++++++ warning: `iterators` (bin "iterators") generated 1 warning - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.47s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.47s Running `target/debug/iterators` diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/lib.rs index 0a3478f46a..292b097897 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/lib.rs @@ -4,31 +4,31 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/main.rs index d09966e416..40109ef638 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/main.rs @@ -5,8 +5,8 @@ use minigrep::Config; // ANCHOR: here fn main() { - let config = Config::new(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); @@ -14,8 +14,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - eprintln!("Application error: {}", e); - + eprintln!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/lib.rs index 4d28f8d6ef..79ae2b8f6c 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/lib.rs @@ -4,13 +4,13 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } // ANCHOR: here impl Config { - pub fn new( + pub fn build( mut args: impl Iterator, ) -> Result { // --snip-- @@ -20,20 +20,20 @@ impl Config { } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/main.rs index 06aac30e73..9ac0225455 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/main.rs @@ -4,14 +4,13 @@ use std::process; use minigrep::Config; fn main() { - let config = Config::new(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - eprintln!("Application error: {}", e); - + eprintln!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/lib.rs index 9586a26278..4410964a7d 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/lib.rs @@ -4,13 +4,13 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } // ANCHOR: here impl Config { - pub fn new( + pub fn build( mut args: impl Iterator, ) -> Result { args.next(); @@ -20,16 +20,16 @@ impl Config { None => return Err("Didn't get a query string"), }; - let filename = match args.next() { + let file_path = match args.next() { Some(arg) => arg, - None => return Err("Didn't get a file name"), + None => return Err("Didn't get a file path"), }; let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } @@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ impl Config { // ANCHOR_END: here pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/main.rs index 06aac30e73..9ac0225455 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/main.rs @@ -4,14 +4,13 @@ use std::process; use minigrep::Config; fn main() { - let config = Config::new(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - eprintln!("Application error: {}", e); - + eprintln!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/lib.rs index e3ee49c061..d694669b45 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/lib.rs @@ -4,12 +4,12 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } impl Config { - pub fn new( + pub fn build( mut args: impl Iterator, ) -> Result { args.next(); @@ -19,23 +19,23 @@ impl Config { None => return Err("Didn't get a query string"), }; - let filename = match args.next() { + let file_path = match args.next() { Some(arg) => arg, - None => return Err("Didn't get a file name"), + None => return Err("Didn't get a file path"), }; let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } } pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) diff --git a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/main.rs index 06aac30e73..9ac0225455 100644 --- a/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/main.rs @@ -4,14 +4,13 @@ use std::process; use minigrep::Config; fn main() { - let config = Config::new(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - eprintln!("Application error: {}", e); - + eprintln!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5b..9e542690c7 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/adder/src/main.rs b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/adder/src/main.rs index 7deb7962f4..1316294909 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/adder/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-07/add/adder/src/main.rs @@ -2,9 +2,5 @@ use add_one; fn main() { let num = 10; - println!( - "Hello, world! {} plus one is {}!", - num, - add_one::add_one(num) - ); + println!("Hello, world! {num} plus one is {}!", add_one::add_one(num)); } diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index d37189b337..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -[[package]] -name = "adder" -version = "0.1.0" - diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml deleted file mode 100644 index c5ea8e510b..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5 +0,0 @@ -[workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", -] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/src/main.rs b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index e7a11a969c..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - println!("Hello, world!"); -} diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace/add/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..61bdb9cbf2 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace/add/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +[workspace] +resolver = "2" diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5b..9e542690c7 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-02-workspace-with-two-crates/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.lock index eec3a9e4b1..bf6974b580 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "add_one" version = "0.1.0" @@ -45,14 +47,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -74,15 +75,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5b..9e542690c7 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/add_one/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/add_one/Cargo.toml index fd4942ace4..bc758bd883 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/add_one/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-03-workspace-with-external-dependency/add/add_one/Cargo.toml @@ -4,4 +4,4 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5b..9e542690c7 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-04-workspace-with-tests/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml index c5ea8e510b..38ea3f5655 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-01-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,5 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5b..8c9ab0e120 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = [ "add_one","adder"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml index 9000184707..8af4ab8166 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/Cargo.toml @@ -3,6 +3,4 @@ name = "add_one" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" -# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html - [dependencies] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs index 1b4a90c938..b93cf3ffd9 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-02-add-one/add/add_one/src/lib.rs @@ -1,8 +1,14 @@ +pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn it_works() { - let result = 2 + 2; + let result = add(2, 2); assert_eq!(result, 4); } } diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.lock index eec3a9e4b1..bf6974b580 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.lock @@ -1,5 +1,7 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + [[package]] name = "add_one" version = "0.1.0" @@ -45,14 +47,13 @@ checksum = "ac74c624d6b2d21f425f752262f42188365d7b8ff1aff74c82e45136510a4857" [[package]] name = "rand" -version = "0.8.3" +version = "0.8.5" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "0ef9e7e66b4468674bfcb0c81af8b7fa0bb154fa9f28eb840da5c447baeb8d7e" +checksum = "34af8d1a0e25924bc5b7c43c079c942339d8f0a8b57c39049bef581b46327404" dependencies = [ "libc", "rand_chacha", "rand_core", - "rand_hc", ] [[package]] @@ -74,15 +75,6 @@ dependencies = [ "getrandom", ] -[[package]] -name = "rand_hc" -version = "0.3.0" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "3190ef7066a446f2e7f42e239d161e905420ccab01eb967c9eb27d21b2322a73" -dependencies = [ - "rand_core", -] - [[package]] name = "wasi" version = "0.10.2+wasi-snapshot-preview1" diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml index 1448801d5b..9e542690c7 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/Cargo.toml @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ [workspace] - -members = [ - "adder", - "add_one", -] +resolver = "2" +members = ["adder", "add_one"] diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/add_one/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/add_one/Cargo.toml index fd4942ace4..bc758bd883 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/add_one/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/output-only-03-use-rand/add/add_one/Cargo.toml @@ -4,4 +4,4 @@ version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-01/src/main.rs index 8da1d905d6..97f04f3858 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-01/src/main.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ fn main() { let b = Box::new(5); - println!("b = {}", b); + println!("b = {b}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/output.txt index 437d74b5c7..2563fb6472 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/output.txt @@ -4,24 +4,25 @@ error[E0072]: recursive type `List` has infinite size --> src/main.rs:1:1 | 1 | enum List { - | ^^^^^^^^^ recursive type has infinite size + | ^^^^^^^^^ 2 | Cons(i32, List), | ---- recursive without indirection | -help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to make `List` representable +help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to break the cycle | 2 | Cons(i32, Box), | ++++ + -error[E0391]: cycle detected when computing drop-check constraints for `List` +error[E0391]: cycle detected when computing when `List` needs drop --> src/main.rs:1:1 | 1 | enum List { | ^^^^^^^^^ | - = note: ...which immediately requires computing drop-check constraints for `List` again - = note: cycle used when computing dropck types for `Canonical { max_universe: U0, variables: [], value: ParamEnvAnd { param_env: ParamEnv { caller_bounds: [], reveal: UserFacing, constness: NotConst }, value: List } }` + = note: ...which immediately requires computing when `List` needs drop again + = note: cycle used when computing whether `List` needs drop + = note: see https://rustc-dev-guide.rust-lang.org/overview.html#queries and https://rustc-dev-guide.rust-lang.org/query.html for more information Some errors have detailed explanations: E0072, E0391. For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0072`. -error: could not compile `cons-list` due to 2 previous errors +error: could not compile `cons-list` (bin "cons-list") due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-09/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-09/output.txt index 75e5f1c8c4..a295d26284 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-09/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-09/output.txt @@ -7,4 +7,4 @@ error[E0614]: type `MyBox<{integer}>` cannot be dereferenced | ^^ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0614`. -error: could not compile `deref-example` due to previous error +error: could not compile `deref-example` (bin "deref-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-11/src/main.rs index b73ad89c25..77a88c91f5 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-11/src/main.rs @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ // ANCHOR: here fn hello(name: &str) { - println!("Hello, {}!", name); + println!("Hello, {name}!"); } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-12/src/main.rs index 6a3e143cc3..8cd3893cb2 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-12/src/main.rs @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ impl MyBox { } fn hello(name: &str) { - println!("Hello, {}!", name); + println!("Hello, {name}!"); } // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-13/src/main.rs index ef5361c120..9debe2a31f 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-13/src/main.rs @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ impl MyBox { } fn hello(name: &str) { - println!("Hello, {}!", name); + println!("Hello, {name}!"); } // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-14/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-14/output.txt index 4e795949a0..1393d44b33 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-14/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-14/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling drop-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/drop-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s Running `target/debug/drop-example` CustomSmartPointers created. Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `other stuff`! diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-15/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-15/output.txt index a38c9ccb76..8a53b28520 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-15/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-15/output.txt @@ -4,10 +4,12 @@ error[E0040]: explicit use of destructor method --> src/main.rs:16:7 | 16 | c.drop(); - | --^^^^-- - | | | - | | explicit destructor calls not allowed - | help: consider using `drop` function: `drop(c)` + | ^^^^ explicit destructor calls not allowed + | +help: consider using `drop` function + | +16 | drop(c); + | +++++ ~ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0040`. -error: could not compile `drop-example` due to previous error +error: could not compile `drop-example` (bin "drop-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-16/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-16/output.txt index e960cd89a2..f032d84b6b 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-16/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-16/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling drop-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/drop-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s Running `target/debug/drop-example` CustomSmartPointer created. Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `some data`! diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-17/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-17/output.txt index ab314d8837..757a65fb54 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-17/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-17/output.txt @@ -11,4 +11,4 @@ error[E0382]: use of moved value: `a` | ^ value used here after move For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. -error: could not compile `cons-list` due to previous error +error: could not compile `cons-list` (bin "cons-list") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-19/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-19/output.txt index 6a8cc8efe1..252ccae893 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-19/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-19/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling cons-list v0.1.0 (file:///projects/cons-list) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.45s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.45s Running `target/debug/cons-list` count after creating a = 1 count after creating b = 2 diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt index 91a928ecba..8501007f05 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/output.txt @@ -3,13 +3,17 @@ $ cargo test error[E0596]: cannot borrow `self.sent_messages` as mutable, as it is behind a `&` reference --> src/lib.rs:58:13 | -2 | fn send(&self, msg: &str); - | ----- help: consider changing that to be a mutable reference: `&mut self` -... 58 | self.sent_messages.push(String::from(message)); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `self` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `self` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable + | +help: consider changing this to be a mutable reference in the `impl` method and the `trait` definition + | +2 ~ fn send(&mut self, msg: &str); +3 | } +... +56 | impl Messenger for MockMessenger { +57 ~ fn send(&mut self, message: &str) { + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0596`. -error: could not compile `limit-tracker` due to previous error -warning: build failed, waiting for other jobs to finish... -error: build failed +error: could not compile `limit-tracker` (lib test) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-23/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-23/output.txt index 22c2f79907..d3e560297c 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-23/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-23/output.txt @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ $ cargo test Compiling limit-tracker v0.1.0 (file:///projects/limit-tracker) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.91s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/limit_tracker-e599811fa246dbde) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.91s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/limit_tracker-e599811fa246dbde) running 1 test test tests::it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message ... FAILED @@ -9,7 +9,8 @@ test tests::it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'already borrowed: BorrowMutError', src/lib.rs:60:53 +thread 'tests::it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message' panicked at src/lib.rs:60:53: +already borrowed: BorrowMutError note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -18,4 +19,4 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/output.txt index 21b3530d95..bbdc588c6e 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling cons-list v0.1.0 (file:///projects/cons-list) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.63s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.63s Running `target/debug/cons-list` a after = Cons(RefCell { value: 15 }, Nil) b after = Cons(RefCell { value: 3 }, Cons(RefCell { value: 15 }, Nil)) diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/src/main.rs index e225bd8620..e3dda1a196 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/src/main.rs @@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ fn main() { *value.borrow_mut() += 10; - println!("a after = {:?}", a); - println!("b after = {:?}", b); - println!("c after = {:?}", c); + println!("a after = {a:?}"); + println!("b after = {b:?}"); + println!("c after = {c:?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-26/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-26/output.txt index 8b8eb40b60..b8e70e47dc 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-26/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-26/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling cons-list v0.1.0 (file:///projects/cons-list) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.53s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.53s Running `target/debug/cons-list` a initial rc count = 1 a next item = Some(RefCell { value: Nil }) diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/no-listing-01-cant-borrow-immutable-as-mutable/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/no-listing-01-cant-borrow-immutable-as-mutable/output.txt index 8e84746eec..95b9b68a82 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/no-listing-01-cant-borrow-immutable-as-mutable/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/no-listing-01-cant-borrow-immutable-as-mutable/output.txt @@ -3,10 +3,13 @@ $ cargo run error[E0596]: cannot borrow `x` as mutable, as it is not declared as mutable --> src/main.rs:3:13 | -2 | let x = 5; - | - help: consider changing this to be mutable: `mut x` 3 | let y = &mut x; | ^^^^^^ cannot borrow as mutable + | +help: consider changing this to be mutable + | +2 | let mut x = 5; + | +++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0596`. -error: could not compile `borrowing` due to previous error +error: could not compile `borrowing` (bin "borrowing") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt index ed543708b6..75ad91a0b3 100644 --- a/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch15-smart-pointers/output-only-01-comparing-to-reference/output.txt @@ -8,6 +8,11 @@ error[E0277]: can't compare `{integer}` with `&{integer}` | = help: the trait `PartialEq<&{integer}>` is not implemented for `{integer}` = note: this error originates in the macro `assert_eq` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) +help: consider dereferencing here + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/core/src/macros/mod.rs:46:35 + | +46| if !(*left_val == **right_val) { + | + For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `deref-example` due to previous error +error: could not compile `deref-example` (bin "deref-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-01/src/main.rs index 6305a98e3d..ea10ba282a 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-01/src/main.rs @@ -4,13 +4,13 @@ use std::time::Duration; fn main() { thread::spawn(|| { for i in 1..10 { - println!("hi number {} from the spawned thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the spawned thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } }); for i in 1..5 { - println!("hi number {} from the main thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the main thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } } diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-02/src/main.rs index e37607f1d6..33bf53f400 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-02/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-02/src/main.rs @@ -4,13 +4,13 @@ use std::time::Duration; fn main() { let handle = thread::spawn(|| { for i in 1..10 { - println!("hi number {} from the spawned thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the spawned thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } }); for i in 1..5 { - println!("hi number {} from the main thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the main thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/output.txt index 321bf59d70..3de4d4d3f2 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/output.txt @@ -5,15 +5,15 @@ error[E0373]: closure may outlive the current function, but it borrows `v`, whic | 6 | let handle = thread::spawn(|| { | ^^ may outlive borrowed value `v` -7 | println!("Here's a vector: {:?}", v); - | - `v` is borrowed here +7 | println!("Here's a vector: {v:?}"); + | - `v` is borrowed here | note: function requires argument type to outlive `'static` --> src/main.rs:6:18 | 6 | let handle = thread::spawn(|| { | __________________^ -7 | | println!("Here's a vector: {:?}", v); +7 | | println!("Here's a vector: {v:?}"); 8 | | }); | |______^ help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced variables), use the `move` keyword @@ -22,4 +22,4 @@ help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced va | ++++ For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0373`. -error: could not compile `threads` due to previous error +error: could not compile `threads` (bin "threads") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/src/main.rs index defc876482..b2231c5b86 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ fn main() { let v = vec![1, 2, 3]; let handle = thread::spawn(|| { - println!("Here's a vector: {:?}", v); + println!("Here's a vector: {v:?}"); }); handle.join().unwrap(); diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-04/src/main.rs index 0bccc5f56f..f0a9058a1c 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-04/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-04/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ fn main() { let v = vec![1, 2, 3]; let handle = thread::spawn(|| { - println!("Here's a vector: {:?}", v); + println!("Here's a vector: {v:?}"); }); drop(v); // oh no! diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-05/src/main.rs index a6547dc4c1..76783e6149 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-05/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ fn main() { let v = vec![1, 2, 3]; let handle = thread::spawn(move || { - println!("Here's a vector: {:?}", v); + println!("Here's a vector: {v:?}"); }); handle.join().unwrap(); diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-08/src/main.rs index fbba9167d4..e7ac452dcd 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-08/src/main.rs @@ -10,5 +10,5 @@ fn main() { }); let received = rx.recv().unwrap(); - println!("Got: {}", received); + println!("Got: {received}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt index 0795a3a4fc..2e95105fef 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/output.txt @@ -1,16 +1,16 @@ $ cargo run Compiling message-passing v0.1.0 (file:///projects/message-passing) error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `val` - --> src/main.rs:10:31 + --> src/main.rs:10:26 | 8 | let val = String::from("hi"); | --- move occurs because `val` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait 9 | tx.send(val).unwrap(); | --- value moved here -10 | println!("val is {}", val); - | ^^^ value borrowed here after move +10 | println!("val is {val}"); + | ^^^^^ value borrowed here after move | - = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) + = note: this error originates in the macro `$crate::format_args_nl` which comes from the expansion of the macro `println` (in Nightly builds, run with -Z macro-backtrace for more info) For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. -error: could not compile `message-passing` due to previous error +error: could not compile `message-passing` (bin "message-passing") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/src/main.rs index 98a8129ab3..fe20d3474a 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/src/main.rs @@ -7,9 +7,9 @@ fn main() { thread::spawn(move || { let val = String::from("hi"); tx.send(val).unwrap(); - println!("val is {}", val); + println!("val is {val}"); }); let received = rx.recv().unwrap(); - println!("Got: {}", received); + println!("Got: {received}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-10/src/main.rs index 82b220de45..c9702bd858 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-10/src/main.rs @@ -20,6 +20,6 @@ fn main() { }); for received in rx { - println!("Got: {}", received); + println!("Got: {received}"); } } diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-11/src/main.rs index d92deab5cb..174a5d14bb 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-11/src/main.rs @@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ fn main() { }); for received in rx { - println!("Got: {}", received); + println!("Got: {received}"); } // --snip-- diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-12/src/main.rs index 0c0d6767ad..99ba5b489a 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-12/src/main.rs @@ -8,5 +8,5 @@ fn main() { *num = 6; } - println!("m = {:?}", m); + println!("m = {m:?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt index ea6963903d..a4db0dcc3f 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/output.txt @@ -1,15 +1,26 @@ $ cargo run Compiling shared-state v0.1.0 (file:///projects/shared-state) -error[E0382]: use of moved value: `counter` - --> src/main.rs:9:36 +error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `counter` + --> src/main.rs:21:29 | 5 | let counter = Mutex::new(0); | ------- move occurs because `counter` has type `Mutex`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait ... +8 | for _ in 0..10 { + | -------------- inside of this loop 9 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { - | ^^^^^^^ value moved into closure here, in previous iteration of loop -10 | let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); - | ------- use occurs due to use in closure + | ------- value moved into closure here, in previous iteration of loop +... +21 | println!("Result: {}", *counter.lock().unwrap()); + | ^^^^^^^ value borrowed here after move + | +help: consider moving the expression out of the loop so it is only moved once + | +8 ~ let mut value = counter.lock(); +9 ~ for _ in 0..10 { +10 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { +11 ~ let mut num = value.unwrap(); + | For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. -error: could not compile `shared-state` due to previous error +error: could not compile `shared-state` (bin "shared-state") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt index 9546e1e489..a0adbc6190 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/output.txt @@ -1,21 +1,34 @@ $ cargo run Compiling shared-state v0.1.0 (file:///projects/shared-state) error[E0277]: `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely - --> src/main.rs:11:22 + --> src/main.rs:11:36 | 11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { - | ______________________^^^^^^^^^^^^^_- + | ------------- ^------ + | | | + | ______________________|_____________within this `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}` | | | - | | `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely + | | required by a bound introduced by this call 12 | | let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); 13 | | 14 | | *num += 1; 15 | | }); - | |_________- within this `[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]` + | |_________^ `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely | - = help: within `[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]`, the trait `Send` is not implemented for `Rc>` - = note: required because it appears within the type `[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]` + = help: within `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}`, the trait `Send` is not implemented for `Rc>`, which is required by `{closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 11:43}: Send` +note: required because it's used within this closure + --> src/main.rs:11:36 + | +11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { + | ^^^^^^^ note: required by a bound in `spawn` + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:675:8 + | +672 | pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + | ----- required by a bound in this function +... +675 | F: Send + 'static, + | ^^^^ required by this bound in `spawn` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `shared-state` due to previous error +error: could not compile `shared-state` (bin "shared-state") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/no-listing-01-join-too-early/src/main.rs b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/no-listing-01-join-too-early/src/main.rs index 6205e57d33..7023a90f64 100644 --- a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/no-listing-01-join-too-early/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/no-listing-01-join-too-early/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ use std::time::Duration; fn main() { let handle = thread::spawn(|| { for i in 1..10 { - println!("hi number {} from the spawned thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the spawned thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } }); @@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ fn main() { handle.join().unwrap(); for i in 1..5 { - println!("hi number {} from the main thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the main thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } } diff --git a/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/output-only-01-move-drop/output.txt b/listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/output-only-01-move-drop/output.txt index 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required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use trpl::{Either, Html}; + +fn main() { + let args: Vec = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let title_fut_1 = page_title(&args[1]); + let title_fut_2 = page_title(&args[2]); + + let (url, maybe_title) = + match trpl::race(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { + Either::Left(left) => left, + Either::Right(right) => right, + }; + + println!("{url} returned first"); + match maybe_title { + Some(title) => println!("Its page title is: '{title}'"), + None => println!("Its title could not be parsed."), + } + }) +} + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> (&str, Option) { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + let title = Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()); + (url, title) +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e3f560b67c --- /dev/null +++ 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d5a2e56e34 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0bb425d366 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..249ffd0f68 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..9fefdcf463 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b928fb6020 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +$ diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1888a53568 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + 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their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7773660519 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }); + + let 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..41820fc8a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + // ANCHOR: here + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + // ANCHOR_END: here + // ANCHOR: here + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..165022108b --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: yields + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'a' finished."); + }; + + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'b' finished."); + }; + // 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::{Duration, Instant}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let one_ns = Duration::from_nanos(1); + let start = Instant::now(); + async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::sleep(one_ns).await; + } + } + .await; + let time = Instant::now() - start; + println!( + "'sleep' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() + ); + + let start = Instant::now(); + async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::yield_now().await; + } + } + .await; + let time = Instant::now() - start; + println!( + "'yield' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() + ); + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7efd72f633 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1591 @@ 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..9efb5e7921 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +// ANCHOR: implementation +use trpl::Either; + +// --snip-- +// ANCHOR: implementation + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + }); +} + +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // ANCHOR: 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f03a460aa8 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; + let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1a59804c89 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/Cargo.lock @@ 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..de919073f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: timeout +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} +// ANCHOR_END: timeout + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for message in messages { + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1a59804c89 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,1591 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.22.0" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "6e4503c46a5c0c7844e948c9a4d6acd9f50cccb4de1c48eb9e291ea17470c678" +dependencies = [ + "gimli", +] + +[[package]] +name = "adler" +version = "1.0.2" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "f26201604c87b1e01bd3d98f8d5d9a8fcbb815e8cedb41ffccbeb4bf593a35fe" + +[[package]] +name = "ahash" +version = "0.8.11" +source = 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +// ANCHOR: messages +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} +// ANCHOR_END: messages 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Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: intervals +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + 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Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals(); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = merged.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..57ed7bed4a --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: throttle + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: throttle + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1a59804c89 --- /dev/null +++ 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0000000000..e094f067f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ecf406e93d --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: errors +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + 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https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f1f3d4b0c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, thread, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: threads +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // This is *not* `trpl::spawn` but `std::thread::spawn`! + thread::spawn(move || { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + // Likewise, this is *not* `trpl::sleep` but `std::thread::sleep`! + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could 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= "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..10a18bc488 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +$ cargo run +error: a bin target must be available for `cargo run` diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1273283140 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: enum +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + Initial { url: &'a str }, + GetAwaitPoint { url: &'a str }, + TextAwaitPoint { response: trpl::Response }, +} +// ANCHOR_END: enum diff --git a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock similarity index 85% rename from listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock index ee5d79095f..d30b928a6c 100644 --- a/listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/no-listing-01-cargo-new/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock @@ -3,5 +3,5 @@ version = 3 [[package]] -name = "guessing_game" +name = "async_await" version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..67729afc80 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..10a18bc488 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +$ cargo run +error: a bin target must be available for `cargo run` diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..09a980c04d --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_>, + ) -> Poll>; +} + +// ANCHOR: here +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... +} +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt similarity index 66% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt index 4015577105..78d7c39a32 100644 --- a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt @@ -6,7 +6,8 @@ error[E0277]: the trait bound `String: Draw` is not satisfied 5 | components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is not implemented for `String` | - = note: required for the cast to the object type `dyn Draw` + = help: the trait `Draw` is implemented for `Button` + = note: required for the cast from `Box` to `Box` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `gui` due to previous error +error: could not compile `gui` (bin "gui") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 5f75a4f2db..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - let mut stack = Vec::new(); - - stack.push(1); - stack.push(2); - stack.push(3); - - while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { - println!("{}", top); - } - // ANCHOR_END: here -} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5915c39c88..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo run - Compiling patterns v0.1.0 (file:///projects/patterns) -error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding: `None` not covered - --> src/main.rs:3:9 - | -3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; - | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered - | - = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or an `enum` with only one variant - = note: for more information, visit https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html - = note: the matched value is of type `Option` -help: you might want to use `if let` to ignore the variant that isn't matched - | -3 | if let Some(x) = some_option_value { /* */ } - | - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0005`. -error: could not compile `patterns` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 25eaa79ff8..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - let x = Some(5); - let y = 10; - - match x { - Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {:?}", y), - _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), - } - - println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {:?}", x, y); - // ANCHOR_END: here -} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 8d445d9b9d..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16 +0,0 @@ -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} - -// ANCHOR: here -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; - - match p { - Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {}", x), - Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {}", y), - Point { x, y } => println!("On neither axis: ({}, {})", x, y), - } -} -// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 9b8dac1938..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), -} - -fn main() { - let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); - - match msg { - Message::Quit => { - println!("The Quit variant has no data to destructure.") - } - Message::Move { x, y } => { - println!( - "Move in the x direction {} and in the y direction {}", - x, y - ); - } - Message::Write(text) => println!("Text message: {}", text), - Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!( - "Change the color to red {}, green {}, and blue {}", - r, g, b - ), - } -} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index ed6a20bf47..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,27 +0,0 @@ -enum Color { - Rgb(i32, i32, i32), - Hsv(i32, i32, i32), -} - -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(Color), -} - -fn main() { - let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); - - match msg { - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => println!( - "Change the color to red {}, green {}, and blue {}", - r, g, b - ), - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => println!( - "Change the color to hue {}, saturation {}, and value {}", - h, s, v - ), - _ => (), - } -} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index cf1fbe0721..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7 +0,0 @@ -fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { - println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {}", y); -} - -fn main() { - foo(3, 4); -} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 41fce97950..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - // ANCHOR: here - let num = Some(4); - - match num { - Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {} is even", x), - Some(x) => println!("The number {} is odd", x), - None => (), - } - // ANCHOR_END: here -} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/src/main.rs b/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 348e367233..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ -fn main() { - let x = Some(5); - let y = 10; - - match x { - Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {}", n), - _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), - } - - println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {}", x, y); -} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index e8dab68e0d..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15 +0,0 @@ -static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; - -fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { - unsafe { - COUNTER += inc; - } -} - -fn main() { - add_to_count(3); - - unsafe { - println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER); - } -} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/output.txt b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6845082452..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo run - Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) -error[E0283]: type annotations needed - --> src/main.rs:20:43 - | -20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer type - | - = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal` - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0283`. -error: could not compile `traits-example` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index 9a38c8ac26..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,46 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -[[package]] 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"826e7639553986605ec5979c7dd957c7895e93eabed50ab2ffa7f6128a75097c" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0991f10faa..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo run - Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) -error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` - --> src/main.rs:20:6 - | -20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter - | - = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` - = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead -note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` - --> src/main.rs:3:21 - | -3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. -error: could not compile `traits-example` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d6fffc9678..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo build - Compiling functions-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions-example) -error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object - --> src/lib.rs:1:25 - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at compile-time - | - = note: for information on `impl Trait`, see -help: use `impl Fn(i32) -> i32` as the return type, as all return paths are of type `[closure@src/lib.rs:2:5: 2:14]`, which implements `Fn(i32) -> i32` - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0746`. -error: could not compile `functions-example` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs deleted file mode 100644 index d699ac34eb..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - |x| x + 1 -} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs deleted file mode 100644 index b114077472..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -fn returns_closure() -> Box i32> { - Box::new(|x| x + 1) -} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock deleted file mode 100644 index 9a38c8ac26..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock +++ /dev/null @@ -1,46 +0,0 @@ -# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. -# It is not intended for manual editing. -[[package]] -name = "hello_macro_derive" -version = "0.1.0" -dependencies = [ - "quote 1.0.2 (registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index)", - "syn 1.0.14 (registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index)", -] - -[[package]] -name = "proc-macro2" -version = "1.0.8" -source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -dependencies = [ - "unicode-xid 0.2.0 (registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index)", -] - 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listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs similarity index 87% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs index d28c369f56..fc87768fb3 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ fn main() { let age: Result = "34".parse(); if let Some(color) = favorite_color { - println!("Using your favorite color, {}, as the background", color); + println!("Using your favorite color, {color}, as the background"); } else if is_tuesday { println!("Tuesday is green day!"); } else if let Ok(age) = age { diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4605557f0b --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +fn main() { + // ANCHOR: here + let (tx, rx) = std::sync::mpsc::channel(); + std::thread::spawn(move || { + for val in [1, 2, 3] { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + } + }); + + while let Ok(value) = rx.recv() { + println!("{value}"); + } + // ANCHOR_END: here +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt similarity index 68% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt index 02fdecbf5c..9add287fa4 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling patterns v0.1.0 (file:///projects/patterns) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.52s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.52s Running `target/debug/patterns` a is at index 0 b is at index 1 diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs similarity index 73% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs index eb922d62cd..218c180635 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ fn main() { let v = vec!['a', 'b', 'c']; for (index, value) in v.iter().enumerate() { - println!("{} is at index {}", value, index); + println!("{value} is at index {index}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt similarity index 56% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt index db8c14889d..8002272a72 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt @@ -4,10 +4,12 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types --> src/main.rs:2:9 | 2 | let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); - | ^^^^^^ expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements + | ^^^^^^ --------- this expression has type `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` + | | + | expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements | = note: expected tuple `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` found tuple `(_, _)` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `patterns` due to previous error +error: could not compile `patterns` (bin "patterns") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs similarity index 70% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs index 4eccb8088c..70069424c6 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ fn print_coordinates(&(x, y): &(i32, i32)) { - println!("Current location: ({}, {})", x, y); + println!("Current location: ({x}, {y})"); } fn main() { diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6ce3dfc582 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +$ cargo run + Compiling patterns v0.1.0 (file:///projects/patterns) +error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding + --> src/main.rs:3:9 + | +3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; + | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered + | + = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or an `enum` with only one variant + = note: for more information, visit https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html + = note: the matched value is of type `Option` +help: you might want to use `let else` to handle the variant that isn't matched + | +3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value else { todo!() }; + | ++++++++++++++++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0005`. +error: could not compile `patterns` (bin "patterns") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs similarity index 84% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs index d6274fc0e1..e378c37032 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ fn main() { let some_option_value: Option = None; // ANCHOR: here if let Some(x) = some_option_value { - println!("{}", x); + println!("{x}"); } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt similarity index 86% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt index 702d10a23f..97bc014ec1 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt @@ -6,11 +6,11 @@ warning: irrefutable `if let` pattern 2 | if let x = 5 { | ^^^^^^^^^ | - = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default = note: this pattern will always match, so the `if let` is useless = help: consider replacing the `if let` with a `let` + = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default warning: `patterns` (bin "patterns") generated 1 warning - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.39s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.39s Running `target/debug/patterns` 5 diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs similarity index 75% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs index cb81772e0c..2073948e7d 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here if let x = 5 { - println!("{}", x); + println!("{x}"); }; // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0552128036 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +fn main() { + // ANCHOR: here + let x = Some(5); + let y = 10; + + match x { + Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {y}"), + _ => println!("Default case, x = {x:?}"), + } + + println!("at the end: x = {x:?}, y = {y}"); + // ANCHOR_END: here +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b71da9a371 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} + +// ANCHOR: here +fn main() { + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; + + match p { + Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {x}"), + Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {y}"), + Point { x, y } => { + println!("On neither axis: ({x}, {y})"); + } + } +} +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7edf7f2bb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), +} + +fn main() { + let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); + + match msg { + Message::Quit => { + println!("The Quit variant has no data to destructure."); + } + Message::Move { x, y } => { + println!("Move in the x direction {x} and in the y direction {y}"); + } + Message::Write(text) => { + println!("Text message: {text}"); + } + Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => { + println!("Change the color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}"); + } + } +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a31eeffb97 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +enum Color { + Rgb(i32, i32, i32), + Hsv(i32, i32, i32), +} + +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(Color), +} + +fn main() { + let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); + + match msg { + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => { + println!("Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}"); + } + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => { + println!("Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}"); + } + _ => (), + } +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7053860348 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { + println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {y}"); +} + +fn main() { + foo(3, 4); +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs similarity index 88% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs index b776c64c42..2b8877620a 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs @@ -12,6 +12,6 @@ fn main() { } } - println!("setting is {:?}", setting_value); + println!("setting is {setting_value:?}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs similarity index 71% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs index 59b48c94d8..e28dab111c 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ fn main() { match numbers { (first, _, third, _, fifth) => { - println!("Some numbers: {}, {}, {}", first, third, fifth) + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {third}, {fifth}") } } // ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs similarity index 87% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs index 980610503f..320db62f5f 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs @@ -6,6 +6,6 @@ fn main() { println!("found a string"); } - println!("{:?}", s); + println!("{s:?}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/src/main.rs similarity index 87% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/src/main.rs index e2faa345bc..9df1492b29 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/src/main.rs @@ -6,6 +6,6 @@ fn main() { println!("found a string"); } - println!("{:?}", s); + println!("{s:?}"); // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/src/main.rs similarity index 79% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/src/main.rs index 7a9d9bb36f..491d6c53f8 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/src/main.rs @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ fn main() { let origin = Point { x: 0, y: 0, z: 0 }; match origin { - Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {}", x), + Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {x}"), } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/src/main.rs similarity index 66% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/src/main.rs index f22dbe8edf..3f9aaafc24 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ fn main() { match numbers { (first, .., last) => { - println!("Some numbers: {}, {}", first, last); + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {last}"); } } } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/output.txt b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/output.txt similarity index 79% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/output.txt rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/output.txt index 7e0357eac2..bd5e0f9d7b 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/output.txt @@ -8,4 +8,4 @@ error: `..` can only be used once per tuple pattern | | | previously used here -error: could not compile `patterns` due to previous error +error: could not compile `patterns` (bin "patterns") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/rustfmt-ignore b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/rustfmt-ignore similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/rustfmt-ignore rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/rustfmt-ignore diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs similarity index 70% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs index b90884eb9c..6c3b24b7db 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ fn main() { match numbers { (.., second, ..) => { - println!("Some numbers: {}", second) + println!("Some numbers: {second}") }, } } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2566169a7d --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +fn main() { + // ANCHOR: here + let num = Some(4); + + match num { + Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {x} is even"), + Some(x) => println!("The number {x} is odd"), + None => (), + } + // ANCHOR_END: here +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..06fd949964 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +fn main() { + let x = Some(5); + let y = 10; + + match x { + Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {n}"), + _ => println!("Default case, x = {x:?}"), + } + + println!("at the end: x = {x:?}, y = {y}"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/src/main.rs similarity index 84% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/src/main.rs index 3514deb636..e36fda8789 100644 --- a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/src/main.rs @@ -9,11 +9,11 @@ fn main() { match msg { Message::Hello { id: id_variable @ 3..=7, - } => println!("Found an id in range: {}", id_variable), + } => println!("Found an id in range: {id_variable}"), Message::Hello { id: 10..=12 } => { println!("Found an id in another range") } - Message::Hello { id } => println!("Found some other id: {}", id), + Message::Hello { id } => println!("Found some other id: {id}"), } // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs b/listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs similarity index 54% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs index 893f578905..492b43ba3b 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let mut num = 5; - let r1 = &num as *const i32; - let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; + let r1 = &raw const num; + let r2 = &raw mut num; // ANCHOR_END: here } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs similarity index 71% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs index 02a0be6b0e..6ed8ca2afc 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs @@ -2,8 +2,8 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here let mut num = 5; - let r1 = &num as *const i32; - let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; + let r1 = &raw const num; + let r2 = &raw mut num; unsafe { println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt similarity index 80% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt index f4b7582acc..514e25331c 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt @@ -12,6 +12,8 @@ error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time | | | second mutable borrow occurs here | | first mutable borrow occurs here | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` + | + = help: use `.split_at_mut(position)` to obtain two mutable non-overlapping sub-slices For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0499`. -error: could not compile `unsafe-example` due to previous error +error: could not compile `unsafe-example` (bin "unsafe-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs similarity index 87% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs index 8b56630c95..90c183adec 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -extern "C" { +unsafe extern "C" { fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7d77d51e4f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +unsafe extern "C" { + safe fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; +} + +fn main() { + println!("Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", abs(-3)); +} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs similarity index 58% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs index 82a4b4219f..fda5179af7 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; fn main() { - println!("name is: {}", HELLO_WORLD); + println!("name is: {HELLO_WORLD}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..abddb73627 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +$ cargo +nightly miri run + Compiling unsafe-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/unsafe-example) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.01s + Running `/Users/chris/.rustup/toolchains/nightly-aarch64-apple-darwin/bin/cargo-miri runner target/miri/aarch64-apple-darwin/debug/unsafe-example` +warning: creating a shared reference to mutable static is discouraged + --> src/main.rs:14:33 + | +14 | println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER); + | ^^^^^^^ shared reference to mutable static + | + = note: for more information, see + = note: shared references to mutable statics are dangerous; it's undefined behavior if the static is mutated or if a mutable reference is created for it while the shared reference lives + = note: `#[warn(static_mut_refs)]` on by default + +COUNTER: 3 diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..360e3548fc --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; + +/// SAFETY: Calling this from more than a single thread at a time is undefined +/// behavior, so you *must* guarantee you only call it from a single thread at +/// a time. +unsafe fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { + COUNTER += inc; +} + +fn main() { + unsafe { + // SAFETY: This is only called from a single thread in `main`. + add_to_count(3); + println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER); + } +} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt similarity index 71% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt index 2e9da17d65..d7e315bfab 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.46s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.46s Running `target/debug/traits-example` This is your captain speaking. Up! diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/output.txt similarity index 67% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/output.txt index 087e802b1a..b6e283f202 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.54s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.54s Running `target/debug/traits-example` A baby dog is called a Spot diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0e78ae2d9f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +$ cargo run + Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) +error[E0790]: cannot call associated function on trait without specifying the corresponding `impl` type + --> src/main.rs:20:43 + | +2 | fn baby_name() -> String; + | ------------------------- `Animal::baby_name` defined here +... +20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot call associated function of trait + | +help: use the fully-qualified path to the only available implementation + | +20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", ::baby_name()); + | +++++++ + + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0790`. +error: could not compile `traits-example` (bin "traits-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/output.txt similarity index 68% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/output.txt index 4d1ee5ab48..f59d0bc27d 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/output.txt @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ $ cargo run Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s Running `target/debug/traits-example` A baby dog is called a puppy diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/src/main.rs similarity index 91% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/src/main.rs index febe58b0c5..7069fef179 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/src/main.rs @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { let len = output.len(); println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("* {} *", output); + println!("* {output} *"); println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/src/main.rs similarity index 91% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/src/main.rs index eae46c92f3..f8c8366b4c 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/src/main.rs @@ -10,5 +10,5 @@ impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { fn main() { let w = Wrapper(vec![String::from("hello"), String::from("world")]); - println!("w = {}", w); + println!("w = {w}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/src/main.rs similarity index 79% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/src/main.rs index 91b2cf04bf..312df2412f 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/src/main.rs @@ -9,5 +9,5 @@ fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) -> i32 { fn main() { let answer = do_twice(add_one, 5); - println!("The answer is: {}", answer); + println!("The answer is: {answer}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6be987b21b --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "hello_macro_derive" +version = "0.1.0" +dependencies = [ + "quote", + "syn", +] + +[[package]] +name = "proc-macro2" +version = "1.0.80" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "a56dea16b0a29e94408b9aa5e2940a4eedbd128a1ba20e8f7ae60fd3d465af0e" +dependencies = [ + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "quote" +version = "1.0.36" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "0fa76aaf39101c457836aec0ce2316dbdc3ab723cdda1c6bd4e6ad4208acaca7" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", +] + +[[package]] +name = "syn" +version = "2.0.59" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "4a6531ffc7b071655e4ce2e04bd464c4830bb585a61cabb96cf808f05172615a" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "unicode-ident" +version = "1.0.12" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "3354b9ac3fae1ff6755cb6db53683adb661634f67557942dea4facebec0fee4b" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml similarity index 91% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml index aa076ac48b..ed9e917ad0 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml @@ -7,5 +7,5 @@ edition = "2021" proc-macro = true [dependencies] -syn = "1.0" +syn = "2.0" quote = "1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs similarity index 97% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs index 11643a8d62..839ec83593 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs @@ -1,6 +1,5 @@ use proc_macro::TokenStream; use quote::quote; -use syn; #[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6be987b21b --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "hello_macro_derive" +version = "0.1.0" +dependencies = [ + "quote", + "syn", +] + +[[package]] +name = "proc-macro2" +version = "1.0.80" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "a56dea16b0a29e94408b9aa5e2940a4eedbd128a1ba20e8f7ae60fd3d465af0e" +dependencies = [ + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "quote" +version = "1.0.36" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "0fa76aaf39101c457836aec0ce2316dbdc3ab723cdda1c6bd4e6ad4208acaca7" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", +] + +[[package]] +name = "syn" +version = "2.0.59" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "4a6531ffc7b071655e4ce2e04bd464c4830bb585a61cabb96cf808f05172615a" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "unicode-ident" +version = "1.0.12" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "3354b9ac3fae1ff6755cb6db53683adb661634f67557942dea4facebec0fee4b" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml similarity index 91% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml index aa076ac48b..ed9e917ad0 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml @@ -7,5 +7,5 @@ edition = "2021" proc-macro = true [dependencies] -syn = "1.0" +syn = "2.0" quote = "1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs similarity index 98% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs index dac6c98f66..ba1215f510 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs @@ -1,6 +1,5 @@ use proc_macro::TokenStream; use quote::quote; -use syn; #[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..41af68689f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +$ cargo run + Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) +error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` + --> src/main.rs:20:23 + | +20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} + | ^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter + | + = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` + = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead +note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` + --> src/main.rs:3:21 + | +3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` + +error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` + --> src/main.rs:24:7 + | +24 | p.outline_print(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter + | + = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` + = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead +note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint::outline_print` + --> src/main.rs:3:21 + | +3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint::outline_print` +4 | fn outline_print(&self) { + | ------------- required by a bound in this associated function + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +error: could not compile `traits-example` (bin "traits-example") due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs similarity index 93% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs index a1e2fe4c46..0e45f3c283 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { let len = output.len(); println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("* {} *", output); + println!("* {output} *"); println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs index c7bbb6a708..fa5be1c7cf 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { let len = output.len(); println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("* {} *", output); + println!("* {output} *"); println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); } diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7679cc7c0a --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { + |x| x + 1 +} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f033ea716c --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +fn main() { + let handlers = vec![returns_closure(), returns_initialized_closure(123)]; + for handler in handlers { + let output = handler(5); + println!("{output}"); + } +} + +fn returns_closure() -> Box i32> { + Box::new(|x| x + 1) +} + +fn returns_initialized_closure(init: i32) -> Box i32> { + Box::new(move |x| x + init) +} diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..6be987b21b --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "hello_macro_derive" +version = "0.1.0" +dependencies = [ + "quote", + "syn", +] + +[[package]] +name = "proc-macro2" +version = "1.0.80" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "a56dea16b0a29e94408b9aa5e2940a4eedbd128a1ba20e8f7ae60fd3d465af0e" +dependencies = [ + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "quote" +version = "1.0.36" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "0fa76aaf39101c457836aec0ce2316dbdc3ab723cdda1c6bd4e6ad4208acaca7" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", +] + +[[package]] +name = "syn" +version = "2.0.59" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "4a6531ffc7b071655e4ce2e04bd464c4830bb585a61cabb96cf808f05172615a" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "unicode-ident" +version = "1.0.12" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "3354b9ac3fae1ff6755cb6db53683adb661634f67557942dea4facebec0fee4b" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml similarity index 91% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml index aa076ac48b..ed9e917ad0 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml @@ -7,5 +7,5 @@ edition = "2021" proc-macro = true [dependencies] -syn = "1.0" +syn = "2.0" quote = "1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs similarity index 98% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs index 5e0b96c277..654b6bee56 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs @@ -1,6 +1,5 @@ use proc_macro::TokenStream; use quote::quote; -use syn; #[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/hello_macro/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3849f15217 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "hello_macro" +version = "0.1.0" + +[[package]] +name = "hello_macro_derive" +version = "0.1.0" +dependencies = [ + "quote", + "syn", +] + +[[package]] +name = "pancakes" +version = "0.1.0" +dependencies = [ + "hello_macro", + "hello_macro_derive", +] + +[[package]] +name = "proc-macro2" +version = "1.0.80" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "a56dea16b0a29e94408b9aa5e2940a4eedbd128a1ba20e8f7ae60fd3d465af0e" +dependencies = [ + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "quote" +version = "1.0.36" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "0fa76aaf39101c457836aec0ce2316dbdc3ab723cdda1c6bd4e6ad4208acaca7" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", +] + +[[package]] +name = "syn" +version = "2.0.59" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "4a6531ffc7b071655e4ce2e04bd464c4830bb585a61cabb96cf808f05172615a" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "unicode-ident", +] + +[[package]] +name = "unicode-ident" +version = "1.0.12" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "3354b9ac3fae1ff6755cb6db53683adb661634f67557942dea4facebec0fee4b" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock similarity index 83% rename from listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock index 1fa96b7974..497817bf27 100644 --- a/listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/Cargo.lock +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.lock @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ # This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. # It is not intended for manual editing. [[package]] -name = "error-handling" +name = "unsafe-example" version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml similarity index 71% rename from listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml index e61cb12e3e..3e8a292013 100644 --- a/listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/adder/Cargo.toml +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/Cargo.toml @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ [package] -name = "adder" +name = "unsafe-example" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt similarity index 64% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt index 5886bc6307..b14994cdd1 100644 --- a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ $ cargo run Compiling unsafe-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/unsafe-example) -error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires unsafe function or block +error[E0133]: call to unsafe function `dangerous` is unsafe and requires unsafe function or block --> src/main.rs:4:5 | 4 | dangerous(); @@ -9,4 +9,4 @@ error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires unsafe function or = note: consult the function's documentation for information on how to avoid undefined behavior For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0133`. -error: could not compile `unsafe-example` due to previous error +error: could not compile `unsafe-example` (bin "unsafe-example") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index da2301eb04..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` - --> src/lib.rs:27:42 - | -22 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); - | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type `std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait -... -27 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); - | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in previous iteration of loop - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. -error: could not compile `hello` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 39801ac6a2..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable reference - --> src/lib.rs:52:13 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ move occurs because `worker.thread` has type `JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - -For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. -error: could not compile `hello` due to previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index a649ff1031..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,53 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::fs; -use std::io::prelude::*; -use std::net::TcpListener; -use std::net::TcpStream; -use std::thread; -use std::time::Duration; - -// ANCHOR: here -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } - - println!("Shutting down."); -} -// ANCHOR_END: here - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let mut buffer = [0; 1024]; - stream.read(&mut buffer).unwrap(); - - let get = b"GET / HTTP/1.1\r\n"; - let sleep = b"GET /sleep HTTP/1.1\r\n"; - - let (status_line, filename) = if buffer.starts_with(get) { - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } else if buffer.starts_with(sleep) { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } else { - ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - - let response = format!( - "{}\r\nContent-Length: {}\r\n\r\n{}", - status_line, - contents.len(), - contents - ); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); - stream.flush().unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index dc76c43d6f..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 21c726ca90..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,24 +0,0 @@ -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current scope - --> src/lib.rs:52:27 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^ method not found in `Option>` - -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/lib.rs:72:22 - | -72 | Worker { id, thread } - | ^^^^^^ expected enum `Option`, found struct `JoinHandle` - | - = note: expected enum `Option>` - found struct `JoinHandle<_>` -help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` - | -72 | Worker { id, Some(thread) } - | +++++ + - -Some errors have detailed explanations: E0308, E0599. -For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. -error: could not compile `hello` due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 79efb28a2a..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,43 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); - - let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { - "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); - - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs b/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 3161c2ee5c..0000000000 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,51 +0,0 @@ -use hello::ThreadPool; -use std::fs; -use std::io::prelude::*; -use std::net::TcpListener; -use std::net::TcpStream; -use std::thread; -use std::time::Duration; - -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } - - println!("Shutting down."); -} - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let mut buffer = [0; 1024]; - stream.read(&mut buffer).unwrap(); - - let get = b"GET / HTTP/1.1\r\n"; - let sleep = b"GET /sleep HTTP/1.1\r\n"; - - let (status_line, filename) = if buffer.starts_with(get) { - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } else if buffer.starts_with(sleep) { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } else { - ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") - }; - - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - - let response = format!( - "{}\r\nContent-Length: {}\r\n\r\n{}", - status_line, - contents.len(), - contents - ); - - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); - stream.flush().unwrap(); -} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/src/main.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/src/main.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs similarity index 83% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs index 7240c73c7f..1eff2eef3a 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs @@ -14,12 +14,12 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) .collect(); - println!("Request: {:#?}", http_request); + println!("Request: {http_request:#?}"); } diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs similarity index 92% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs index c72d4a9c67..17c8401d4d 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs index d4b78b640e..437d9b626e 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader .lines() .map(|result| result.unwrap()) diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs index 5523a42d7c..843d846766 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ fn main() { // --snip-- fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs index a14b7d538c..e19467b83b 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs index ffc51e803e..0f9356ab02 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs similarity index 96% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs index 5a18b45c02..0679ec6002 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { // --snip-- // ANCHOR_END: here - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); // ANCHOR: here diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs index 1181357b0e..075a0d9de6 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt similarity index 67% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt index d32006191b..0faae99204 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ $ cargo check Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` - --> src/main.rs:10:16 + --> src/main.rs:11:16 | -10 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); +11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); | ^^^^^^^^^^ use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0433`. -error: could not compile `hello` due to previous error +error: could not compile `hello` (bin "hello") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs index 21b9a80f10..bde3e29d10 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ fn main() { // ANCHOR_END: here fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/main.rs index 79efb28a2a..1f075fde59 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/main.rs @@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2768265514 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` + --> src/lib.rs:26:42 + | +21 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type `std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait +... +25 | for id in 0..size { + | ----------------- inside of this loop +26 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); + | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in previous iteration of loop + | +note: consider changing this parameter type in method `new` to borrow instead if owning the value isn't necessary + --> src/lib.rs:47:33 + | +47 | fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { + | --- in this method ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ this parameter takes ownership of the value +help: consider moving the expression out of the loop so it is only moved once + | +25 ~ let mut value = Worker::new(id, receiver); +26 ~ for id in 0..size { +27 ~ workers.push(value); + | + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0382`. +error: could not compile `hello` (lib) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c0165dbb80 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable reference + --> src/lib.rs:52:13 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this method call + | | + | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type `JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | +note: `JoinHandle::::join` takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves `worker.thread` + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1763:17 + | +1763 | pub fn join(self) -> Result { + | ^^^^ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0507`. +error: could not compile `hello` (lib) due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs similarity index 86% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs index eea339b027..b4d81571bc 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs @@ -61,12 +61,10 @@ impl Drop for ThreadPool { fn drop(&mut self) { drop(self.sender.take()); - for worker in &mut self.workers { + for worker in self.workers.drain(..) { println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); - if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - thread.join().unwrap(); - } + worker.thread.join().unwrap(); } } } @@ -74,7 +72,7 @@ impl Drop for ThreadPool { struct Worker { id: usize, - thread: Option>, + thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, } impl Worker { @@ -87,9 +85,6 @@ impl Worker { job(); }); - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } + Worker { id, thread } } } diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1b..acd703f274 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs similarity index 84% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs index c72d375c60..10a50ef7b6 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs @@ -31,7 +31,10 @@ impl ThreadPool { workers.push(Worker::new(id, Arc::clone(&receiver))); } - ThreadPool { workers, sender: Some(sender) } + ThreadPool { + workers, + sender: Some(sender), + } } pub fn execute(&self, f: F) @@ -48,21 +51,20 @@ impl Drop for ThreadPool { fn drop(&mut self) { drop(self.sender.take()); - for worker in &mut self.workers { + for worker in self.workers.drain(..) { println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); - if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - thread.join().unwrap(); - } + worker.thread.join().unwrap(); } } } struct Worker { id: usize, - thread: Option>, + thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, } +// ANCHOR: here impl Worker { fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { @@ -81,9 +83,7 @@ impl Worker { } }); - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } + Worker { id, thread } } } +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1b..acd703f274 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/lib.rs similarity index 82% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/lib.rs index 55e8fef8fb..2727118495 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/lib.rs @@ -51,26 +51,25 @@ impl Drop for ThreadPool { fn drop(&mut self) { drop(self.sender.take()); - for worker in &mut self.workers { + for worker in self.workers.drain(..) { println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); - if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - thread.join().unwrap(); - } + worker.thread.join().unwrap(); } } } struct Worker { id: usize, - thread: Option>, + thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, } -// ANCHOR: here impl Worker { fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { - match receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { + let message = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv(); + + match message { Ok(job) => { println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); @@ -83,10 +82,6 @@ impl Worker { } }); - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } + Worker { id, thread } } } -// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ee0f1efe74 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +// ANCHOR: here +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } + + println!("Shutting down."); +} +// ANCHOR_END: here + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt similarity index 71% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt index 4cc1d132ce..85ebfb8138 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ $ cargo check Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) error[E0599]: no function or associated item named `new` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the current scope - --> src/bin/main.rs:11:28 + --> src/main.rs:12:28 | -11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); +12 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); | ^^^ function or associated item not found in `ThreadPool` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. -error: could not compile `hello` due to previous error +error: could not compile `hello` (bin "hello") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs index f7b42167f9..e68f72c700 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt similarity index 55% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt index 72d4cd9dc0..667041862d 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ $ cargo check Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) error[E0599]: no method named `execute` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the current scope - --> src/bin/main.rs:16:14 + --> src/main.rs:17:14 | -16 | pool.execute(|| { - | ^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` +17 | pool.execute(|| { + | -----^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. -error: could not compile `hello` due to previous error +error: could not compile `hello` (bin "hello") due to 1 previous error diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..10d212672a --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/output.txt b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1ac14a444b --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current scope + --> src/lib.rs:52:27 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^ method not found in `Option>` + | +note: the method `join` exists on the type `JoinHandle<()>` + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/std/src/thread/mod.rs:1763:5 + | +1763 | pub fn join(self) -> Result { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ +help: consider using `Option::expect` to unwrap the `JoinHandle<()>` value, panicking if the value is an `Option::None` + | +52 | worker.thread.expect("REASON").join().unwrap(); + | +++++++++++++++++ + +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/lib.rs:72:22 + | +72 | Worker { id, thread } + | ^^^^^^ expected `Option>`, found `JoinHandle<_>` + | + = note: expected enum `Option>` + found struct `JoinHandle<_>` +help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` + | +72 | Worker { id, thread: Some(thread) } + | +++++++++++++ + + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0308, E0599. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. +error: could not compile `hello` (lib) due to 2 previous errors diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/src/lib.rs similarity index 94% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/src/lib.rs index 6ef710a26b..86f92766cf 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/src/lib.rs @@ -44,22 +44,22 @@ impl ThreadPool { } } +// ANCHOR: here impl Drop for ThreadPool { fn drop(&mut self) { - for worker in &mut self.workers { + for worker in self.workers.drain(..) { println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); worker.thread.join().unwrap(); } } } +// ANCHOR_END: here -// ANCHOR: here struct Worker { id: usize, - thread: Option>, + thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, } -// ANCHOR_END: here impl Worker { fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f075fde59 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs similarity index 95% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs index b6aa046d1b..acd703f274 100644 --- a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/main.rs @@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn main() { } fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/404.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.lock diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/Cargo.toml diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/hello.html diff --git a/listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs similarity index 100% rename from listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/lib.rs rename to listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs diff --git a/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..acd703f274 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +use hello::ThreadPool; +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } + + println!("Shutting down."); +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&stream); + let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); + + let (status_line, filename) = match &request_line[..] { + "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = + format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} diff --git a/nostarch/acknowledgments.md b/nostarch/acknowledgments.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c29cb712ab --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/acknowledgments.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +# Acknowledgments + +We would like to thank everyone who has worked on the Rust language for +creating an amazing language worth writing a book about. We’re grateful to +everyone in the Rust community for being welcoming and creating an environment +worth welcoming more folks into. + +We’re especially thankful for everyone who read early versions of this book +online and provided feedback, bug reports, and pull requests. Special thanks to +Eduard-Mihai Burtescu, Alex Crichton, and JT for providing technical review and +Karen Rustad Tölva for the cover art. Thank you to our team at No Starch, +including Bill Pollock, Liz Chadwick, and Janelle Ludowise, for improving this +book and bringing it to print. + +Carol is grateful for the opportunity to work on this book. She thanks her +family for their constant love and support, especially her husband Jake +Goulding and her daughter Vivian. diff --git a/nostarch/appendix.md b/nostarch/appendix.md index 1f702b512a..98432a1dac 100644 --- a/nostarch/appendix.md +++ b/nostarch/appendix.md @@ -6,73 +6,69 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Appendix - -The following sections contain reference material you may find useful in your -Rust journey. - ## Appendix A: Keywords -The following list contains keywords that are reserved for current or future +The following lists contain keywords that are reserved for current or future use by the Rust language. As such, they cannot be used as identifiers (except -as raw identifiers as we’ll discuss in the “Raw -Identifiers” section), including names of -functions, variables, parameters, struct fields, modules, crates, constants, -macros, static values, attributes, types, traits, or lifetimes. - - -### Keywords Currently in Use - -The following keywords currently have the functionality described. - -* `as` - perform primitive casting, disambiguate the specific trait containing - an item, or rename items in `use` and `extern crate` statements -* `async` - return a `Future` instead of blocking the current thread -* `await` - suspend execution until the result of a `Future` is ready -* `break` - exit a loop immediately -* `const` - define constant items or constant raw pointers -* `continue` - continue to the next loop iteration -* `crate` - link an external crate or a macro variable representing the crate in - which the macro is defined -* `dyn` - dynamic dispatch to a trait object -* `else` - fallback for `if` and `if let` control flow constructs -* `enum` - define an enumeration -* `extern` - link an external crate, function, or variable -* `false` - Boolean false literal -* `fn` - define a function or the function pointer type -* `for` - loop over items from an iterator, implement a trait, or specify a - higher-ranked lifetime -* `if` - branch based on the result of a conditional expression -* `impl` - implement inherent or trait functionality -* `in` - part of `for` loop syntax -* `let` - bind a variable -* `loop` - loop unconditionally -* `match` - match a value to patterns -* `mod` - define a module -* `move` - make a closure take ownership of all its captures -* `mut` - denote mutability in references, raw pointers, or pattern bindings -* `pub` - denote public visibility in struct fields, `impl` blocks, or modules -* `ref` - bind by reference -* `return` - return from function -* `Self` - a type alias for the type we are defining or implementing -* `self` - method subject or current module -* `static` - global variable or lifetime lasting the entire program execution -* `struct` - define a structure -* `super` - parent module of the current module -* `trait` - define a trait -* `true` - Boolean true literal -* `type` - define a type alias or associated type -* `union` - define a union at *../reference/items/unions.html* and is only a keyword when used in a union declaration -* `unsafe` - denote unsafe code, functions, traits, or implementations -* `use` - bring symbols into scope -* `where` - denote clauses that constrain a type -* `while` - loop conditionally based on the result of an expression - - -### Keywords Reserved for Future Use - -The following keywords do not have any functionality but are reserved by Rust -for potential future use. +as raw identifiers, as we’ll discuss in “Raw Identifiers” on page XX). +*Identifiers* are names of functions, variables, parameters, struct fields, +modules, crates, constants, macros, static values, attributes, types, traits, +or lifetimes. + +## Keywords Currently in Use + +The following is a list of keywords currently in use, with their functionality +described. + +* **`as` **: perform primitive casting, disambiguate the specific trait +containing an item, or rename items in `use` statements +* **`async` **: return a `Future` instead of blocking the current thread +* **`await` **: suspend execution until the result of a `Future` is ready +* **`break` **: exit a loop immediately +* **`const` **: define constant items or constant raw pointers +* **`continue` **: continue to the next loop iteration +* **`crate` **: in a module path, refers to the crate root +* **`dyn` **: dynamic dispatch to a trait object +* **`else` **: fallback for `if` and `if let` control flow constructs +* **`enum` **: define an enumeration +* **`extern` **: link an external function or variable +* **`false` **: Boolean false literal +* **`fn` **: define a function or the function pointer type +* **`for` **: loop over items from an iterator, implement a trait, or specify a +higher-ranked lifetime +* **`if` **: branch based on the result of a conditional expression +* **`impl` **: implement inherent or trait functionality +* **`in` **: part of `for` loop syntax +* **`let` **: bind a variable +* **`loop` **: loop unconditionally +* **`match` **: match a value to patterns +* **`mod` **: define a module +* **`move` **: make a closure take ownership of all its captures +* **`mut` **: denote mutability in references, raw pointers, or pattern bindings +* **`pub` **: denote public visibility in struct fields, `impl` blocks, or +modules +* **`ref` **: bind by reference +* **`return` **: return from function +* **`Self` **: a type alias for the type we are defining or implementing +* **`self` **: method subject or current module +* **`static` **: global variable or lifetime lasting the entire program +execution +* **`struct` **: define a structure +* **`super` **: parent module of the current module +* **`trait` **: define a trait +* **`true` **: Boolean true literal +* **`type` **: define a type alias or associated type +* **`union` **: define a union; is a keyword only when used in a union +declaration +* **`unsafe` **: denote unsafe code, functions, traits, or implementations +* **`use` **: bring symbols into scope +* **`where` **: denote clauses that constrain a type +* **`while` **: loop conditionally based on the result of an expression + +## Keywords Reserved for Future Use + +The following keywords do not yet have any functionality but are reserved by +Rust for potential future use: * `abstract` * `become` @@ -88,7 +84,7 @@ for potential future use. * `virtual` * `yield` -### Raw Identifiers +## Raw Identifiers *Raw identifiers* are the syntax that lets you use keywords where they wouldn’t normally be allowed. You use a raw identifier by prefixing a keyword with `r#`. @@ -134,13 +130,15 @@ This code will compile without any errors. Note the `r#` prefix on the function name in its definition as well as where the function is called in `main`. Raw identifiers allow you to use any word you choose as an identifier, even if -that word happens to be a reserved keyword. In addition, raw identifiers allow -you to use libraries written in a different Rust edition than your crate uses. -For example, `try` isn’t a keyword in the 2015 edition but is in the 2018 -edition. If you depend on a library that’s written using the 2015 edition and -has a `try` function, you’ll need to use the raw identifier syntax, `r#try` in -this case, to call that function from your 2018 edition code. See Appendix -E for more information on editions. +that word happens to be a reserved keyword. This gives us more freedom to +choose identifier names, as well as lets us integrate with programs written in +a language where these words aren’t keywords. In addition, raw identifiers +allow you to use libraries written in a different Rust edition than your crate +uses. For example, `try` isn’t a keyword in the 2015 edition but is in the 2018 +and 2021 editions. If you depend on a library that is written using the 2015 +edition and has a `try` function, you’ll need to use the raw identifier syntax, +`r#try` in this case, to call that function from your 2021 edition code. See +Appendix E for more information on editions. ## Appendix B: Operators and Symbols @@ -148,7 +146,7 @@ This appendix contains a glossary of Rust’s syntax, including operators and other symbols that appear by themselves or in the context of paths, generics, trait bounds, macros, attributes, comments, tuples, and brackets. -### Operators +## Operators Table B-1 contains the operators in Rust, an example of how the operator would appear in context, a short explanation, and whether that operator is @@ -158,66 +156,72 @@ overload that operator is listed. Table B-1: Operators | Operator | Example | Explanation | Overloadable? | -|----------|---------|-------------|---------------| -| `!` | `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro expansion | | +|---|---|---|---| +| `!` | `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro expansion | | | `!` | `!expr` | Bitwise or logical complement | `Not` | -| `!=` | `var != expr` | Nonequality comparison | `PartialEq` | -| `%` | `expr % expr` | Arithmetic remainder | `Rem` | +| `!=` | `expr != expr` | Nonequality comparison | `PartialEq` | +| `% | `expr % expr` | Arithmetic remainder | `Rem` | | `%=` | `var %= expr` | Arithmetic remainder and assignment | `RemAssign` | -| `&` | `&expr`, `&mut expr` | Borrow | | -| `&` | `&type`, `&mut type`, `&'a type`, `&'a mut type` | Borrowed pointer type | | +| `& | `&expr`, `&mut expr` | Borrow | | +| `&` | `&type`, `&mut type`, `&'a type`, `&'a mut type` | Borrowed pointer +type | | | `&` | `expr & expr` | Bitwise AND | `BitAnd` | | `&=` | `var &= expr` | Bitwise AND and assignment | `BitAndAssign` | -| `&&` | `expr && expr` | Short-circuiting logical AND | | -| `*` | `expr * expr` | Arithmetic multiplication | `Mul` | -| `*=` | `var *= expr` | Arithmetic multiplication and assignment | `MulAssign` | +| `&&` | `expr && expr` | Short-circuiting logical AND | | +| `* | `expr * expr` | Arithmetic multiplication | `Mul` | +| `*=` | `var *= expr` | Arithmetic multiplication and assignment | `MulAssign` +| | `*` | `*expr` | Dereference | `Deref` | -| `*` | `*const type`, `*mut type` | Raw pointer | | -| `+` | `trait + trait`, `'a + trait` | Compound type constraint | | -| `+` | `expr + expr` | Arithmetic addition | `Add` | +| `*` | `*const type`, `*mut type | Raw pointer | | +| `+ | `trait + trait`, `'a + trait` | Compound type constraint | | +| `+ | `expr + expr` | Arithmetic addition | `Add` | | `+=` | `var += expr` | Arithmetic addition and assignment | `AddAssign` | -| `,` | `expr, expr` | Argument and element separator | | -| `-` | `- expr` | Arithmetic negation | `Neg` | -| `-` | `expr - expr` | Arithmetic subtraction | `Sub` | +| `,` | `expr, expr` | Argument and element separator | | +| `- | `- expr` | Arithmetic negation | `Neg` | +| `- | `expr - expr` | Arithmetic subtraction | `Sub` | | `-=` | `var -= expr` | Arithmetic subtraction and assignment | `SubAssign` | -| `->` | `fn(...) -> type`, |...| -> type | Function and closure return type | | -| `.` | `expr.ident` | Member access | | -| `..` | `..`, `expr..`, `..expr`, `expr..expr` | Right-exclusive range literal | `PartialOrd` | -| `..=` | `..=expr`, `expr..=expr` | Right-inclusive range literal | `PartialOrd` | -| `..` | `..expr` | Struct literal update syntax | | -| `..` | `variant(x, ..)`, `struct_type { x, .. }` | “And the rest” pattern binding | | -| `...` | `expr...expr` | (Deprecated, use `..=` instead) In a pattern: inclusive range pattern | | -| `/` | `expr / expr` | Arithmetic division | `Div` | +| `-> | `fn(...) -> type`, `|…| -> type` | Function and closure return type | | +| `. | `expr.ident` | Member access | | +| `..` | `..`, `expr..`, `..expr`, `expr..expr` | Right-exclusive range literal +| `PartialOrd` | +| `..=` | `..=expr`, `expr..=expr` | Right-inclusive range literal | +`PartialOrd` | +| `..` | `..expr` | Struct literal update syntax | | +| `..` | `variant(x, ..)`, `struct_type { x, .. }` | “And the rest” pattern +binding | | +| `...` | `expr...expr` | (Deprecated, use `..=` instead) In a pattern: +inclusive range pattern | | +| `/ | `expr / expr` | Arithmetic division | `Div` | | `/=` | `var /= expr` | Arithmetic division and assignment | `DivAssign` | -| `:` | `pat: type`, `ident: type` | Constraints | | -| `:` | `ident: expr` | Struct field initializer | | -| `:` | `'a: loop {...}` | Loop label | | -| `;` | `expr;` | Statement and item terminator | | -| `;` | `[...; len]` | Part of fixed-size array syntax | | +| `: | `pat: type`, `ident: type` | Constraints | | +| `:` | `ident: expr` | Struct field initializer | | +| `:` | `'a: loop {...}` | Loop label | | +| `; | `expr;` | Statement and item terminator | | +| `;` | `[...; len]` | Part of fixed-size array syntax | | | `<<` | `expr << expr` | Left-shift | `Shl` | | `<<=` | `var <<= expr` | Left-shift and assignment | `ShlAssign` | | `<` | `expr < expr` | Less than comparison | `PartialOrd` | | `<=` | `expr <= expr` | Less than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | -| `=` | `var = expr`, `ident = type` | Assignment/equivalence | | +| `=` | `var = expr`, `ident = type` | Assignment/equivalence | | | `==` | `expr == expr` | Equality comparison | `PartialEq` | -| `=>` | `pat => expr` | Part of match arm syntax | | +| `=>` | `pat => expr` | Part of match arm syntax | | | `>` | `expr > expr` | Greater than comparison | `PartialOrd` | | `>=` | `expr >= expr` | Greater than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | | `>>` | `expr >> expr` | Right-shift | `Shr` | | `>>=` | `var >>= expr` | Right-shift and assignment | `ShrAssign` | -| `@` | `ident @ pat` | Pattern binding | | +| `@ | `ident @ pat` | Pattern binding | | | `^` | `expr ^ expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR | `BitXor` | | `^=` | `var ^= expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment | `BitXorAssign` | -| | | pat | pat | Pattern alternatives | | -| | | expr | expr | Bitwise OR | `BitOr` | -| |= | var |= expr | Bitwise OR and assignment | `BitOrAssign` | -| || | expr || expr | Short-circuiting logical OR | | -| `?` | `expr?` | Error propagation | | +| `| | `pat | pat` | Pattern alternatives | | +| `|` | `expr | expr` | Bitwise OR | `BitOr` | +| `|=` | `var |= expr` | Bitwise OR and assignment | `BitOrAssign` | +| `||` | `expr || expr` | Short-circuiting logical OR | | +| `? | `expr?` | Error propagation | | -### Non-operator Symbols +## Non-operator Symbols -The following list contains all non-letters that don’t function as operators; -that is, they don’t behave like a function or method call. +The following tables contain all symbols that don’t function as operators; that +is, they don’t behave like a function or method call. Table B-2 shows symbols that appear on their own and are valid in a variety of locations. @@ -225,18 +229,22 @@ locations. Table B-2: Stand-Alone Syntax | Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `'ident` | Named lifetime or loop label | -| `...u8`, `...i32`, `...f64`, `...usize`, etc. | Numeric literal of specific type | -| `"..."` | String literal | -| `r"..."`, `r#"..."#`, `r##"..."##`, etc. | Raw string literal, escape characters not processed | -| `b"..."` | Byte string literal; constructs an array of bytes instead of a string | -| `br"..."`, `br#"..."#`, `br##"..."##`, etc. | Raw byte string literal, combination of raw and byte string literal | -| `'...'` | Character literal | -| `b'...'` | ASCII byte literal | -| |...| expr | Closure | -| `!` | Always empty bottom type for diverging functions | -| `_` | “Ignored” pattern binding; also used to make integer literals readable | +|---|---| +| `'ident | Named lifetime or loop label | +| `...u8`, `...i32`, `...f64`, `...usize`, and so on | Numeric literal of +specific type | +| `"..." | String literal | +| `r"..."`, `r#"..."#`, `r##"..."##`, and so on | Raw string literal; escape +characters not processed | +| `b"..."` | Byte string literal; constructs an array of bytes instead of a +string | +| `br"..."`, `br#"..."#`, `br##"..."##`, and so on | Raw byte string literal; +combination of raw and byte string literal | +| `'...' | Character literal | +| `b'...' | ASCII byte literal | +| `|…| expr | Closure | +| `! | Always-empty bottom type for diverging functions | +| `_ | “Ignored” pattern binding; also used to make integer literals readable | Table B-3 shows symbols that appear in the context of a path through the module hierarchy to an item. @@ -244,16 +252,23 @@ hierarchy to an item. Table B-3: Path-Related Syntax | Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `ident::ident` | Namespace path | -| `::path` | Path relative to the crate root (i.e., an explicitly absolute path) | -| `self::path` | Path relative to the current module (i.e., an explicitly relative path). +|---|---| +| `ident::ident | Namespace path | +| `::path` | Path relative to the crate root (that is, an explicitly absolute +path) | +| `self::path` | Path relative to the current module (that is, an explicitly +relative path) | | `super::path` | Path relative to the parent of the current module | -| `type::ident`, `::ident` | Associated constants, functions, and types | -| `::...` | Associated item for a type that cannot be directly named (e.g., `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, etc.) | -| `trait::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait that defines it | -| `type::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the type for which it’s defined | -| `::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait and type | +| `type::ident`, `::ident | Associated constants, functions, and +types | +| `::...` | Associated item for a type that cannot be directly named (for +example, `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, and so on) | +| `trait::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait that +defines it | +| `type::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the type for +which it’s defined | +| `::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the +trait and type | Table B-4 shows symbols that appear in the context of using generic type parameters. @@ -261,15 +276,19 @@ parameters. Table B-4: Generics | Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `path<...>` | Specifies parameters to generic type in a type (e.g., `Vec`) | -| `path::<...>`, `method::<...>` | Specifies parameters to generic type, function, or method in an expression; often referred to as turbofish (e.g., `"42".parse::()`) | +|---|---| +| `path<...>` | Specifies parameters to a generic type in a type (for example, +`Vec`) | +| `path::<...>, method::<...>` | Specifies parameters to a generic type, +function, or method in an expression; often referred to as turbofish (for +example, `"42".parse::()`) | | `fn ident<...> ...` | Define generic function | | `struct ident<...> ...` | Define generic structure | | `enum ident<...> ...` | Define generic enumeration | | `impl<...> ...` | Define generic implementation | | `for<...> type` | Higher-ranked lifetime bounds | -| `type` | A generic type where one or more associated types have specific assignments (e.g., `Iterator`) | +| `type` | A generic type where one or more associated types have +specific assignments (for example, `Iterator`) | Table B-5 shows symbols that appear in the context of constraining generic type parameters with trait bounds. @@ -277,10 +296,12 @@ parameters with trait bounds. Table B-5: Trait Bound Constraints | Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `T: U` | Generic parameter `T` constrained to types that implement `U` | -| `T: 'a` | Generic type `T` must outlive lifetime `'a` (meaning the type cannot transitively contain any references with lifetimes shorter than `'a`) | -| `T: 'static` | Generic type `T` contains no borrowed references other than `'static` ones | +|---|---| +| T: U` | Generic parameter `T` constrained to types that implement `U` | +| `T: 'a` | Generic type `T` must outlive lifetime `'a` (meaning the type +cannot transitively contain any references with lifetimes shorter than `'a`) | +| `T: 'static` | Generic type `T` contains no borrowed references other than +`'static` ones | | `'b: 'a` | Generic lifetime `'b` must outlive lifetime `'a` | | `T: ?Sized` | Allow generic type parameter to be a dynamically sized type | | `'a + trait`, `trait + trait` | Compound type constraint | @@ -291,7 +312,7 @@ macros and specifying attributes on an item. Table B-6: Macros and Attributes | Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| +|---|---| | `#[meta]` | Outer attribute | | `#![meta]` | Inner attribute | | `$ident` | Macro substitution | @@ -304,7 +325,7 @@ Table B-7 shows symbols that create comments. Table B-7: Comments | Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| +|---|---| | `//` | Line comment | | `//!` | Inner line doc comment | | `///` | Outer line doc comment | @@ -317,22 +338,23 @@ Table B-8 shows symbols that appear in the context of using tuples. Table B-8: Tuples | Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `()` | Empty tuple (aka unit), both literal and type | +|---|---| +| `() | Empty tuple (aka unit), both literal and type | | `(expr)` | Parenthesized expression | | `(expr,)` | Single-element tuple expression | | `(type,)` | Single-element tuple type | | `(expr, ...)` | Tuple expression | | `(type, ...)` | Tuple type | -| `expr(expr, ...)` | Function call expression; also used to initialize tuple `struct`s and tuple `enum` variants | -| `expr.0`, `expr.1`, etc. | Tuple indexing | +| `expr(expr, ...)` | Function call expression; also used to initialize tuple +`struct`s and tuple `enum` variants | +| `expr.0`, `expr.1`, and so on | Tuple indexing | -Table B-9 shows the contexts in which curly braces are used. +Table B-9 shows the contexts in which curly brackets are used. Table B-9: Curly Brackets | Context | Explanation | -|---------|-------------| +|---|---| | `{...}` | Block expression | | `Type {...}` | `struct` literal | @@ -341,12 +363,14 @@ Table B-10 shows the contexts in which square brackets are used. Table B-10: Square Brackets | Context | Explanation | -|---------|-------------| +|---|---| | `[...]` | Array literal | | `[expr; len]` | Array literal containing `len` copies of `expr` | | `[type; len]` | Array type containing `len` instances of `type` | -| `expr[expr]` | Collection indexing. Overloadable (`Index`, `IndexMut`) | -| `expr[..]`, `expr[a..]`, `expr[..b]`, `expr[a..b]` | Collection indexing pretending to be collection slicing, using `Range`, `RangeFrom`, `RangeTo`, or `RangeFull` as the “index” | +| `expr[expr]` | Collection indexing; overloadable (`Index`, `IndexMut`) | +| `expr[..]`, `expr[a..]`, `expr[..b]`, `expr[a..b]` | Collection indexing +pretending to be collection slicing, using `Range`, `RangeFrom`, `RangeTo`, or +`RangeFull` as the “index” | ## Appendix C: Derivable Traits @@ -365,13 +389,13 @@ library that you can use with `derive`. Each section covers: * Examples of operations that require the trait If you want different behavior from that provided by the `derive` attribute, -consult the standard library documentation -for each trait for details of how to manually implement them. +consult the standard library documentation for each trait for details on how to +manually implement them. -The rest of the traits defined in the standard library can’t be implemented on -your types using `derive`. These traits don’t have sensible default behavior, -so it’s up to you to implement them in the way that makes sense for what you’re -trying to accomplish. +The traits listed here are the only ones defined by the standard library that +can be implemented on your types using `derive`. Other traits defined in the +standard library don’t have sensible default behavior, so it’s up to you to +implement them in the way that makes sense for what you’re trying to accomplish. An example of a trait that can’t be derived is `Display`, which handles formatting for end users. You should always consider the appropriate way to @@ -382,11 +406,10 @@ it can’t provide appropriate default behavior for you. The list of derivable traits provided in this appendix is not comprehensive: libraries can implement `derive` for their own traits, making the list of -traits you can use `derive` with truly open-ended. Implementing `derive` -involves using a procedural macro, which is covered in the -“Macros” section of Chapter 19. +traits you can use `derive` with truly open ended. Implementing `derive` +involves using a procedural macro, which is covered in “Macros” on page XX. -### `Debug` for Programmer Output +## Debug for Programmer Output The `Debug` trait enables debug formatting in format strings, which you indicate by adding `:?` within `{}` placeholders. @@ -395,11 +418,12 @@ The `Debug` trait allows you to print instances of a type for debugging purposes, so you and other programmers using your type can inspect an instance at a particular point in a program’s execution. -The `Debug` trait is required, for example, in use of the `assert_eq!` macro. -This macro prints the values of instances given as arguments if the equality -assertion fails so programmers can see why the two instances weren’t equal. +The `Debug` trait is required, for example, in the use of the `assert_eq!` +macro. This macro prints the values of instances given as arguments if the +equality assertion fails so programmers can see why the two instances weren’t +equal. -### `PartialEq` and `Eq` for Equality Comparisons +## PartialEq and Eq for Equality Comparisons The `PartialEq` trait allows you to compare instances of a type to check for equality and enables use of the `==` and `!=` operators. @@ -416,14 +440,14 @@ for equality. The `Eq` trait has no methods. Its purpose is to signal that for every value of the annotated type, the value is equal to itself. The `Eq` trait can only be applied to types that also implement `PartialEq`, although not all types that -implement `PartialEq` can implement `Eq`. One example of this is floating point -number types: the implementation of floating point numbers states that two +implement `PartialEq` can implement `Eq`. One example of this is floating-point +number types: the implementation of floating-point numbers states that two instances of the not-a-number (`NaN`) value are not equal to each other. -An example of when `Eq` is required is for keys in a `HashMap` so the -`HashMap` can tell whether two keys are the same. +An example of when `Eq` is required is for keys in a `HashMap` so that +the `HashMap` can tell whether two keys are the same. -### `PartialOrd` and `Ord` for Ordering Comparisons +## PartialOrd and Ord for Ordering Comparisons The `PartialOrd` trait allows you to compare instances of a type for sorting purposes. A type that implements `PartialOrd` can be used with the `<`, `>`, @@ -434,8 +458,8 @@ Deriving `PartialOrd` implements the `partial_cmp` method, which returns an `Option` that will be `None` when the values given don’t produce an ordering. An example of a value that doesn’t produce an ordering, even though most values of that type can be compared, is the not-a-number (`NaN`) floating -point value. Calling `partial_cmp` with any floating point number and the `NaN` -floating point value will return `None`. +point value. Calling `partial_cmp` with any floating-point number and the `NaN` +floating-point value will return `None`. When derived on structs, `PartialOrd` compares two instances by comparing the value in each field in the order in which the fields appear in the struct @@ -457,13 +481,12 @@ implementation for `partial_cmp` does with `PartialOrd`. An example of when `Ord` is required is when storing values in a `BTreeSet`, a data structure that stores data based on the sort order of the values. -### `Clone` and `Copy` for Duplicating Values +## Clone and Copy for Duplicating Values The `Clone` trait allows you to explicitly create a deep copy of a value, and the duplication process might involve running arbitrary code and copying heap -data. See the “Ways Variables and Data Interact: -Clone” section in -Chapter 4 for more information on `Clone`. +data. See “Variables and Data Interacting with Clone” on page XX for more +information on `Clone`. Deriving `Clone` implements the `clone` method, which when implemented for the whole type, calls `clone` on each of the parts of the type. This means all the @@ -472,12 +495,11 @@ fields or values in the type must also implement `Clone` to derive `Clone`. An example of when `Clone` is required is when calling the `to_vec` method on a slice. The slice doesn’t own the type instances it contains, but the vector returned from `to_vec` will need to own its instances, so `to_vec` calls -`clone` on each item. Thus, the type stored in the slice must implement `Clone`. +`clone` on each item. Thus the type stored in the slice must implement `Clone`. The `Copy` trait allows you to duplicate a value by only copying bits stored on -the stack; no arbitrary code is necessary. See the “Stack-Only Data: -Copy” section in Chapter 4 for more -information on `Copy`. +the stack; no arbitrary code is necessary. See “Stack-Only Data: Copy” on page +XX for more information on `Copy`. The `Copy` trait doesn’t define any methods to prevent programmers from overloading those methods and violating the assumption that no arbitrary code @@ -485,7 +507,7 @@ is being run. That way, all programmers can assume that copying a value will be very fast. You can derive `Copy` on any type whose parts all implement `Copy`. A type that -implements `Copy` must also implement `Clone`, because a type that implements +implements `Copy` must also implement `Clone` because a type that implements `Copy` has a trivial implementation of `Clone` that performs the same task as `Copy`. @@ -496,7 +518,7 @@ the code more concise. Everything possible with `Copy` you can also accomplish with `Clone`, but the code might be slower or have to use `clone` in places. -### `Hash` for Mapping a Value to a Value of Fixed Size +## Hash for Mapping a Value to a Value of Fixed Size The `Hash` trait allows you to take an instance of a type of arbitrary size and map that instance to a value of fixed size using a hash function. Deriving @@ -507,7 +529,7 @@ meaning all fields or values must also implement `Hash` to derive `Hash`. An example of when `Hash` is required is in storing keys in a `HashMap` to store data efficiently. -### `Default` for Default Values +## Default for Default Values The `Default` trait allows you to create a default value for a type. Deriving `Default` implements the `default` function. The derived implementation of the @@ -516,10 +538,8 @@ meaning all fields or values in the type must also implement `Default` to derive `Default`. The `Default::default` function is commonly used in combination with the struct -update syntax discussed in the “Creating Instances From Other Instances With -Struct Update -Syntax” -section in Chapter 5. You can customize a few fields of a struct and then +update syntax discussed in “Creating Instances from Other Instances with Struct +Update Syntax” on page XX. You can customize a few fields of a struct and then set and use a default value for the rest of the fields by using `..Default::default()`. @@ -528,26 +548,23 @@ The `Default` trait is required when you use the method `unwrap_or_default` on `unwrap_or_default` will return the result of `Default::default` for the type `T` stored in the `Option`. -## Appendix D - Useful Development Tools +## Appendix D: Useful Development Tools In this appendix, we talk about some useful development tools that the Rust project provides. We’ll look at automatic formatting, quick ways to apply warning fixes, a linter, and integrating with IDEs. -### Automatic Formatting with `rustfmt` +## Automatic Formatting with rustfmt -The `rustfmt` tool reformats your code according to the community code style. +The `rustfmt` tool reformats your code according to the community code style. Many collaborative projects use `rustfmt` to prevent arguments about which style to use when writing Rust: everyone formats their code using the tool. -To install `rustfmt`, enter the following: - -``` -$ rustup component add rustfmt -``` - -This command gives you `rustfmt` and `cargo-fmt`, similar to how Rust gives you -both `rustc` and `cargo`. To format any Cargo project, enter the following: +Rust installations include `rustfmt` by default, so you should already have the +programs `rustfmt` and `cargo-fmt` on your system. These two commands are +analagous to `rustc` and `cargo` in that `rustfmt` allows finer-grained control +and `cargo-fmt` understands conventions of a project that uses Cargo. To format +any Cargo project, enter the following: ``` $ cargo fmt @@ -557,12 +574,12 @@ Running this command reformats all the Rust code in the current crate. This should only change the code style, not the code semantics. For more information on `rustfmt`, see its documentation at *https://github.com/rust-lang/rustfmt*. +## Fix Your Code with rustfix -### Fix Your Code with `rustfix` - -The rustfix tool is included with Rust installations and can automatically fix -some compiler warnings. If you’ve written code in Rust, you’ve probably seen -compiler warnings. For example, consider this code: +The `rustfix` tool is included with Rust installations and can automatically +fix compiler warnings that have a clear way to correct the problem that’s +likely what you want. You’ve probably seen compiler warnings before. For +example, consider this code: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -625,16 +642,11 @@ The `for` loop variable is now named `_i`, and the warning no longer appears. You can also use the `cargo fix` command to transition your code between different Rust editions. Editions are covered in Appendix E. -### More Lints with Clippy +## More Lints with Clippy The Clippy tool is a collection of lints to analyze your code so you can catch -common mistakes and improve your Rust code. - -To install Clippy, enter the following: - -``` -$ rustup component add clippy -``` +common mistakes and improve your Rust code. Clippy is included with standard +Rust installations. To run Clippy’s lints on any Cargo project, enter the following: @@ -658,20 +670,23 @@ fn main() { Running `cargo clippy` on this project results in this error: ``` -error: approximate value of `f{32, 64}::consts::PI` found. Consider using it directly +error: approximate value of `f{32, 64}::consts::PI` found --> src/main.rs:2:13 | 2 | let x = 3.1415; | ^^^^^^ | - = note: #[deny(clippy::approx_constant)] on by default - = help: for further information visit https://rust-lang-nursery.github.io/rust-clippy/master/index.html#approx_constant + = note: `#[deny(clippy::approx_constant)]` on by default + = help: consider using the constant directly + = help: for further information visit https://rust-lang.github.io/rust- +clippy/master/index.html#approx_constant ``` -This error lets you know that Rust has this constant defined more precisely and -that your program would be more correct if you used the constant instead. You -would then change your code to use the `PI` constant. The following code -doesn’t result in any errors or warnings from Clippy: +This error lets you know that Rust already has a more precise `PI` constant +defined, and that your program would be more correct if you used the constant +instead. You would then change your code to use the `PI` constant. + +The following code doesn’t result in any errors or warnings from Clippy: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -683,24 +698,24 @@ fn main() { } ``` -For more information on Clippy, see its documentation at *https://github.com/rust-lang/rust-clippy*. - +For more information on Clippy, see its documentation at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/rust-clippy**.* -### IDE Integration Using `rust-analyzer` +## IDE Integration Using rust-analyzer -To help IDE integration, the Rust community recommends using `rust-analyzer`. -This tool is a set of compiler-centric utilities that speaks the Language -Server Protocol, which is a specification for IDEs and programming languages to -communicate with each other. Different clients can use `rust-analyzer`, such as -the Rust analyzer plug-in for Visual Studio Code at +To help with IDE integration, the Rust community recommends using +`rust-analyzer`. This tool is a set of compiler-centric utilities that speak +Language Server Protocol, which is a specification for IDEs and programming +languages to communicate with each other. Different clients can use +`rust-analyzer`, such as the Rust analyzer plug-in for Visual Studio Code at *https://marketplace.visualstudio.com/items?itemName=rust-lang.rust-analyzer*. Visit the `rust-analyzer` project’s home page at *https://rust-analyzer.github.io* for installation instructions, then install the language server support in your particular IDE. Your IDE will gain -abilities such as autocompletion, jump to definition, and inline errors. +capabilities such as autocompletion, jump to definition, and inline errors -## Appendix E - Editions +## Appendix E: Editions In Chapter 1, you saw that `cargo new` adds a bit of metadata to your *Cargo.toml* file about an edition. This appendix talks about what that means! @@ -720,11 +735,11 @@ six-week release process. Editions serve different purposes for different people: * For active Rust users, a new edition brings together incremental changes into - an easy-to-understand package. +an easy-to-understand package. * For non-users, a new edition signals that some major advancements have - landed, which might make Rust worth another look. +landed, which might make Rust worth another look. * For those developing Rust, a new edition provides a rallying point for the - project as a whole. +project as a whole. At the time of this writing, three Rust editions are available: Rust 2015, Rust 2018, and Rust 2021. This book is written using Rust 2021 edition idioms. @@ -753,7 +768,8 @@ made. However, in some cases, mainly when new keywords are added, some new features might only be available in later editions. You will need to switch editions if you want to take advantage of such features. -For more details, the *Edition -Guide* at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/edition-guide/* is a complete book -about editions that enumerates the differences between editions and explains -how to automatically upgrade your code to a new edition via `cargo fix`. +For more details, *The* *Edition Guide* at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/edition-guide* is a complete book about +editions that enumerates the differences between editions and explains how to +automatically upgrade your code to a new edition via `cargo fix`. + diff --git a/nostarch/appendix_a.md b/nostarch/appendix_a.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ca3883be48 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/appendix_a.md @@ -0,0 +1,142 @@ + + +[TOC] + +## Appendix A: Keywords + +The following lists contain keywords that are reserved for current or future +use by the Rust language. As such, they cannot be used as identifiers (except +as raw identifiers, as we’ll discuss in “Raw Identifiers” on page XX). +*Identifiers* are names of functions, variables, parameters, struct fields, +modules, crates, constants, macros, static values, attributes, types, traits, +or lifetimes. + +## Keywords Currently in Use + +The following is a list of keywords currently in use, with their functionality +described. + +* **`as` **: perform primitive casting, disambiguate the specific trait +containing an item, or rename items in `use` statements +* **`async` **: return a `Future` instead of blocking the current thread +* **`await` **: suspend execution until the result of a `Future` is ready +* **`break` **: exit a loop immediately +* **`const` **: define constant items or constant raw pointers +* **`continue` **: continue to the next loop iteration +* **`crate` **: in a module path, refers to the crate root +* **`dyn` **: dynamic dispatch to a trait object +* **`else` **: fallback for `if` and `if let` control flow constructs +* **`enum` **: define an enumeration +* **`extern` **: link an external function or variable +* **`false` **: Boolean false literal +* **`fn` **: define a function or the function pointer type +* **`for` **: loop over items from an iterator, implement a trait, or specify a +higher-ranked lifetime +* **`if` **: branch based on the result of a conditional expression +* **`impl` **: implement inherent or trait functionality +* **`in` **: part of `for` loop syntax +* **`let` **: bind a variable +* **`loop` **: loop unconditionally +* **`match` **: match a value to patterns +* **`mod` **: define a module +* **`move` **: make a closure take ownership of all its captures +* **`mut` **: denote mutability in references, raw pointers, or pattern bindings +* **`pub` **: denote public visibility in struct fields, `impl` blocks, or +modules +* **`ref` **: bind by reference +* **`return` **: return from function +* **`Self` **: a type alias for the type we are defining or implementing +* **`self` **: method subject or current module +* **`static` **: global variable or lifetime lasting the entire program +execution +* **`struct` **: define a structure +* **`super` **: parent module of the current module +* **`trait` **: define a trait +* **`true` **: Boolean true literal +* **`type` **: define a type alias or associated type +* **`union` **: define a union; is a keyword only when used in a union +declaration +* **`unsafe` **: denote unsafe code, functions, traits, or implementations +* **`use` **: bring symbols into scope +* **`where` **: denote clauses that constrain a type +* **`while` **: loop conditionally based on the result of an expression + +## Keywords Reserved for Future Use + +The following keywords do not yet have any functionality but are reserved by +Rust for potential future use: + +* `abstract` +* `become` +* `box` +* `do` +* `final` +* `macro` +* `override` +* `priv` +* `try` +* `typeof` +* `unsized` +* `virtual` +* `yield` + +## Raw Identifiers + +*Raw identifiers* are the syntax that lets you use keywords where they wouldn’t +normally be allowed. You use a raw identifier by prefixing a keyword with `r#`. + +For example, `match` is a keyword. If you try to compile the following function +that uses `match` as its name: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn match(needle: &str, haystack: &str) -> bool { + haystack.contains(needle) +} +``` + +you’ll get this error: + +``` +error: expected identifier, found keyword `match` + --> src/main.rs:4:4 + | +4 | fn match(needle: &str, haystack: &str) -> bool { + | ^^^^^ expected identifier, found keyword +``` + +The error shows that you can’t use the keyword `match` as the function +identifier. To use `match` as a function name, you need to use the raw +identifier syntax, like this: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn r#match(needle: &str, haystack: &str) -> bool { + haystack.contains(needle) +} + +fn main() { + assert!(r#match("foo", "foobar")); +} +``` + +This code will compile without any errors. Note the `r#` prefix on the function +name in its definition as well as where the function is called in `main`. + +Raw identifiers allow you to use any word you choose as an identifier, even if +that word happens to be a reserved keyword. This gives us more freedom to +choose identifier names, as well as lets us integrate with programs written in +a language where these words aren’t keywords. In addition, raw identifiers +allow you to use libraries written in a different Rust edition than your crate +uses. For example, `try` isn’t a keyword in the 2015 edition but is in the 2018 +and 2021 editions. If you depend on a library that is written using the 2015 +edition and has a `try` function, you’ll need to use the raw identifier syntax, +`r#try` in this case, to call that function from your 2021 edition code. See +Appendix E for more information on editions. + diff --git a/nostarch/appendix_b.md b/nostarch/appendix_b.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..236608b6d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/appendix_b.md @@ -0,0 +1,241 @@ + + +[TOC] + +## Appendix B: Operators and Symbols + +This appendix contains a glossary of Rust’s syntax, including operators and +other symbols that appear by themselves or in the context of paths, generics, +trait bounds, macros, attributes, comments, tuples, and brackets. + +## Operators + +Table B-1 contains the operators in Rust, an example of how the operator would +appear in context, a short explanation, and whether that operator is +overloadable. If an operator is overloadable, the relevant trait to use to +overload that operator is listed. + +Table B-1: Operators + +| Operator | Example | Explanation | Overloadable? | +|---|---|---|---| +| `!` | `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro expansion | | +| `!` | `!expr` | Bitwise or logical complement | `Not` | +| `!=` | `expr != expr` | Nonequality comparison | `PartialEq` | +| `%` | `expr % expr` | Arithmetic remainder | `Rem` | +| `%=` | `var %= expr` | Arithmetic remainder and assignment | `RemAssign` | +| `&` | `&expr`, `&mut expr` | Borrow | | +| `&` | `&type`, `&mut type`, `&'a type`, `&'a mut type` | Borrowed pointer +type | | +| `&` | `expr & expr` | Bitwise AND | `BitAnd` | +| `&=` | `var &= expr` | Bitwise AND and assignment | `BitAndAssign` | +| `&&` | `expr && expr` | Short-circuiting logical AND | | +| `*` | `expr * expr` | Arithmetic multiplication | `Mul` | +| `*=` | `var *= expr` | Arithmetic multiplication and assignment | `MulAssign` +| +| `*` | `*expr` | Dereference | `Deref` | +| `*` | `*const type`, `*mut type` | Raw pointer | | +| `+` | `trait + trait`, `'a + trait` | Compound type constraint | | +| `+` | `expr + expr` | Arithmetic addition | `Add` | +| `+=` | `var += expr` | Arithmetic addition and assignment | `AddAssign` | +| `,` | `expr, expr` | Argument and element separator | | +| `-` | `- expr` | Arithmetic negation | `Neg` | +| `-` | `expr - expr` | Arithmetic subtraction | `Sub` | +| `-=` | `var -= expr` | Arithmetic subtraction and assignment | `SubAssign` | +| `->` | `fn(...) -> type`, `|…| -> type` | Function and closure return type | +| +| `. | `expr.ident` | Member access | | +| `..` | `..`, `expr..`, `..expr`, `expr..expr` | Right-exclusive range literal +| `PartialOrd` | +| `..=` | `..=expr`, `expr..=expr` | Right-inclusive range literal | +`PartialOrd` | +| `..` | `..expr` | Struct literal update syntax | | +| `..` | `variant(x, ..)`, `struct_type { x, .. }` | “And the rest” pattern +binding | | +| `...` | `expr...expr` | (Deprecated, use `..=` instead) In a pattern: +inclusive range pattern | | +| `/` | `expr / expr` | Arithmetic division | `Div` | +| `/=` | `var /= expr` | Arithmetic division and assignment | `DivAssign` | +| `: | `pat: type`, `ident: type` | Constraints | | +| `:` | `ident: expr` | Struct field initializer | | +| `:` | `'a: loop {...}` | Loop label | | +| `;` | `expr;` | Statement and item terminator | | +| `;` | `[...; len]` | Part of fixed-size array syntax | | +| `<<` | `expr << expr` | Left-shift | `Shl` | +| `<<=` | `var <<= expr` | Left-shift and assignment | `ShlAssign` | +| `<` | `expr < expr` | Less than comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `<=` | `expr <= expr` | Less than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `=` | `var = expr`, `ident = type` | Assignment/equivalence | | +| `==` | `expr == expr` | Equality comparison | `PartialEq` | +| `=>` | `pat => expr` | Part of match arm syntax | | +| `>` | `expr > expr` | Greater than comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `>=` | `expr >= expr` | Greater than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `>>` | `expr >> expr` | Right-shift | `Shr` | +| `>>=` | `var >>= expr` | Right-shift and assignment | `ShrAssign` | +| `@` | `ident @ pat` | Pattern binding | | +| `^` | `expr ^ expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR | `BitXor` | +| `^=` | `var ^= expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment | `BitXorAssign` | +| `|` | `pat | pat` | Pattern alternatives | | +| `|` | `expr | expr` | Bitwise OR | `BitOr` | +| `|=` | `var |= expr` | Bitwise OR and assignment | `BitOrAssign` | +| `||` | `expr || expr` | Short-circuiting logical OR | | +| `?` | `expr?` | Error propagation | | + +## Non-operator Symbols + +The following tables contain all symbols that don’t function as operators; that +is, they don’t behave like a function or method call. + +Table B-2 shows symbols that appear on their own and are valid in a variety of +locations. + +Table B-2: Stand-Alone Syntax + +| Symbol | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `'ident` | Named lifetime or loop label | +| `...u8`, `...i32`, `...f64`, `...usize`, and so on | Numeric literal of +specific type | +| `"..."` | String literal | +| `r"..."`, `r#"..."#`, `r##"..."##`, and so on | Raw string literal; escape +characters not processed | +| `b"..."` | Byte string literal; constructs an array of bytes instead of a +string | +| `br"..."`, `br#"..."#`, `br##"..."##`, and so on | Raw byte string literal; +combination of raw and byte string literal | +| `'...'` | Character literal | +| `b'...'` | ASCII byte literal | +| `|…| expr` | Closure | +| `!` | Always-empty bottom type for diverging functions | +| `_` | “Ignored” pattern binding; also used to make integer literals readable | + +Table B-3 shows symbols that appear in the context of a path through the module +hierarchy to an item. + +Table B-3: Path-Related Syntax + +| Symbol | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `ident::ident` | Namespace path | +| `::path` | Path relative to the crate root (that is, an explicitly absolute +path) | +| `self::path` | Path relative to the current module (that is, an explicitly +relative path) | +| `super::path` | Path relative to the parent of the current module | +| `type::ident`, `::ident` | Associated constants, functions, +and types | +| `::...` | Associated item for a type that cannot be directly named (for +example, `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, and so on) | +| `trait::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait that +defines it | +| `type::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the type for +which it’s defined | +| `::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the +trait and type | + +Table B-4 shows symbols that appear in the context of using generic type +parameters. + +Table B-4: Generics + +| Symbol | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `path<...>` | Specifies parameters to a generic type in a type (for example, +`Vec`) | +| `path::<...>, method::<...>` | Specifies parameters to a generic type, +function, or method in an expression; often referred to as turbofish (for +example, `"42".parse::()`) | +| `fn ident<...> ...` | Define generic function | +| `struct ident<...> ...` | Define generic structure | +| `enum ident<...> ...` | Define generic enumeration | +| `impl<...> ...` | Define generic implementation | +| `for<...> type` | Higher-ranked lifetime bounds | +| `type` | A generic type where one or more associated types have +specific assignments (for example, `Iterator`) | + +Table B-5 shows symbols that appear in the context of constraining generic type +parameters with trait bounds. + +Table B-5: Trait Bound Constraints + +| Symbol | Explanation | +|---|---| +| T: U` | Generic parameter `T` constrained to types that implement `U` | +| `T: 'a` | Generic type `T` must outlive lifetime `'a` (meaning the type +cannot transitively contain any references with lifetimes shorter than `'a`) | +| `T: 'static` | Generic type `T` contains no borrowed references other than +`'static` ones | +| `'b: 'a` | Generic lifetime `'b` must outlive lifetime `'a` | +| `T: ?Sized` | Allow generic type parameter to be a dynamically sized type | +| `'a + trait`, `trait + trait` | Compound type constraint | + +Table B-6 shows symbols that appear in the context of calling or defining +macros and specifying attributes on an item. + +Table B-6: Macros and Attributes + +| Symbol | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `#[meta]` | Outer attribute | +| `#![meta]` | Inner attribute | +| `$ident` | Macro substitution | +| `$ident:kind` | Macro capture | +| `$(…)…` | Macro repetition | +| `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro invocation | + +Table B-7 shows symbols that create comments. + +Table B-7: Comments + +| Symbol | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `//` | Line comment | +| `//!` | Inner line doc comment | +| `///` | Outer line doc comment | +| `/*...*/` | Block comment | +| `/*!...*/` | Inner block doc comment | +| `/**...*/` | Outer block doc comment | + +Table B-8 shows symbols that appear in the context of using tuples. + +Table B-8: Tuples + +| Symbol | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `()` | Empty tuple (aka unit), both literal and type | +| `(expr)` | Parenthesized expression | +| `(expr,)` | Single-element tuple expression | +| `(type,)` | Single-element tuple type | +| `(expr, ...)` | Tuple expression | +| `(type, ...)` | Tuple type | +| `expr(expr, ...)` | Function call expression; also used to initialize tuple +`struct`s and tuple `enum` variants | +| `expr.0`, `expr.1`, and so on | Tuple indexing | + +Table B-9 shows the contexts in which curly brackets are used. + +Table B-9: Curly Brackets + +| Context | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `{...}` | Block expression | +| `Type {...}` | `struct` literal | + +Table B-10 shows the contexts in which square brackets are used. + +Table B-10: Square Brackets + +| Context | Explanation | +|---|---| +| `[...]` | Array literal | +| `[expr; len]` | Array literal containing `len` copies of `expr` | +| `[type; len]` | Array type containing `len` instances of `type` | +| `expr[expr]` | Collection indexing; overloadable (`Index`, `IndexMut`) | +| `expr[..]`, `expr[a..]`, `expr[..b]`, `expr[a..b]` | Collection indexing +pretending to be collection slicing, using `Range`, `RangeFrom`, `RangeTo`, or +`RangeFull` as the “index” | + diff --git a/nostarch/appendix_c.md b/nostarch/appendix_c.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..53131eb5fa --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/appendix_c.md @@ -0,0 +1,184 @@ + + +[TOC] + +## Appendix C: Derivable Traits + +In various places in the book, we’ve discussed the `derive` attribute, which +you can apply to a struct or enum definition. The `derive` attribute generates +code that will implement a trait with its own default implementation on the +type you’ve annotated with the `derive` syntax. + +In this appendix, we provide a reference of all the traits in the standard +library that you can use with `derive`. Each section covers: + +* What operators and methods deriving this trait will enable +* What the implementation of the trait provided by `derive` does +* What implementing the trait signifies about the type +* The conditions in which you’re allowed or not allowed to implement the trait +* Examples of operations that require the trait + +If you want different behavior from that provided by the `derive` attribute, +consult the standard library documentation for each trait for details on how to +manually implement them. + +The traits listed here are the only ones defined by the standard library that +can be implemented on your types using `derive`. Other traits defined in the +standard library don’t have sensible default behavior, so it’s up to you to +implement them in the way that makes sense for what you’re trying to accomplish. + +An example of a trait that can’t be derived is `Display`, which handles +formatting for end users. You should always consider the appropriate way to +display a type to an end user. What parts of the type should an end user be +allowed to see? What parts would they find relevant? What format of the data +would be most relevant to them? The Rust compiler doesn’t have this insight, so +it can’t provide appropriate default behavior for you. + +The list of derivable traits provided in this appendix is not comprehensive: +libraries can implement `derive` for their own traits, making the list of +traits you can use `derive` with truly open ended. Implementing `derive` +involves using a procedural macro, which is covered in “Macros” on page XX. + +## Debug for Programmer Output + +The `Debug` trait enables debug formatting in format strings, which you +indicate by adding `:?` within `{}` placeholders. + +The `Debug` trait allows you to print instances of a type for debugging +purposes, so you and other programmers using your type can inspect an instance +at a particular point in a program’s execution. + +The `Debug` trait is required, for example, in the use of the `assert_eq!` +macro. This macro prints the values of instances given as arguments if the +equality assertion fails so programmers can see why the two instances weren’t +equal. + +## PartialEq and Eq for Equality Comparisons + +The `PartialEq` trait allows you to compare instances of a type to check for +equality and enables use of the `==` and `!=` operators. + +Deriving `PartialEq` implements the `eq` method. When `PartialEq` is derived on +structs, two instances are equal only if *all* fields are equal, and the +instances are not equal if any fields are not equal. When derived on enums, +each variant is equal to itself and not equal to the other variants. + +The `PartialEq` trait is required, for example, with the use of the +`assert_eq!` macro, which needs to be able to compare two instances of a type +for equality. + +The `Eq` trait has no methods. Its purpose is to signal that for every value of +the annotated type, the value is equal to itself. The `Eq` trait can only be +applied to types that also implement `PartialEq`, although not all types that +implement `PartialEq` can implement `Eq`. One example of this is floating-point +number types: the implementation of floating-point numbers states that two +instances of the not-a-number (`NaN`) value are not equal to each other. + +An example of when `Eq` is required is for keys in a `HashMap` so that +the `HashMap` can tell whether two keys are the same. + +## PartialOrd and Ord for Ordering Comparisons + +The `PartialOrd` trait allows you to compare instances of a type for sorting +purposes. A type that implements `PartialOrd` can be used with the `<`, `>`, +`<=`, and `>=` operators. You can only apply the `PartialOrd` trait to types +that also implement `PartialEq`. + +Deriving `PartialOrd` implements the `partial_cmp` method, which returns an +`Option` that will be `None` when the values given don’t produce an +ordering. An example of a value that doesn’t produce an ordering, even though +most values of that type can be compared, is the not-a-number (`NaN`) floating +point value. Calling `partial_cmp` with any floating-point number and the `NaN` +floating-point value will return `None`. + +When derived on structs, `PartialOrd` compares two instances by comparing the +value in each field in the order in which the fields appear in the struct +definition. When derived on enums, variants of the enum declared earlier in the +enum definition are considered less than the variants listed later. + +The `PartialOrd` trait is required, for example, for the `gen_range` method +from the `rand` crate that generates a random value in the range specified by a +range expression. + +The `Ord` trait allows you to know that for any two values of the annotated +type, a valid ordering will exist. The `Ord` trait implements the `cmp` method, +which returns an `Ordering` rather than an `Option` because a valid +ordering will always be possible. You can only apply the `Ord` trait to types +that also implement `PartialOrd` and `Eq` (and `Eq` requires `PartialEq`). When +derived on structs and enums, `cmp` behaves the same way as the derived +implementation for `partial_cmp` does with `PartialOrd`. + +An example of when `Ord` is required is when storing values in a `BTreeSet`, +a data structure that stores data based on the sort order of the values. + +## Clone and Copy for Duplicating Values + +The `Clone` trait allows you to explicitly create a deep copy of a value, and +the duplication process might involve running arbitrary code and copying heap +data. See “Variables and Data Interacting with Clone” on page XX for more +information on `Clone`. + +Deriving `Clone` implements the `clone` method, which when implemented for the +whole type, calls `clone` on each of the parts of the type. This means all the +fields or values in the type must also implement `Clone` to derive `Clone`. + +An example of when `Clone` is required is when calling the `to_vec` method on a +slice. The slice doesn’t own the type instances it contains, but the vector +returned from `to_vec` will need to own its instances, so `to_vec` calls +`clone` on each item. Thus the type stored in the slice must implement `Clone`. + +The `Copy` trait allows you to duplicate a value by only copying bits stored on +the stack; no arbitrary code is necessary. See “Stack-Only Data: Copy” on page +XX for more information on `Copy`. + +The `Copy` trait doesn’t define any methods to prevent programmers from +overloading those methods and violating the assumption that no arbitrary code +is being run. That way, all programmers can assume that copying a value will be +very fast. + +You can derive `Copy` on any type whose parts all implement `Copy`. A type that +implements `Copy` must also implement `Clone` because a type that implements +`Copy` has a trivial implementation of `Clone` that performs the same task as +`Copy`. + +The `Copy` trait is rarely required; types that implement `Copy` have +optimizations available, meaning you don’t have to call `clone`, which makes +the code more concise. + +Everything possible with `Copy` you can also accomplish with `Clone`, but the +code might be slower or have to use `clone` in places. + +## Hash for Mapping a Value to a Value of Fixed Size + +The `Hash` trait allows you to take an instance of a type of arbitrary size and +map that instance to a value of fixed size using a hash function. Deriving +`Hash` implements the `hash` method. The derived implementation of the `hash` +method combines the result of calling `hash` on each of the parts of the type, +meaning all fields or values must also implement `Hash` to derive `Hash`. + +An example of when `Hash` is required is in storing keys in a `HashMap` +to store data efficiently. + +## Default for Default Values + +The `Default` trait allows you to create a default value for a type. Deriving +`Default` implements the `default` function. The derived implementation of the +`default` function calls the `default` function on each part of the type, +meaning all fields or values in the type must also implement `Default` to +derive `Default`. + +The `Default::default` function is commonly used in combination with the struct +update syntax discussed in “Creating Instances from Other Instances with Struct +Update Syntax” on page XX. You can customize a few fields of a struct and then +set and use a default value for the rest of the fields by using +`..Default::default()`. + +The `Default` trait is required when you use the method `unwrap_or_default` on +`Option` instances, for example. If the `Option` is `None`, the method +`unwrap_or_default` will return the result of `Default::default` for the type +`T` stored in the `Option`. + diff --git a/nostarch/appendix_d.md b/nostarch/appendix_d.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..96b73e9544 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/appendix_d.md @@ -0,0 +1,175 @@ + + +[TOC] + +## Appendix D: Useful Development Tools + +In this appendix, we talk about some useful development tools that the Rust +project provides. We’ll look at automatic formatting, quick ways to apply +warning fixes, a linter, and integrating with IDEs. + +## Automatic Formatting with rustfmt + +The `rustfmt` tool reformats your code according to the community code style. +Many collaborative projects use `rustfmt` to prevent arguments about which +style to use when writing Rust: everyone formats their code using the tool. + +Rust installations include `rustfmt` by default, so you should already have the +programs `rustfmt` and `cargo-fmt` on your system. These two commands are +analagous to `rustc` and `cargo` in that `rustfmt` allows finer-grained control +and `cargo-fmt` understands conventions of a project that uses Cargo. To format +any Cargo project, enter the following: + +``` +$ cargo fmt +``` + +Running this command reformats all the Rust code in the current crate. This +should only change the code style, not the code semantics. For more information +on `rustfmt`, see its documentation at *https://github.com/rust-lang/rustfmt*. + +## Fix Your Code with rustfix + +The `rustfix` tool is included with Rust installations and can automatically +fix compiler warnings that have a clear way to correct the problem that’s +likely what you want. You’ve probably seen compiler warnings before. For +example, consider this code: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn do_something() {} + +fn main() { + for i in 0..100 { + do_something(); + } +} +``` + +Here, we’re calling the `do_something` function 100 times, but we never use the +variable `i` in the body of the `for` loop. Rust warns us about that: + +``` +$ cargo build + Compiling myprogram v0.1.0 (file:///projects/myprogram) +warning: unused variable: `i` + --> src/main.rs:4:9 + | +4 | for i in 0..100 { + | ^ help: consider using `_i` instead + | + = note: #[warn(unused_variables)] on by default + + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.50s +``` + +The warning suggests that we use `_i` as a name instead: the underscore +indicates that we intend for this variable to be unused. We can automatically +apply that suggestion using the `rustfix` tool by running the command `cargo +fix`: + +``` +$ cargo fix + Checking myprogram v0.1.0 (file:///projects/myprogram) + Fixing src/main.rs (1 fix) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s +``` + +When we look at *src/main.rs* again, we’ll see that `cargo fix` has changed the +code: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn do_something() {} + +fn main() { + for _i in 0..100 { + do_something(); + } +} +``` + +The `for` loop variable is now named `_i`, and the warning no longer appears. + +You can also use the `cargo fix` command to transition your code between +different Rust editions. Editions are covered in Appendix E. + +## More Lints with Clippy + +The Clippy tool is a collection of lints to analyze your code so you can catch +common mistakes and improve your Rust code. Clippy is included with standard +Rust installations. + +To run Clippy’s lints on any Cargo project, enter the following: + +``` +$ cargo clippy +``` + +For example, say you write a program that uses an approximation of a +mathematical constant, such as pi, as this program does: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let x = 3.1415; + let r = 8.0; + println!("the area of the circle is {}", x * r * r); +} +``` + +Running `cargo clippy` on this project results in this error: + +``` +error: approximate value of `f{32, 64}::consts::PI` found + --> src/main.rs:2:13 + | +2 | let x = 3.1415; + | ^^^^^^ + | + = note: `#[deny(clippy::approx_constant)]` on by default + = help: consider using the constant directly + = help: for further information visit https://rust-lang.github.io/rust- +clippy/master/index.html#approx_constant +``` + +This error lets you know that Rust already has a more precise `PI` constant +defined, and that your program would be more correct if you used the constant +instead. You would then change your code to use the `PI` constant. + +The following code doesn’t result in any errors or warnings from Clippy: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let x = std::f64::consts::PI; + let r = 8.0; + println!("the area of the circle is {}", x * r * r); +} +``` + +For more information on Clippy, see its documentation at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/rust-clippy**.* + +## IDE Integration Using rust-analyzer + +To help with IDE integration, the Rust community recommends using +`rust-analyzer`. This tool is a set of compiler-centric utilities that speak +Language Server Protocol, which is a specification for IDEs and programming +languages to communicate with each other. Different clients can use +`rust-analyzer`, such as the Rust analyzer plug-in for Visual Studio Code at +*https://marketplace.visualstudio.com/items?itemName=rust-lang.rust-analyzer*. + +Visit the `rust-analyzer` project’s home page at +*https://rust-analyzer.github.io* for installation instructions, then install +the language server support in your particular IDE. Your IDE will gain +capabilities such as autocompletion, jump to definition, and inline errors + diff --git a/nostarch/appendix_e.md b/nostarch/appendix_e.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ddb12b782b --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/appendix_e.md @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ + + +[TOC] + +## Appendix E: Editions + +In Chapter 1, you saw that `cargo new` adds a bit of metadata to your +*Cargo.toml* file about an edition. This appendix talks about what that means! + +The Rust language and compiler have a six-week release cycle, meaning users get +a constant stream of new features. Other programming languages release larger +changes less often; Rust releases smaller updates more frequently. After a +while, all of these tiny changes add up. But from release to release, it can be +difficult to look back and say, “Wow, between Rust 1.10 and Rust 1.31, Rust has +changed a lot!” + +Every two or three years, the Rust team produces a new Rust *edition*. Each +edition brings together the features that have landed into a clear package with +fully updated documentation and tooling. New editions ship as part of the usual +six-week release process. + +Editions serve different purposes for different people: + +* For active Rust users, a new edition brings together incremental changes into +an easy-to-understand package. +* For non-users, a new edition signals that some major advancements have +landed, which might make Rust worth another look. +* For those developing Rust, a new edition provides a rallying point for the +project as a whole. + +At the time of this writing, three Rust editions are available: Rust 2015, Rust +2018, and Rust 2021. This book is written using Rust 2021 edition idioms. + +The `edition` key in *Cargo.toml* indicates which edition the compiler should +use for your code. If the key doesn’t exist, Rust uses `2015` as the edition +value for backward compatibility reasons. + +Each project can opt in to an edition other than the default 2015 edition. +Editions can contain incompatible changes, such as including a new keyword that +conflicts with identifiers in code. However, unless you opt in to those +changes, your code will continue to compile even as you upgrade the Rust +compiler version you use. + +All Rust compiler versions support any edition that existed prior to that +compiler’s release, and they can link crates of any supported editions +together. Edition changes only affect the way the compiler initially parses +code. Therefore, if you’re using Rust 2015 and one of your dependencies uses +Rust 2018, your project will compile and be able to use that dependency. The +opposite situation, where your project uses Rust 2018 and a dependency uses +Rust 2015, works as well. + +To be clear: most features will be available on all editions. Developers using +any Rust edition will continue to see improvements as new stable releases are +made. However, in some cases, mainly when new keywords are added, some new +features might only be available in later editions. You will need to switch +editions if you want to take advantage of such features. + +For more details, *The* *Edition Guide* at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/edition-guide* is a complete book about +editions that enumerates the differences between editions and explains how to +automatically upgrade your code to a new edition via `cargo fix`. + diff --git a/nostarch/bio.md b/nostarch/bio.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..38b0508bcd --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/bio.md @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +# About the Authors + +Carol Nichols is a member of the Rust Crates.io Team and a former member of the +Rust Core Team. She’s a co-founder of Integer 32, LLC, the world’s first +Rust-focused software consultancy. Nichols has also organized the Rust Belt +Rust Conference. diff --git a/nostarch/book.toml b/nostarch/book.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..169a02be0f --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/book.toml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +[book] +title = "The Rust Programming Language" +authors = ["Steve Klabnik", "Carol Nichols", "Chris Krycho", "Contributions from the Rust Community"] +src = "../src" # needs to be explicit (it is implicit in `/book.toml`). + +[output.html] +additional-css = ["../ferris.css", "../theme/2018-edition.css", "../theme/semantic-notes.css"] +additional-js = ["../ferris.js"] +git-repository-url = "https://github.com/rust-lang/book" + +[build] +build-dir = "../tmp" + +[preprocessor.trpl-listing] +output-mode = "simple" + +# Only used in this version, *not* in the root `book.toml`, because its job is +# to remove `
` and `
` markup from the version we send them. +[preprocessor.trpl-figure] +output-mode = "simple" + +[rust] +edition = "2021" diff --git a/nostarch/chapter01.md b/nostarch/chapter01.md index 6b41b4a7f3..3379b14f22 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter01.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter01.md @@ -21,28 +21,28 @@ The first step is to install Rust. We’ll download Rust through `rustup`, a command line tool for managing Rust versions and associated tools. You’ll need an internet connection for the download. -> Note: If you prefer not to use `rustup` for some reason, please see the -> Other Rust Installation Methods page at -> *https://forge.rust-lang.org/infra/other-installation-methods.html* for more -> options. +> Note: If you prefer not to use `rustup` for some reason, please see the Other +Rust Installation Methods page at +*https://forge.rust-lang.org/infra/other-installation-methods.html* for more +options. The following steps install the latest stable version of the Rust compiler. Rust’s stability guarantees ensure that all the examples in the book that compile will continue to compile with newer Rust versions. The output might -differ slightly between versions, because Rust often improves error messages -and warnings. In other words, any newer, stable version of Rust you install -using these steps should work as expected with the content of this book. +differ slightly between versions because Rust often improves error messages and +warnings. In other words, any newer, stable version of Rust you install using +these steps should work as expected with the content of this book. > ### Command Line Notation > > In this chapter and throughout the book, we’ll show some commands used in the -> terminal. Lines that you should enter in a terminal all start with `$`. You -> don’t need to type in the `$` character; it indicates the start of each -> command. Lines that don’t start with `$` typically show the output of the -> previous command. Additionally, PowerShell-specific examples will use `>` -> rather than `$`. +terminal. Lines that you should enter in a terminal all start with `$`. You +don’t need to type the `$` character; it’s the command line prompt shown to +indicate the start of each command. Lines that don’t start with `$` typically +show the output of the previous command. Additionally, PowerShell-specific +examples will use `>` rather than `$`. -### Installing `rustup` on Linux or macOS +### Installing rustup on Linux or macOS If you’re using Linux or macOS, open a terminal and enter the following command: @@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ for your password. If the install is successful, the following line will appear: Rust is installed now. Great! ``` -You will also need a linker, which is a program that Rust uses to join its +You will also need a *linker*, which is a program that Rust uses to join its compiled outputs into one file. It is likely you already have one. If you get linker errors, you should install a C compiler, which will typically include a linker. A C compiler is also useful because some common Rust packages depend on @@ -74,67 +74,89 @@ Linux users should generally install GCC or Clang, according to their distribution’s documentation. For example, if you use Ubuntu, you can install the `build-essential` package. -### Installing `rustup` on Windows +### Installing rustup on Windows On Windows, go to *https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install* and follow the instructions for installing Rust. At some point in the installation, you’ll -receive a message explaining that you’ll also need the C++ build tools for -Visual Studio 2013 or later. The easiest way to acquire the build tools is to -install Build Tools for Visual Studio 2019 at -*https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/visual-cpp-build-tools/*. When asked which -workloads to install make sure “C++ build tools” is selected and that the -Windows 10 SDK and the English language pack components are included. +receive a message explaining that you’ll also need the MSVC build tools for +Visual Studio 2013 or later. + +To acquire the build tools, you’ll need to install Visual Studio 2022 from +*https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/downloads*. When asked which workloads to +install, include: + +* “Desktop Development with C++” +* The Windows 10 or 11 SDK +* The English language pack component, along with any other language pack of +your choosing The rest of this book uses commands that work in both *cmd.exe* and PowerShell. If there are specific differences, we’ll explain which to use. -### Updating and Uninstalling +### Troubleshooting -After you’ve installed Rust via `rustup`, updating to the latest version is -easy. From your shell, run the following update script: +To check whether you have Rust installed correctly, open a shell and enter this +line: ``` -$ rustup update +$ rustc --version ``` -To uninstall Rust and `rustup`, run the following uninstall script from your -shell: +You should see the version number, commit hash, and commit date for the latest +stable version that has been released, in the following format: ``` -$ rustup self uninstall +rustc x.y.z (abcabcabc yyyy-mm-dd) ``` -### Troubleshooting +If you see this information, you have installed Rust successfully! If you don’t +see this information, check that Rust is in your `%PATH%` system variable as +follows. -To check whether you have Rust installed correctly, open a shell and enter this -line: +In Windows CMD, use: ``` -$ rustc --version +> echo %PATH% ``` -You should see the version number, commit hash, and commit date for the latest -stable version that has been released in the following format: +In PowerShell, use: ``` -rustc x.y.z (abcabcabc yyyy-mm-dd) +> echo $env:Path ``` -If you see this information, you have installed Rust successfully! If you don’t -see this information and you’re on Windows, check that Rust is in your `%PATH%` -system variable. If that’s all correct and Rust still isn’t working, there are -a number of places you can get help. The easiest is the #beginners channel on -the official Rust Discord at *https://discord.gg/rust-lang*. There, you can -chat with other Rustaceans (a silly nickname we call ourselves) who can help -you out. Other great resources include the Users forum at -*https://users.rust-lang.org/* and Stack Overflow at -*https://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/rust*. +In Linux and macOS, use: + +``` +$ echo $PATH +``` + +If that’s all correct and Rust still isn’t working, there are a number of +places you can get help. Find out how to get in touch with other Rustaceans (a +silly nickname we call ourselves) on the community page at +*https://www.rust-lang.org/community*. + +### Updating and Uninstalling + +Once Rust is installed via `rustup`, updating to a newly released version is +easy. From your shell, run the following update script: + +``` +$ rustup update +``` + +To uninstall Rust and `rustup`, run the following uninstall script from your +shell: + +``` +$ rustup self uninstall +``` ### Local Documentation -The installation of Rust also includes a copy of the documentation locally, so -you can read it offline. Run `rustup doc` to open the local documentation in -your browser. +The installation of Rust also includes a local copy of the documentation so +that you can read it offline. Run `rustup doc` to open the local documentation +in your browser. Any time a type or function is provided by the standard library and you’re not sure what it does or how to use it, use the application programming interface @@ -142,17 +164,17 @@ sure what it does or how to use it, use the application programming interface ## Hello, World! -Now that you’ve installed Rust, let’s write your first Rust program. It’s -traditional when learning a new language to write a little program that prints -the text `Hello, world!` to the screen, so we’ll do the same here! +Now that you’ve installed Rust, it’s time to write your first Rust program. +It’s traditional when learning a new language to write a little program that +prints the text `Hello, world!` to the screen, so we’ll do the same here! > Note: This book assumes basic familiarity with the command line. Rust makes -> no specific demands about your editing or tooling or where your code lives, so -> if you prefer to use an integrated development environment (IDE) instead of -> the command line, feel free to use your favorite IDE. Many IDEs now have some -> degree of Rust support; check the IDE’s documentation for details. Recently, -> the Rust team has been focusing on enabling great IDE support, and progress -> has been made rapidly on that front! +no specific demands about your editing or tooling or where your code lives, so +if you prefer to use an integrated development environment (IDE) instead of the +command line, feel free to use your favorite IDE. Many IDEs now have some +degree of Rust support; check the IDE’s documentation for details. The Rust +team has been focusing on enabling great IDE support via `rust-analyzer`. See +Appendix D for more details. ### Creating a Project Directory @@ -185,9 +207,9 @@ For Windows CMD, enter this: ### Writing and Running a Rust Program Next, make a new source file and call it *main.rs*. Rust files always end with -the *.rs* extension. If you’re using more than one word in your filename, use -an underscore to separate them. For example, use *hello_world.rs* rather than -*helloworld.rs*. +the *.rs* extension. If you’re using more than one word in your filename, the +convention is to use an underscore to separate them. For example, use +*hello_world.rs* rather than *helloworld.rs*. Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. @@ -201,8 +223,9 @@ fn main() { Listing 1-1: A program that prints `Hello, world!` -Save the file and go back to your terminal window. On Linux or macOS, enter -the following commands to compile and run the file: +Save the file and go back to your terminal window in the +*~/projects/hello_world* directory. On Linux or macOS, enter the following +commands to compile and run the file: ``` $ rustc main.rs @@ -219,16 +242,16 @@ Hello, world! ``` Regardless of your operating system, the string `Hello, world!` should print to -the terminal. If you don’t see this output, refer back to the “Troubleshooting” -part of the Installation section for ways to get help. +the terminal. If you don’t see this output, refer back to “Troubleshooting” on +page XX for ways to get help. If `Hello, world!` did print, congratulations! You’ve officially written a Rust program. That makes you a Rust programmer—welcome! ### Anatomy of a Rust Program -Let’s review in detail what just happened in your “Hello, world!” program. -Here’s the first piece of the puzzle: +Let’s review this “Hello, world!” program in detail. Here’s the first piece of +the puzzle: ``` fn main() { @@ -236,23 +259,22 @@ fn main() { } ``` -These lines define a function in Rust. The `main` function is special: it is -always the first code that runs in every executable Rust program. The first -line declares a function named `main` that has no parameters and returns -nothing. If there were parameters, they would go inside the parentheses, `()`. +These lines define a function named `main`. The `main` function is special: it +is always the first code that runs in every executable Rust program. Here, the +first line declares a function named `main` that has no parameters and returns +nothing. If there were parameters, they would go inside the parentheses `()`. -Also, note that the function body is wrapped in curly brackets, `{}`. Rust -requires these around all function bodies. It’s good style to place the opening -curly bracket on the same line as the function declaration, adding one space in -between. +The function body is wrapped in `{}`. Rust requires curly brackets around all +function bodies. It’s good style to place the opening curly bracket on the same +line as the function declaration, adding one space in between. -If you want to stick to a standard style across Rust projects, you can use an -automatic formatter tool called `rustfmt` to format your code in a particular -style. The Rust team has included this tool with the standard Rust distribution, -like `rustc`, so it should already be installed on your computer! Check the -online documentation for more details. +> Note: If you want to stick to a standard style across Rust projects, you can +use an automatic formatter tool called `rustfmt` to format your code in a +particular style (more on `rustfmt` in Appendix D). The Rust team has included +this tool with the standard Rust distribution, as `rustc` is, so it should +already be installed on your computer! -Inside the `main` function is the following code: +The body of the `main` function holds the following code: ``` println!("Hello, world!"); @@ -263,10 +285,10 @@ screen. There are four important details to notice here. First, Rust style is to indent with four spaces, not a tab. -Second, `println!` calls a Rust macro. If it called a function instead, it +Second, `println!` calls a Rust macro. If it had called a function instead, it would be entered as `println` (without the `!`). We’ll discuss Rust macros in more detail in Chapter 19. For now, you just need to know that using a `!` -means that you’re calling a macro instead of a normal function, and that macros +means that you’re calling a macro instead of a normal function and that macros don’t always follow the same rules as functions. Third, you see the `"Hello, world!"` string. We pass this string as an argument @@ -293,16 +315,16 @@ If you have a C or C++ background, you’ll notice that this is similar to `gcc` or `clang`. After compiling successfully, Rust outputs a binary executable. On Linux, macOS, and PowerShell on Windows, you can see the executable by -entering the `ls` command in your shell. On Linux and macOS, you’ll see two -files. With PowerShell on Windows, you’ll see the same three files that you -would see using CMD. +entering the `ls` command in your shell: ``` $ ls main main.rs ``` -With CMD on Windows, you would enter the following: +On Linux and macOS, you’ll see two files. With PowerShell on Windows, you’ll +see the same three files that you would see using CMD. With CMD on Windows, you +would enter the following: ``` > dir /B %= the /B option says to only show the file names =% @@ -320,7 +342,7 @@ From here, you run the *main* or *main.exe* file, like this: $ ./main # or .\main.exe on Windows ``` -If *main.rs* was your “Hello, world!” program, this line would print `Hello, +If your *main.rs* is your “Hello, world!” program, this line prints `Hello, world!` to your terminal. If you’re more familiar with a dynamic language, such as Ruby, Python, or @@ -346,16 +368,16 @@ building those libraries. (We call the libraries that your code needs *dependencies*.) The simplest Rust programs, like the one we’ve written so far, don’t have any -dependencies. So if we had built the “Hello, world!” project with Cargo, it -would only use the part of Cargo that handles building your code. As you write -more complex Rust programs, you’ll add dependencies, and if you start a project +dependencies. If we had built the “Hello, world!” project with Cargo, it would +only use the part of Cargo that handles building your code. As you write more +complex Rust programs, you’ll add dependencies, and if you start a project using Cargo, adding dependencies will be much easier to do. Because the vast majority of Rust projects use Cargo, the rest of this book assumes that you’re using Cargo too. Cargo comes installed with Rust if you -used the official installers discussed in the “Installation” section. If you +used the official installers discussed in “Installation” on page XX. If you installed Rust through some other means, check whether Cargo is installed by -entering the following into your terminal: +entering the following in your terminal: ``` $ cargo --version @@ -368,18 +390,18 @@ determine how to install Cargo separately. ### Creating a Project with Cargo Let’s create a new project using Cargo and look at how it differs from our -original “Hello, world!” project. Navigate back to your *projects* directory (or -wherever you decided to store your code). Then, on any operating system, run -the following: +original “Hello, world!” project. Navigate back to your *projects* directory +(or wherever you decided to store your code). Then, on any operating system, +run the following: ``` $ cargo new hello_cargo $ cd hello_cargo ``` -The first command created a new directory called *hello_cargo*. We’ve named -our project *hello_cargo*, and Cargo creates its files in a directory of the -same name. +The first command creates a new directory and project called *hello_cargo*. +We’ve named our project *hello_cargo*, and Cargo creates its files in a +directory of the same name. Go into the *hello_cargo* directory and list the files. You’ll see that Cargo has generated two files and one directory for us: a *Cargo.toml* file and a @@ -390,8 +412,8 @@ Git files won’t be generated if you run `cargo new` within an existing Git repository; you can override this behavior by using `cargo new --vcs=git`. > Note: Git is a common version control system. You can change `cargo new` to -> use a different version control system or no version control system by using -> the `--vcs` flag. Run `cargo new --help` to see the available options. +use a different version control system or no version control system by using +the `--vcs` flag. Run `cargo new --help` to see the available options. Open *Cargo.toml* in your text editor of choice. It should look similar to the code in Listing 1-2. @@ -436,9 +458,9 @@ fn main() { ``` Cargo has generated a “Hello, world!” program for you, just like the one we -wrote in Listing 1-1! So far, the differences between our previous project and -the project Cargo generated are that Cargo placed the code in the *src* -directory, and we have a *Cargo.toml* configuration file in the top directory. +wrote in Listing 1-1! So far, the differences between our project and the +project Cargo generated are that Cargo placed the code in the *src* directory +and we have a *Cargo.toml* configuration file in the top directory. Cargo expects your source files to live inside the *src* directory. The top-level project directory is just for README files, license information, @@ -465,7 +487,8 @@ $ cargo build This command creates an executable file in *target/debug/hello_cargo* (or *target\debug\hello_cargo.exe* on Windows) rather than in your current -directory. You can run the executable with this command: +directory. Because the default build is a debug build, Cargo puts the binary in +a directory named *debug*. You can run the executable with this command: ``` $ ./target/debug/hello_cargo # or .\target\debug\hello_cargo.exe on Windows @@ -481,7 +504,7 @@ manages its contents for you. We just built a project with `cargo build` and ran it with `./target/debug/hello_cargo`, but we can also use `cargo run` to compile the -code and then run the resulting executable all in one command: +code and then run the resultant executable all in one command: ``` $ cargo run @@ -490,10 +513,15 @@ $ cargo run Hello, world! ``` +Using `cargo run` is more convenient than having to remember to run `cargo +build` and then use the whole path to the binary, so most developers use `cargo +run`. + Notice that this time we didn’t see output indicating that Cargo was compiling -`hello_cargo`. Cargo figured out that the files hadn’t changed, so it just ran -the binary. If you had modified your source code, Cargo would have rebuilt the -project before running it, and you would have seen this output: +`hello_cargo`. Cargo figured out that the files hadn’t changed, so it didn’t +rebuild but just ran the binary. If you had modified your source code, Cargo +would have rebuilt the project before running it, and you would have seen this +output: ``` $ cargo run @@ -513,11 +541,12 @@ $ cargo check ``` Why would you not want an executable? Often, `cargo check` is much faster than -`cargo build`, because it skips the step of producing an executable. If you’re +`cargo build` because it skips the step of producing an executable. If you’re continually checking your work while writing the code, using `cargo check` will -speed up the process! As such, many Rustaceans run `cargo check` periodically -as they write their program to make sure it compiles. Then they run `cargo -build` when they’re ready to use the executable. +speed up the process of letting you know if your project is still compiling! As +such, many Rustaceans run `cargo check` periodically as they write their +program to make sure it compiles. Then they run `cargo build` when they’re +ready to use the executable. Let’s recap what we’ve learned so far about Cargo: @@ -525,9 +554,9 @@ Let’s recap what we’ve learned so far about Cargo: * We can build a project using `cargo build`. * We can build and run a project in one step using `cargo run`. * We can build a project without producing a binary to check for errors using - `cargo check`. +`cargo check`. * Instead of saving the result of the build in the same directory as our code, - Cargo stores it in the *target/debug* directory. +Cargo stores it in the *target/debug* directory. An additional advantage of using Cargo is that the commands are the same no matter which operating system you’re working on. So, at this point, we’ll no @@ -550,8 +579,8 @@ the executable in *target/release*. With simple projects, Cargo doesn’t provide a lot of value over just using `rustc`, but it will prove its worth as your programs become more intricate. -With complex projects composed of multiple crates, it’s much easier to let -Cargo coordinate the build. +Once programs grow to multiple files or need a dependency, it’s much easier to +let Cargo coordinate the build. Even though the `hello_cargo` project is simple, it now uses much of the real tooling you’ll use in the rest of your Rust career. In fact, to work on any @@ -564,7 +593,8 @@ $ cd someproject $ cargo build ``` -For more information about Cargo, check out its documentation at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/*. +For more information about Cargo, check out its documentation at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo*. ## Summary @@ -581,3 +611,4 @@ This is a great time to build a more substantial program to get used to reading and writing Rust code. So, in Chapter 2, we’ll build a guessing game program. If you would rather start by learning how common programming concepts work in Rust, see Chapter 3 and then return to Chapter 2. + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter02.md b/nostarch/chapter02.md index b7986c0ded..b01770dc5c 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter02.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter02.md @@ -11,8 +11,8 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. Let’s jump into Rust by working through a hands-on project together! This chapter introduces you to a few common Rust concepts by showing you how to use them in a real program. You’ll learn about `let`, `match`, methods, associated -functions, using external crates, and more! In the following chapters, we’ll -explore these ideas in more detail. In this chapter, you’ll practice the +functions, external crates, and more! In the following chapters, we’ll explore +these ideas in more detail. In this chapter, you’ll just practice the fundamentals. We’ll implement a classic beginner programming problem: a guessing game. Here’s @@ -45,14 +45,12 @@ name = "guessing_game" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" -# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +# See more keys and their definitions at +https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html [dependencies] ``` - - - As you saw in Chapter 1, `cargo new` generates a “Hello, world!” program for you. Check out the *src/main.rs* file: @@ -108,27 +106,21 @@ fn main() { } ``` - - - Listing 2-1: Code that gets a guess from the user and prints it This code contains a lot of information, so let’s go over it line by line. To obtain user input and then print the result as output, we need to bring the -`io` input/output library into scope. The `io` library comes from the -standard library, known as `std`: +`io` input/output library into scope. The `io` library comes from the standard +library, known as `std`: ``` use std::io; ``` -By default, Rust has a set of items defined in the standard library that it brings -into the scope of every program. This set is called the *prelude*, and you can -see everything in it at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/prelude/index.html*. +By default, Rust has a set of items defined in the standard library that it +brings into the scope of every program. This set is called the *prelude*, and +you can see everything in it at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/prelude/index.html*. If a type you want to use isn’t in the prelude, you have to bring that type into scope explicitly with a `use` statement. Using the `std::io` library @@ -142,21 +134,16 @@ program: fn main() { ``` -The `fn` syntax declares a new function, the parentheses, `()`, indicate there -are no parameters, and the curly bracket, `{`, starts the body of the function. +The `fn` syntax declares a new function; the parentheses, `()`, indicate there +are no parameters; and the curly bracket, `{`, starts the body of the function. As you also learned in Chapter 1, `println!` is a macro that prints a string to the screen: - - - ``` - println!("Guess the number!"); +println!("Guess the number!"); - println!("Please input your guess."); +println!("Please input your guess."); ``` This code is printing a prompt stating what the game is and requesting input @@ -167,7 +154,7 @@ from the user. Next, we’ll create a *variable* to store the user input, like this: ``` - let mut guess = String::new(); +let mut guess = String::new(); ``` Now the program is getting interesting! There’s a lot going on in this little @@ -179,15 +166,9 @@ let apples = 5; This line creates a new variable named `apples` and binds it to the value 5. In Rust, variables are immutable by default, meaning once we give the variable a -value, the value won't change. We’ll be discussing this concept in detail in -the “Variables and Mutability” section in Chapter 3. To make a variable -mutable, we add `mut` before the variable name: - - - +value, the value won’t change. We’ll be discussing this concept in detail in +“Variables and Mutability” on page XX. To make a variable mutable, we add `mut` +before the variable name: ``` let apples = 5; // immutable @@ -195,12 +176,12 @@ let mut bananas = 5; // mutable ``` > Note: The `//` syntax starts a comment that continues until the end of the -> line. Rust ignores everything in comments. We’ll discuss comments in more -> detail in Chapter 3. +line. Rust ignores everything in comments. We’ll discuss comments in more +detail in Chapter 3. Returning to the guessing game program, you now know that `let mut guess` will introduce a mutable variable named `guess`. The equal sign (`=`) tells Rust we -want to bind something to the variable now. On the right of the equals sign is +want to bind something to the variable now. On the right of the equal sign is the value that `guess` is bound to, which is the result of calling `String::new`, a function that returns a new instance of a `String`. `String` is a string type provided by the standard library that is a growable, UTF-8 @@ -209,15 +190,9 @@ encoded bit of text. The `::` syntax in the `::new` line indicates that `new` is an associated function of the `String` type. An *associated function* is a function that’s implemented on a type, in this case `String`. This `new` function creates a -new, empty string. You’ll find a `new` function on many types, because it’s a +new, empty string. You’ll find a `new` function on many types because it’s a common name for a function that makes a new value of some kind. - - - In full, the `let mut guess = String::new();` line has created a mutable variable that is currently bound to a new, empty instance of a `String`. Whew! @@ -229,11 +204,11 @@ the `stdin` function from the `io` module, which will allow us to handle user input: ``` - io::stdin() - .read_line(&mut guess) +io::stdin() + .read_line(&mut guess) ``` -If we hadn’t imported the `io` library with `use std::io` at the beginning of +If we hadn’t imported the `io` library with `use std::io;` at the beginning of the program, we could still use the function by writing this function call as `std::io::stdin`. The `stdin` function returns an instance of `std::io::Stdin`, which is a type that represents a handle to the standard input for your @@ -252,27 +227,19 @@ let multiple parts of your code access one piece of data without needing to copy that data into memory multiple times. References are a complex feature, and one of Rust’s major advantages is how safe and easy it is to use references. You don’t need to know a lot of those details to finish this -program. For now, all you need to know is that like variables, references are +program. For now, all you need to know is that, like variables, references are immutable by default. Hence, you need to write `&mut guess` rather than `&guess` to make it mutable. (Chapter 4 will explain references more thoroughly.) -### Handling Potential Failure with the `Result` Type +### Handling Potential Failure with Result We’re still working on this line of code. We’re now discussing a third line of text, but note that it’s still part of a single logical line of code. The next part is this method: - - - - ``` - .expect("Failed to read line"); +.expect("Failed to read line"); ``` We could have written this code as: @@ -291,17 +258,10 @@ we pass to it, but it also returns a `Result` value. `Result` is an *enumeration*, often called an *enum*, which is a type that can be in one of multiple possible states. We call each possible state a *variant*. - - - - Chapter 6 will cover enums in more detail. The purpose of these `Result` types is to encode error-handling information. -`Result`'s variants are `Ok` and `Err`. The `Ok` variant indicates the +`Result`’s variants are `Ok` and `Err`. The `Ok` variant indicates the operation was successful, and inside `Ok` is the successfully generated value. The `Err` variant means the operation failed, and `Err` contains information about how or why the operation failed. @@ -337,38 +297,36 @@ warning: `guessing_game` (bin "guessing_game") generated 1 warning Rust warns that you haven’t used the `Result` value returned from `read_line`, indicating that the program hasn’t handled a possible error. -The right way to suppress the warning is to actually write error handling, but -in our case we just want to crash this program when a problem occurs, so we can -use `expect`. You’ll learn about recovering from errors in Chapter 9. +The right way to suppress the warning is to actually write error-handling code, +but in our case we just want to crash this program when a problem occurs, so we +can use `expect`. You’ll learn about recovering from errors in Chapter 9. -### Printing Values with `println!` Placeholders +### Printing Values with println! Placeholders Aside from the closing curly bracket, there’s only one more line to discuss in the code so far: ``` - println!("You guessed: {guess}"); +println!("You guessed: {guess}"); ``` - - This line prints the string that now contains the user’s input. The `{}` set of curly brackets is a placeholder: think of `{}` as little crab pincers that hold -a value in place. You can print more than one value using curly brackets: the -first set of curly brackets holds the first value listed after the format -string, the second set holds the second value, and so on. Printing multiple -values in one call to `println!` would look like this: +a value in place. When printing the value of a variable, the variable name can +go inside the curly brackets. When printing the result of evaluating an +expression, place empty curly brackets in the format string, then follow the +format string with a comma-separated list of expressions to print in each empty +curly bracket placeholder in the same order. Printing a variable and the result +of an expression in one call to `println!` would look like this: ``` let x = 5; let y = 10; -println!("x = {x} and y = {y}"); +println!("x = {x} and y + 2 = {}", y + 2); ``` - - -This code would print `x = 5 and y = 10`. +This code would print `x = 5 and y = 12`. ### Testing the First Part @@ -401,43 +359,36 @@ library. However, the Rust team does provide a `rand` crate at Remember that a crate is a collection of Rust source code files. The project we’ve been building is a *binary crate*, which is an executable. The `rand` -crate is a *library crate*, which contains code intended to be used in other -programs and can't be executed on its own. - - - +crate is a *library crate*, which contains code that is intended to be used in +other programs and can’t be executed on its own. Cargo’s coordination of external crates is where Cargo really shines. Before we can write code that uses `rand`, we need to modify the *Cargo.toml* file to include the `rand` crate as a dependency. Open that file now and add the -following line to the bottom beneath the `[dependencies]` section header that +following line to the bottom, beneath the `[dependencies]` section header that Cargo created for you. Be sure to specify `rand` exactly as we have here, with -this version number, or the code examples in this tutorial may not work. +this version number, or the code examples in this tutorial may not work: Filename: Cargo.toml ``` -rand = "0.8.3" +[dependencies] +rand = "0.8.5" ``` - - In the *Cargo.toml* file, everything that follows a header is part of that section that continues until another section starts. In `[dependencies]` you tell Cargo which external crates your project depends on and which versions of those crates you require. In this case, we specify the `rand` crate with the -semantic version specifier `0.8.3`. Cargo understands Semantic Versioning +semantic version specifier `0.8.5`. Cargo understands Semantic Versioning (sometimes called *SemVer*), which is a standard for writing version numbers. -The number `0.8.3` is actually shorthand for `^0.8.3`, which means any version -that is at least `0.8.3` but below `0.9.0`. +The specifier `0.8.5` is actually shorthand for `^0.8.5`, which means any +version that is at least 0.8.5 but below 0.9.0. Cargo considers these versions to have public APIs compatible with version -`0.8.3`, and this specification ensures you’ll get the latest patch release -that will still compile with the code in this chapter. Any version `0.9.0` or -greater is not guaranteed to have the same API as what the following examples -use. +0.8.5, and this specification ensures you’ll get the latest patch release that +will still compile with the code in this chapter. Any version 0.9.0 or greater +is not guaranteed to have the same API as what the following examples use. Now, without changing any of the code, let’s build the project, as shown in Listing 2-2. @@ -445,48 +396,34 @@ Listing 2-2. ``` $ cargo build Updating crates.io index - Downloaded rand v0.8.3 - Downloaded libc v0.2.86 - Downloaded getrandom v0.2.2 + Downloaded rand v0.8.5 + Downloaded libc v0.2.127 + Downloaded getrandom v0.2.7 Downloaded cfg-if v1.0.0 - Downloaded ppv-lite86 v0.2.10 - Downloaded rand_chacha v0.3.0 - Downloaded rand_core v0.6.2 - Compiling rand_core v0.6.2 - Compiling libc v0.2.86 - Compiling getrandom v0.2.2 - Compiling cfg-if v1.0.0 - Compiling ppv-lite86 v0.2.10 - Compiling rand_chacha v0.3.0 - Compiling rand v0.8.3 - Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53s -``` - - + Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53s +``` -Listing 2-2: The output from running `cargo build` after adding the rand crate -as a dependency +Listing 2-2: The output from running `cargo build` after adding the `rand` +crate as a dependency You may see different version numbers (but they will all be compatible with the -code, thanks to SemVer!), different lines (depending on the operating system), -and the lines may be in a different order. +code, thanks to SemVer!) and different lines (depending on the operating +system), and the lines may be in a different order. When we include an external dependency, Cargo fetches the latest versions of everything that dependency needs from the *registry*, which is a copy of data -from Crates.io at *https://crates.io/*. Crates.io is where people in the Rust +from Crates.io at *https://crates.io*. Crates.io is where people in the Rust ecosystem post their open source Rust projects for others to use. After updating the registry, Cargo checks the `[dependencies]` section and @@ -502,8 +439,8 @@ about them in your *Cargo.toml* file. Cargo also knows that you haven’t change anything about your code, so it doesn’t recompile that either. With nothing to do, it simply exits. -If you open up the *src/main.rs* file, make a trivial change, and then save it -and build again, you’ll only see two lines of output: +If you open the *src/main.rs* file, make a trivial change, and then save it and +build again, you’ll only see two lines of output: ``` $ cargo build @@ -511,42 +448,30 @@ $ cargo build Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53 secs ``` -These lines show Cargo only updates the build with your tiny change to the +These lines show that Cargo only updates the build with your tiny change to the *src/main.rs* file. Your dependencies haven’t changed, so Cargo knows it can reuse what it has already downloaded and compiled for those. -#### Ensuring Reproducible Builds with the *Cargo.lock* File +#### Ensuring Reproducible Builds with the Cargo.lock File Cargo has a mechanism that ensures you can rebuild the same artifact every time you or anyone else builds your code: Cargo will use only the versions of the dependencies you specified until you indicate otherwise. For example, say that -next week version 0.8.4 of the `rand` crate comes out, and that version +next week version 0.8.6 of the `rand` crate comes out, and that version contains an important bug fix, but it also contains a regression that will break your code. To handle this, Rust creates the *Cargo.lock* file the first time you run `cargo build`, so we now have this in the *guessing_game* directory. - - - -When you build a project for the first time, Cargo figures out all the -versions of the dependencies that fit the criteria and then writes them to -the *Cargo.lock* file. When you build your project in the future, Cargo will -see that the *Cargo.lock* file exists and use the versions specified there +When you build a project for the first time, Cargo figures out all the versions +of the dependencies that fit the criteria and then writes them to the +*Cargo.lock* file. When you build your project in the future, Cargo will see +that the *Cargo.lock* file exists and will use the versions specified there rather than doing all the work of figuring out versions again. This lets you have a reproducible build automatically. In other words, your project will -remain at `0.8.3` until you explicitly upgrade, thanks to the *Cargo.lock* -file. Because the *Cargo.lock* file is important for reproducible builds, it's -often checked into source control with the rest of the code in your project. - - - +remain at 0.8.5 until you explicitly upgrade, thanks to the *Cargo.lock* file. +Because the *Cargo.lock* file is important for reproducible builds, it’s often +checked into source control with the rest of the code in your project. #### Updating a Crate to Get a New Version @@ -554,24 +479,20 @@ When you *do* want to update a crate, Cargo provides the command `update`, which will ignore the *Cargo.lock* file and figure out all the latest versions that fit your specifications in *Cargo.toml*. Cargo will then write those versions to the *Cargo.lock* file. Otherwise, by default, Cargo will only look -for versions greater than `0.8.3` and less than `0.9.0`. If the `rand` crate -has released the two new versions `0.8.4` and `0.9.0` you would see the -following if you ran `cargo update`: +for versions greater than 0.8.5 and less than 0.9.0. If the `rand` crate has +released the two new versions 0.8.6 and 0.9.0, you would see the following if +you ran `cargo update`: ``` $ cargo update Updating crates.io index - Updating rand v0.8.3 -> v0.8.4 + Updating rand v0.8.5 -> v0.8.6 ``` -Cargo ignores the `0.9.0` release. At this point, you would also notice a -change in your *Cargo.lock* file noting that the version of the `rand` crate -you are now using is `0.8.4`. To use `rand` version `0.9.0` or any version in -the `0.9.x` series, you’d have to update the *Cargo.toml* file to look like -this instead: - - - +Cargo ignores the 0.9.0 release. At this point, you would also notice a change +in your *Cargo.lock* file noting that the version of the `rand` crate you are +now using is 0.8.6. To use `rand` version 0.9.0 or any version in the 0.9.*x* +series, you’d have to update the *Cargo.toml* file to look like this instead: ``` [dependencies] @@ -582,7 +503,7 @@ The next time you run `cargo build`, Cargo will update the registry of crates available and reevaluate your `rand` requirements according to the new version you have specified. -There’s a lot more to say about Cargo and its ecosystem which we’ll discuss in +There’s a lot more to say about Cargo and its ecosystem, which we’ll discuss in Chapter 14, but for now, that’s all you need to know. Cargo makes it very easy to reuse libraries, so Rustaceans are able to write smaller projects that are assembled from a number of packages. @@ -596,14 +517,14 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` use std::io; -[1]use rand::Rng; +1 use rand::Rng; fn main() { println!("Guess the number!"); - [2] let secret_number = rand::thread_rng().gen_range(1..=100); + 2 let secret_number = rand::thread_rng().gen_range(1..=100); - [3] println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}"); + 3 println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}"); println!("Please input your guess."); @@ -617,50 +538,35 @@ fn main() { } ``` - - - - Listing 2-3: Adding code to generate a random number - - - -First, we add the line `use rand::Rng` [1]. The `Rng` trait defines methods +First we add the line `use rand::Rng;` [1]. The `Rng` trait defines methods that random number generators implement, and this trait must be in scope for us to use those methods. Chapter 10 will cover traits in detail. Next, we’re adding two lines in the middle. In the first line [2], we call the `rand::thread_rng` function that gives us the particular random number -generator that we’re going to use: one that is local to the current thread of -execution and seeded by the operating system. Then we call the `gen_range` +generator we’re going to use: one that is local to the current thread of +execution and is seeded by the operating system. Then we call the `gen_range` method on the random number generator. This method is defined by the `Rng` -trait that we brought into scope with the `use rand::Rng` statement. The +trait that we brought into scope with the `use rand::Rng;` statement. The `gen_range` method takes a range expression as an argument and generates a random number in the range. The kind of range expression we’re using here takes the form `start..=end` and is inclusive on the lower and upper bounds, so we need to specify `1..=100` to request a number between 1 and 100. > Note: You won’t just know which traits to use and which methods and functions -> to call from a crate, so each crate has documentation with instructions for -> using it. Another neat feature of Cargo is that running the `cargo -> doc --open` command will build documentation provided by all of your -> dependencies locally and open it in your browser. If you’re interested in -> other functionality in the `rand` crate, for example, run `cargo doc --open` -> and click `rand` in the sidebar on the left. - -The second new line [3] prints the secret number. This is useful while -we’re developing the program to be able to test it, but we’ll delete it from -the final version. It’s not much of a game if the program prints the answer as -soon as it starts! +to call from a crate, so each crate has documentation with instructions for +using it. Another neat feature of Cargo is that running the `cargo doc --open` +command will build documentation provided by all your dependencies locally and +open it in your browser. If you’re interested in other functionality in the +`rand` crate, for example, run `cargo doc --open` and click `rand` in the +sidebar on the left. + +The second new line [3] prints the secret number. This is useful while we’re +developing the program to be able to test it, but we’ll delete it from the +final version. It’s not much of a game if the program prints the answer as soon +as it starts! Try running the program a few times: @@ -691,22 +597,22 @@ You should get different random numbers, and they should all be numbers between ## Comparing the Guess to the Secret Number Now that we have user input and a random number, we can compare them. That step -is shown in Listing 2-4. Note that this code won’t compile quite yet, as we -will explain. +is shown in Listing 2-4. Note that this code won’t compile just yet, as we will +explain. Filename: src/main.rs ``` use rand::Rng; -[1]use std::cmp::Ordering; +1 use std::cmp::Ordering; use std::io; fn main() { - // --snip-- + --snip-- println!("You guessed: {guess}"); - match[2] guess.cmp(&secret_number)[3] { + 2 match guess.3 cmp(&secret_number) { Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"), Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"), Ordering::Equal => println!("You win!"), @@ -724,7 +630,7 @@ the three outcomes that are possible when you compare two values. Then we add five new lines at the bottom that use the `Ordering` type. The `cmp` method [3] compares two values and can be called on anything that can be compared. It takes a reference to whatever you want to compare with: here it’s -comparing the `guess` to the `secret_number`. Then it returns a variant of the +comparing `guess` to `secret_number`. Then it returns a variant of the `Ordering` enum we brought into scope with the `use` statement. We use a `match` expression [2] to decide what to do next based on which variant of `Ordering` was returned from the call to `cmp` with the values in `guess` and @@ -734,14 +640,16 @@ A `match` expression is made up of *arms*. An arm consists of a *pattern* to match against, and the code that should be run if the value given to `match` fits that arm’s pattern. Rust takes the value given to `match` and looks through each arm’s pattern in turn. Patterns and the `match` construct are -powerful Rust features that let you express a variety of situations your code -might encounter and make sure that you handle them all. These features will be +powerful Rust features: they let you express a variety of situations your code +might encounter and they make sure you handle them all. These features will be covered in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter 18, respectively. Let’s walk through an example with the `match` expression we use here. Say that the user has guessed 50 and the randomly generated secret number this time is -38. When the code compares 50 to 38, the `cmp` method will return -`Ordering::Greater`, because 50 is greater than 38. The `match` expression gets +38. + +When the code compares 50 to 38, the `cmp` method will return +`Ordering::Greater` because 50 is greater than 38. The `match` expression gets the `Ordering::Greater` value and starts checking each arm’s pattern. It looks at the first arm’s pattern, `Ordering::Less`, and sees that the value `Ordering::Greater` does not match `Ordering::Less`, so it ignores the code in @@ -751,11 +659,6 @@ code in that arm will execute and print `Too big!` to the screen. The `match` expression ends after the first successful match, so it won’t look at the last arm in this scenario. - - - However, the code in Listing 2-4 won’t compile yet. Let’s try it: ``` @@ -782,85 +685,79 @@ an `i32`, which is the type of `secret_number` unless you add type information elsewhere that would cause Rust to infer a different numerical type. The reason for the error is that Rust cannot compare a string and a number type. - - - Ultimately, we want to convert the `String` the program reads as input into a -real number type so we can compare it numerically to the secret number. We do so -by adding this line to the `main` function body: +real number type so we can compare it numerically to the secret number. We do +so by adding this line to the `main` function body: Filename: src/main.rs ``` - // --snip-- +--snip-- - let mut guess = String::new(); +let mut guess = String::new(); - io::stdin() - .read_line(&mut guess) - .expect("Failed to read line"); +io::stdin() + .read_line(&mut guess) + .expect("Failed to read line"); - let guess: u32 = guess.trim().parse().expect("Please type a number!"); +let guess: u32 = guess + .trim() + .parse() + .expect("Please type a number!"); - println!("You guessed: {guess}"); +println!("You guessed: {guess}"); - match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { - Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"), - Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"), - Ordering::Equal => println!("You win!"), - } +match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { + Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"), + Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"), + Ordering::Equal => println!("You win!"), +} ``` We create a variable named `guess`. But wait, doesn’t the program already have -a variable named `guess`? It does, but helpfully Rust allows us to *shadow* the -previous value of `guess` with a new one. Shadowing lets us reuse the `guess` +a variable named `guess`? It does, but helpfully Rust allows us to shadow the +previous value of `guess` with a new one. *Shadowing* lets us reuse the `guess` variable name rather than forcing us to create two unique variables, such as -`guess_str` and `guess` for example. We’ll cover this in more detail in Chapter -3, but for now know that this feature is often used when you want to convert a -value from one type to another type. +`guess_str` and `guess`, for example. We’ll cover this in more detail in +Chapter 3, but for now, know that this feature is often used when you want to +convert a value from one type to another type. We bind this new variable to the expression `guess.trim().parse()`. The `guess` in the expression refers to the original `guess` variable that contained the input as a string. The `trim` method on a `String` instance will eliminate any whitespace at the beginning and end, which we must do to be able to compare the string to the `u32`, which can only contain numerical data. The user must press -enter to satisfy `read_line` and input their -guess, which adds a newline character to the string. For example, if the user -types 5 and presses enter, `guess` looks like this: `5\n`. The `\n` -represents “newline”. (On Windows, pressing enter results in a carriage return and a newline, -`\r\n`). The `trim` method eliminates `\n` or `\r\n`, resulting in just `5`. +enter to satisfy `read_line` and input their guess, which adds a newline +character to the string. For example, if the user types `5` and presses enter, +`guess` looks like this: `5\n`. The `\n` represents “newline.” (On Windows, +pressing enter results in a carriage return and a newline, `\r\n`.) The `trim` +method eliminates `\n` or `\r\n`, resulting in just `5`. The `parse` method on strings converts a string to another type. Here, we use it to convert from a string to a number. We need to tell Rust the exact number type we want by using `let guess: u32`. The colon (`:`) after `guess` tells Rust we’ll annotate the variable’s type. Rust has a few built-in number types; the `u32` seen here is an unsigned, 32-bit integer. It’s a good default choice -for a small positive number. You’ll learn about other number types in Chapter -3. Additionally, the `u32` annotation in this example program and the -comparison with `secret_number` means that Rust will infer that `secret_number` -should be a `u32` as well. So now the comparison will be between two values of -the same type! +for a small positive number. You’ll learn about other number types in Chapter 3. - - +Additionally, the `u32` annotation in this example program and the comparison +with `secret_number` means Rust will infer that `secret_number` should be a +`u32` as well. So now the comparison will be between two values of the same +type! The `parse` method will only work on characters that can logically be converted into numbers and so can easily cause errors. If, for example, the string -contained `A👍%`, there would be no way to convert that to a number. Because it -might fail, the `parse` method returns a `Result` type, much as the `read_line` -method does (discussed earlier in “Handling Potential Failure with the `Result` -Type”). We’ll treat this `Result` the same way by using the `expect` method -again. If `parse` returns an `Err` `Result` variant because it couldn’t create -a number from the string, the `expect` call will crash the game and print the -message we give it. If `parse` can successfully convert the string to a number, -it will return the `Ok` variant of `Result`, and `expect` will return the -number that we want from the `Ok` value. +contained `A`👍`%`, there would be no way to convert that to a number. Because +it might fail, the `parse` method returns a `Result` type, much as the +`read_line` method does (discussed earlier in “Handling Potential Failure with +Result” on page XX). We’ll treat this `Result` the same way by using the +`expect` method again. If `parse` returns an `Err` `Result` variant because it +couldn’t create a number from the string, the `expect` call will crash the game +and print the message we give it. If `parse` can successfully convert the +string to a number, it will return the `Ok` variant of `Result`, and `expect` +will return the number that we want from the `Ok` value. -Let’s run the program now! +Let’s run the program now: ``` $ cargo run @@ -891,20 +788,19 @@ more chances at guessing the number: Filename: src/main.rs ``` - // --snip-- +--snip-- - println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}"); +println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}"); - loop { - println!("Please input your guess."); +loop { + println!("Please input your guess."); - // --snip-- + --snip-- - match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { - Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"), - Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"), - Ordering::Equal => println!("You win!"), - } + match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { + Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"), + Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"), + Ordering::Equal => println!("You win!"), } } ``` @@ -915,11 +811,10 @@ and run the program again. The program will now ask for another guess forever, which actually introduces a new problem. It doesn’t seem like the user can quit! The user could always interrupt the program by using the keyboard shortcut -ctrl-c. But there’s another way to escape this -insatiable monster, as mentioned in the `parse` discussion in “Comparing the -Guess to the Secret Number”: if the user enters a non-number answer, the -program will crash. We can take advantage of that to allow the user to quit, as -shown here: +ctrl-C. But there’s another way to escape this insatiable monster, as mentioned +in the `parse` discussion in “Comparing the Guess to the Secret Number” on page +XX: if the user enters a non-number answer, the program will crash. We can take +advantage of that to allow the user to quit, as shown here: ``` $ cargo run @@ -942,12 +837,13 @@ You guessed: 59 You win! Please input your guess. quit -thread 'main' panicked at 'Please type a number!: ParseIntError { kind: InvalidDigit }', src/main.rs:28:47 +thread 'main' panicked at 'Please type a number!: ParseIntError +{ kind: InvalidDigit }', src/main.rs:28:47 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` -Typing `quit` will quit the game, but as you’ll notice so will entering any -other non-number input. This is suboptimal to say the least; we want the game +Typing `quit` will quit the game, but as you’ll notice, so will entering any +other non-number input. This is suboptimal, to say the least; we want the game to also stop when the correct number is guessed. ### Quitting After a Correct Guess @@ -957,16 +853,14 @@ Let’s program the game to quit when the user wins by adding a `break` statemen Filename: src/main.rs ``` - // --snip-- +--snip-- - match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { - Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"), - Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"), - Ordering::Equal => { - println!("You win!"); - break; - } - } +match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { + Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"), + Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"), + Ordering::Equal => { + println!("You win!"); + break; } } ``` @@ -985,20 +879,20 @@ is converted from a `String` to a `u32`, as shown in Listing 2-5. Filename: src/main.rs ``` - // --snip-- +--snip-- - io::stdin() - .read_line(&mut guess) - .expect("Failed to read line"); +io::stdin() + .read_line(&mut guess) + .expect("Failed to read line"); - let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(num) => num, - Err(_) => continue, - }; +let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(num) => num, + Err(_) => continue, +}; - println!("You guessed: {guess}"); +println!("You guessed: {guess}"); - // --snip-- +--snip-- ``` Listing 2-5: Ignoring a non-number guess and asking for another guess instead @@ -1011,7 +905,7 @@ a `match` expression here, as we did with the `Ordering` result of the `cmp` method. If `parse` is able to successfully turn the string into a number, it will -return an `Ok` value that contains the resulting number. That `Ok` value will +return an `Ok` value that contains the resultant number. That `Ok` value will match the first arm’s pattern, and the `match` expression will just return the `num` value that `parse` produced and put inside the `Ok` value. That number will end up right where we want it in the new `guess` variable we’re creating. @@ -1098,10 +992,10 @@ fn main() { Listing 2-6: Complete guessing game code -## Summary - At this point, you’ve successfully built the guessing game. Congratulations! +## Summary + This project was a hands-on way to introduce you to many new Rust concepts: `let`, `match`, functions, the use of external crates, and more. In the next few chapters, you’ll learn about these concepts in more detail. Chapter 3 @@ -1109,3 +1003,4 @@ covers concepts that most programming languages have, such as variables, data types, and functions, and shows how to use them in Rust. Chapter 4 explores ownership, a feature that makes Rust different from other languages. Chapter 5 discusses structs and method syntax, and Chapter 6 explains how enums work. + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter03.md b/nostarch/chapter03.md index 281f31d338..249032fd79 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter03.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter03.md @@ -18,19 +18,19 @@ Specifically, you’ll learn about variables, basic types, functions, comments, and control flow. These foundations will be in every Rust program, and learning them early will give you a strong core to start from. -> #### Keywords +> ### Keywords > -> The Rust language has a set of *keywords* that are reserved for use by -> the language only, much as in other languages. Keep in mind that you cannot -> use these words as names of variables or functions. Most of the keywords have -> special meanings, and you’ll be using them to do various tasks in your Rust -> programs; a few have no current functionality associated with them but have -> been reserved for functionality that might be added to Rust in the future. You -> can find a list of the keywords in Appendix A. +> The Rust language has a set of *keywords* that are reserved for use by the +language only, much as in other languages. Keep in mind that you cannot use +these words as names of variables or functions. Most of the keywords have +special meanings, and you’ll be using them to do various tasks in your Rust +programs; a few have no current functionality associated with them but have +been reserved for functionality that might be added to Rust in the future. You +can find a list of the keywords in Appendix A. ## Variables and Mutability -As mentioned in the “Storing Values with Variables” section, by default +As mentioned in “Storing Values with Variables” on page XX, by default, variables are immutable. This is one of many nudges Rust gives you to write your code in a way that takes advantage of the safety and easy concurrency that Rust offers. However, you still have the option to make your variables mutable. @@ -38,12 +38,11 @@ Let’s explore how and why Rust encourages you to favor immutability and why sometimes you might want to opt out. When a variable is immutable, once a value is bound to a name, you can’t change -that value. To illustrate this, let’s generate a new project called *variables* -in your *projects* directory by using `cargo new variables`. +that value. To illustrate this, generate a new project called *variables* in +your *projects* directory by using `cargo new variables`. Then, in your new *variables* directory, open *src/main.rs* and replace its -code with the following code. This code won’t compile just yet, we’ll first -examine the immutability error. +code with the following code, which won’t compile just yet: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -56,8 +55,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Save and run the program using `cargo run`. You should receive an error -message, as shown in this output: +Save and run the program using `cargo run`. You should receive an error message +regarding an immutability error, as shown in this output: ``` $ cargo run @@ -80,9 +79,8 @@ Compiler errors can be frustrating, but really they only mean your program isn’t safely doing what you want it to do yet; they do *not* mean that you’re not a good programmer! Experienced Rustaceans still get compiler errors. -The error message indicates that the cause of the error is that you `` cannot -assign twice to immutable variable `x` ``, because you tried to assign a second -value to the immutable `x` variable. +You received the error message `cannot assign twice to immutable variable `x`` +because you tried to assign a second value to the immutable `x` variable. It’s important that we get compile-time errors when we attempt to change a value that’s designated as immutable because this very situation can lead to @@ -91,15 +89,15 @@ never change and another part of our code changes that value, it’s possible that the first part of the code won’t do what it was designed to do. The cause of this kind of bug can be difficult to track down after the fact, especially when the second piece of code changes the value only *sometimes*. The Rust -compiler guarantees that when you state a value won’t change, it really won’t -change, so you don’t have to keep track of it yourself. Your code is thus +compiler guarantees that when you state that a value won’t change, it really +won’t change, so you don’t have to keep track of it yourself. Your code is thus easier to reason through. But mutability can be very useful, and can make code more convenient to write. -Variables are immutable only by default; as you did in Chapter 2, you can make -them mutable by adding `mut` in front of the variable name. Adding `mut` also -conveys intent to future readers of the code by indicating that other parts of -the code will be changing this variable’s value. +Although variables are immutable by default, you can make them mutable by +adding `mut` in front of the variable name as you did in Chapter 2. Adding +`mut` also conveys intent to future readers of the code by indicating that +other parts of the code will be changing this variable’s value. For example, let’s change *src/main.rs* to the following: @@ -125,18 +123,10 @@ The value of x is: 5 The value of x is: 6 ``` -We’re allowed to change the value bound to `x` from `5` to `6` when `mut` -is used. Ultimately, deciding whether to use mutability or not is up to you and +We’re allowed to change the value bound to `x` from `5` to `6` when `mut` is +used. Ultimately, deciding whether to use mutability or not is up to you and depends on what you think is clearest in that particular situation. - - - ### Constants Like immutable variables, *constants* are values that are bound to a name and @@ -146,9 +136,9 @@ and variables. First, you aren’t allowed to use `mut` with constants. Constants aren’t just immutable by default—they’re always immutable. You declare constants using the `const` keyword instead of the `let` keyword, and the type of the value *must* -be annotated. We’re about to cover types and type annotations in the next -section, “Data Types,” so don’t worry about the details right now. Just know -that you must always annotate the type. +be annotated. We’ll cover types and type annotations in “Data Types” on page +XX, so don’t worry about the details right now. Just know that you must always +annotate the type. Constants can be declared in any scope, including the global scope, which makes them useful for values that many parts of code need to know about. @@ -169,15 +159,15 @@ program). Rust’s naming convention for constants is to use all uppercase with underscores between words. The compiler is able to evaluate a limited set of operations at compile time, which lets us choose to write out this value in a way that’s easier to understand and verify, rather than setting this constant -to the value 10,800. See the Rust Reference’s section on constant evaluation at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/const_eval.html* for more information on -what operations can be used when declaring constants. +to the value `10,800`. See the Rust Reference’s section on constant evaluation +at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/const_eval.html* for more information +on what operations can be used when declaring constants. -Constants are valid for the entire time a program runs, within the scope they -were declared in. This property makes constants useful for values in your -application domain that multiple parts of the program might need to know about, -such as the maximum number of points any player of a game is allowed to earn or -the speed of light. +Constants are valid for the entire time a program runs, within the scope in +which they were declared. This property makes constants useful for values in +your application domain that multiple parts of the program might need to know +about, such as the maximum number of points any player of a game is allowed to +earn, or the speed of light. Naming hardcoded values used throughout your program as constants is useful in conveying the meaning of that value to future maintainers of the code. It also @@ -195,21 +185,6 @@ variable name to itself until either it itself is shadowed or the scope ends. We can shadow a variable by using the same variable’s name and repeating the use of the `let` keyword as follows: - - - Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -226,17 +201,6 @@ fn main() { println!("The value of x is: {x}"); } ``` - - This program first binds `x` to a value of `5`. Then it creates a new variable `x` by repeating `let x =`, taking the original value and adding `1` so the @@ -246,10 +210,6 @@ variable, multiplying the previous value by `2` to give `x` a value of `12`. When that scope is over, the inner shadowing ends and `x` returns to being `6`. When we run this program, it will output the following: - - - ``` $ cargo run Compiling variables v0.1.0 (file:///projects/variables) @@ -259,46 +219,21 @@ The value of x in the inner scope is: 12 The value of x is: 6 ``` -Shadowing is different from marking a variable as `mut`, because we’ll get a +Shadowing is different from marking a variable as `mut` because we’ll get a compile-time error if we accidentally try to reassign to this variable without using the `let` keyword. By using `let`, we can perform a few transformations on a value but have the variable be immutable after those transformations have been completed. - - - - - The other difference between `mut` and shadowing is that because we’re effectively creating a new variable when we use the `let` keyword again, we can change the type of the value but reuse the same name. For example, say our program asks a user to show how many spaces they want between some text by inputting space characters, and then we want to store that input as a number: - - - ``` - let spaces = " "; - let spaces = spaces.len(); +let spaces = " "; +let spaces = spaces.len(); ``` The first `spaces` variable is a string type and the second `spaces` variable @@ -308,8 +243,8 @@ the simpler `spaces` name. However, if we try to use `mut` for this, as shown here, we’ll get a compile-time error: ``` - let mut spaces = " "; - spaces = spaces.len(); +let mut spaces = " "; +spaces = spaces.len(); ``` The error says we’re not allowed to mutate a variable’s type: @@ -339,20 +274,16 @@ Keep in mind that Rust is a *statically typed* language, which means that it must know the types of all variables at compile time. The compiler can usually infer what type we want to use based on the value and how we use it. In cases when many types are possible, such as when we converted a `String` to a numeric -type using `parse` in the “Comparing the Guess to the Secret Number” section in -Chapter 2, we must add a type annotation, like this: +type using `parse` in “Comparing the Guess to the Secret Number” on page XX, we +must add a type annotation, like this: ``` let guess: u32 = "42".parse().expect("Not a number!"); ``` -If we don’t add the `: u32` type annotation above, Rust will display the -following error, which means the compiler needs more information from us to -know which type we want to use: - - - +If we don’t add the `: u32` type annotation shown in the preceding code, Rust +will display the following error, which means the compiler needs more +information from us to know which type we want to use: ``` $ cargo build @@ -377,20 +308,20 @@ these from other programming languages. Let’s jump into how they work in Rust. An *integer* is a number without a fractional component. We used one integer type in Chapter 2, the `u32` type. This type declaration indicates that the value it’s associated with should be an unsigned integer (signed integer types -start with `i`, instead of `u`) that takes up 32 bits of space. Table 3-1 shows +start with `i` instead of `u`) that takes up 32 bits of space. Table 3-1 shows the built-in integer types in Rust. We can use any of these variants to declare the type of an integer value. Table 3-1: Integer Types in Rust -| Length | Signed | Unsigned | -|---------|---------|----------| -| 8-bit | `i8` | `u8` | -| 16-bit | `i16` | `u16` | -| 32-bit | `i32` | `u32` | -| 64-bit | `i64` | `u64` | -| 128-bit | `i128` | `u128` | -| arch | `isize` | `usize` | +| Length | Signed | Unsigned | +|---|---|---| +| 8-bit | `i8` | `u8` | +| 16-bit | `i16` | `u16` | +| 32-bit | `i32` | `u32` | +| 64-bit | `i64` | `u64` | +| 128-bit | `i128` | `u128` | +| arch | `isize` | `usize` | Each variant can be either signed or unsigned and has an explicit size. *Signed* and *unsigned* refer to whether it’s possible for the number to be @@ -420,55 +351,54 @@ have the same value as if you had specified `1000`. Table 3-2: Integer Literals in Rust -| Number literals | Example | -|------------------|---------------| -| Decimal | `98_222` | -| Hex | `0xff` | -| Octal | `0o77` | -| Binary | `0b1111_0000` | -| Byte (`u8` only) | `b'A'` | +| Number literals | Example | +|---|---| +| Decimal | `98_222` | +| Hex | `0xff` | +| Octal | `0o77` | +| Binary | `0b1111_0000` | +| Byte (`u8` only) | `b'A'` | So how do you know which type of integer to use? If you’re unsure, Rust’s defaults are generally good places to start: integer types default to `i32`. The primary situation in which you’d use `isize` or `usize` is when indexing some sort of collection. -> ##### Integer Overflow +> ### Integer Overflow > > Let’s say you have a variable of type `u8` that can hold values between 0 and -> 255. If you try to change the variable to a value outside of that range, such -> as 256, *integer overflow* will occur, which can result in one of two -> behaviors. When you’re compiling in debug mode, Rust includes checks for -> integer overflow that cause your program to *panic* at runtime if this -> behavior occurs. Rust uses the term panicking when a program exits with an -> error; we’ll discuss panics in more depth in the “Unrecoverable Errors with -> `panic!`” section in Chapter 9. +255. If you try to change the variable to a value outside that range, such as +256, *integer overflow* will occur, which can result in one of two behaviors. +When you’re compiling in debug mode, Rust includes checks for integer overflow +that cause your program to *panic* at runtime if this behavior occurs. Rust +uses the term *panicking* when a program exits with an error; we’ll discuss +panics in more depth in “Unrecoverable Errors with panic!” on page XX. > > When you’re compiling in release mode with the `--release` flag, Rust does -> *not* include checks for integer overflow that cause panics. Instead, if -> overflow occurs, Rust performs *two’s complement wrapping*. In short, values -> greater than the maximum value the type can hold “wrap around” to the minimum -> of the values the type can hold. In the case of a `u8`, the value 256 becomes -> 0, the value 257 becomes 1, and so on. The program won’t panic, but the -> variable will have a value that probably isn’t what you were expecting it to -> have. Relying on integer overflow’s wrapping behavior is considered an error. +*not* include checks for integer overflow that cause panics. Instead, if +overflow occurs, Rust performs *two’s complement wrapping*. In short, values +greater than the maximum value the type can hold “wrap around” to the minimum +of the values the type can hold. In the case of a `u8`, the value 256 becomes +0, the value 257 becomes 1, and so on. The program won’t panic, but the +variable will have a value that probably isn’t what you were expecting it to +have. Relying on integer overflow’s wrapping behavior is considered an error. > > To explicitly handle the possibility of overflow, you can use these families -> of methods provided by the standard library for primitive numeric types: +of methods provided by the standard library for primitive numeric types: > -> - Wrap in all modes with the `wrapping_*` methods, such as `wrapping_add` -> - Return the `None` value if there is overflow with the `checked_*` methods -> - Return the value and a boolean indicating whether there was overflow with -> the `overflowing_*` methods -> - Saturate at the value’s minimum or maximum values with `saturating_*` -> methods +> * Wrap in all modes with the `wrapping_*` methods, such as `wrapping_add`. +> * Return the `None` value if there is overflow with the `checked_*` methods. +> * Return the value and a boolean indicating whether there was overflow with +the `overflowing_*` methods. +> * Saturate at the value’s minimum or maximum values with the `saturating_*` +methods. #### Floating-Point Types Rust also has two primitive types for *floating-point numbers*, which are numbers with decimal points. Rust’s floating-point types are `f32` and `f64`, which are 32 bits and 64 bits in size, respectively. The default type is `f64` -because on modern CPUs it’s roughly the same speed as `f32` but is capable of +because on modern CPUs, it’s roughly the same speed as `f32` but is capable of more precision. All floating-point types are signed. Here’s an example that shows floating-point numbers in action: @@ -488,9 +418,9 @@ Floating-point numbers are represented according to the IEEE-754 standard. The #### Numeric Operations -Rust supports the basic mathematical operations you’d expect for all of the -number types: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and remainder. -Integer division rounds down to the nearest integer. The following code shows +Rust supports the basic mathematical operations you’d expect for all the number +types: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and remainder. Integer +division truncates toward zero to the nearest integer. The following code shows how you’d use each numeric operation in a `let` statement: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -508,7 +438,7 @@ fn main() { // division let quotient = 56.7 / 32.2; - let floored = 2 / 3; // Results in 0 + let truncated = -5 / 3; // Results in -1 // remainder let remainder = 43 % 5; @@ -536,12 +466,12 @@ fn main() { ``` The main way to use Boolean values is through conditionals, such as an `if` -expression. We’ll cover how `if` expressions work in Rust in the “Control -Flow” section. +expression. We’ll cover how `if` expressions work in Rust in “Control Flow” on +page XX. #### The Character Type -Rust’s `char` type is the language’s most primitive alphabetic type. Here’s +Rust’s `char` type is the language’s most primitive alphabetic type. Here are some examples of declaring `char` values: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -563,7 +493,7 @@ Values range from `U+0000` to `U+D7FF` and `U+E000` to `U+10FFFF` inclusive. However, a “character” isn’t really a concept in Unicode, so your human intuition for what a “character” is may not match up with what a `char` is in Rust. We’ll discuss this topic in detail in “Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with -Strings” in Chapter 8. +Strings” on page XX. ### Compound Types @@ -572,9 +502,9 @@ primitive compound types: tuples and arrays. #### The Tuple Type -A tuple is a general way of grouping together a number of values with a variety -of types into one compound type. Tuples have a fixed length: once declared, -they cannot grow or shrink in size. +A *tuple* is a general way of grouping together a number of values with a +variety of types into one compound type. Tuples have a fixed length: once +declared, they cannot grow or shrink in size. We create a tuple by writing a comma-separated list of values inside parentheses. Each position in the tuple has a type, and the types of the @@ -589,7 +519,7 @@ fn main() { } ``` -The variable `tup` binds to the entire tuple, because a tuple is considered a +The variable `tup` binds to the entire tuple because a tuple is considered a single compound element. To get the individual values out of a tuple, we can use pattern matching to destructure a tuple value, like this: @@ -607,7 +537,7 @@ fn main() { This program first creates a tuple and binds it to the variable `tup`. It then uses a pattern with `let` to take `tup` and turn it into three separate -variables, `x`, `y`, and `z`. This is called *destructuring*, because it breaks +variables, `x`, `y`, and `z`. This is called *destructuring* because it breaks the single tuple into three parts. Finally, the program prints the value of `y`, which is `6.4`. @@ -632,28 +562,11 @@ This program creates the tuple `x` and then accesses each element of the tuple using their respective indices. As with most programming languages, the first index in a tuple is 0. - - - The tuple without any values has a special name, *unit*. This value and its corresponding type are both written `()` and represent an empty value or an empty return type. Expressions implicitly return the unit value if they don’t return any other value. - - - #### The Array Type Another way to have a collection of multiple values is with an *array*. Unlike @@ -674,7 +587,7 @@ fn main() { Arrays are useful when you want your data allocated on the stack rather than the heap (we will discuss the stack and the heap more in Chapter 4) or when you want to ensure you always have a fixed number of elements. An array isn’t as -flexible as the vector type, though. A vector is a similar collection type +flexible as the vector type, though. A *vector* is a similar collection type provided by the standard library that *is* allowed to grow or shrink in size. If you’re unsure whether to use an array or a vector, chances are you should use a vector. Chapter 8 discusses vectors in more detail. @@ -711,7 +624,7 @@ The array named `a` will contain `5` elements that will all be set to the value `3` initially. This is the same as writing `let a = [3, 3, 3, 3, 3];` but in a more concise way. -##### Accessing Array Elements +#### Accessing Array Elements An array is a single chunk of memory of a known, fixed size that can be allocated on the stack. You can access elements of an array using indexing, @@ -728,11 +641,11 @@ fn main() { } ``` -In this example, the variable named `first` will get the value `1`, because -that is the value at index `[0]` in the array. The variable named `second` will -get the value `2` from index `[1]` in the array. +In this example, the variable named `first` will get the value `1` because that +is the value at index `[0]` in the array. The variable named `second` will get +the value `2` from index `[1]` in the array. -##### Invalid Array Element Access +#### Invalid Array Element Access Let’s see what happens if you try to access an element of an array that is past the end of the array. Say you run this code, similar to the guessing game in @@ -768,12 +681,13 @@ fn main() { ``` This code compiles successfully. If you run this code using `cargo run` and -enter 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, the program will print out the corresponding value at -that index in the array. If you instead enter a number past the end of the -array, such as 10, you’ll see output like this: +enter `0`, `1`, `2`, `3`, or `4`, the program will print out the corresponding +value at that index in the array. If you instead enter a number past the end of +the array, such as `10`, you’ll see output like this: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 5 but the index is 10', src/main.rs:19:19 +thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 5 but the index is +10', src/main.rs:19:19 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` @@ -793,13 +707,6 @@ kind of error by immediately exiting instead of allowing the memory access and continuing. Chapter 9 discusses more of Rust’s error handling and how you can write readable, safe code that neither panics nor allows invalid memory access. - - - ## Functions Functions are prevalent in Rust code. You’ve already seen one of the most @@ -836,14 +743,6 @@ called from inside the `main` function. Note that we defined `another_function` as well. Rust doesn’t care where you define your functions, only that they’re defined somewhere in a scope that can be seen by the caller. - - - Let’s start a new binary project named *functions* to explore functions further. Place the `another_function` example in *src/main.rs* and run it. You should see the following output: @@ -858,8 +757,8 @@ Another function. ``` The lines execute in the order in which they appear in the `main` function. -First, the “Hello, world!” message prints, and then `another_function` is -called and its message is printed. +First the “Hello, world!” message prints, and then `another_function` is called +and its message is printed. ### Parameters @@ -885,9 +784,6 @@ fn another_function(x: i32) { } ``` - - - Try running this program; you should get the following output: ``` @@ -909,9 +805,6 @@ definitions means the compiler almost never needs you to use them elsewhere in the code to figure out what type you mean. The compiler is also able to give more helpful error messages if it knows what types the function expects. - - - When defining multiple parameters, separate the parameter declarations with commas, like this: @@ -957,19 +850,14 @@ understand. Other languages don’t have the same distinctions, so let’s look what statements and expressions are and how their differences affect the bodies of functions. -*Statements* are instructions that perform some action and do not return a -value. *Expressions* evaluate to a resulting value. Let’s look at some examples. +* **Statements **: are instructions that perform some action and do not return +a value. +* **Expressions **: evaluate to a resultant value. Let’s look at some examples. We’ve actually already used statements and expressions. Creating a variable and assigning a value to it with the `let` keyword is a statement. In Listing 3-1, `let y = 6;` is a statement. - - - Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -1007,33 +895,16 @@ error: expected expression, found statement (`let`) | = note: variable declaration using `let` is a statement -error[E0658]: `let` expressions in this position are experimental +error[E0658]: `let` expressions in this position are unstable --> src/main.rs:2:14 | 2 | let x = (let y = 6); | ^^^^^^^^^ | - = note: see issue #53667 for more information - = help: you can write `matches!(, )` instead of `let = ` - -warning: unnecessary parentheses around assigned value - --> src/main.rs:2:13 - | -2 | let x = (let y = 6); - | ^ ^ - | - = note: `#[warn(unused_parens)]` on by default -help: remove these parentheses - | -2 - let x = (let y = 6); -2 + let x = let y = 6; - | + = note: see issue #53667 for +more information ``` - - - The `let y = 6` statement does not return a value, so there isn’t anything for `x` to bind to. This is different from what happens in other languages, such as C and Ruby, where the assignment returns the value of the assignment. In those @@ -1052,30 +923,22 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - let y = { + 1 let y = {2 let x = 3; - x + 1 + 3 x + 1 }; println!("The value of y is: {y}"); } ``` -This expression: - -``` -{ - let x = 3; - x + 1 -} -``` - -is a block that, in this case, evaluates to `4`. That value gets bound to `y` -as part of the `let` statement. Note that the `x + 1` line doesn’t have a -semicolon at the end, unlike most of the lines you’ve seen so far. Expressions -do not include ending semicolons. If you add a semicolon to the end of an -expression, you turn it into a statement, and it will then not return a value. -Keep this in mind as you explore function return values and expressions next. +The expression [2] is a block that, in this case, evaluates to `4`. That value +gets bound to `y` as part of the `let` statement [1]. Note the line without a +semicolon at the end [3], which is unlike most of the lines you’ve seen so far. +Expressions do not include ending semicolons. If you add a semicolon to the end +of an expression, you turn it into a statement, and it will then not return a +value. Keep this in mind as you explore function return values and expressions +next. ### Functions with Return Values @@ -1128,10 +991,6 @@ Second, the `five` function has no parameters and defines the type of the return value, but the body of the function is a lonely `5` with no semicolon because it’s an expression whose value we want to return. - - - Let’s look at another example: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1150,7 +1009,7 @@ fn plus_one(x: i32) -> i32 { Running this code will print `The value of x is: 6`. But if we place a semicolon at the end of the line containing `x + 1`, changing it from an -expression to a statement, we’ll get an error. +expression to a statement, we’ll get an error: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1179,10 +1038,10 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types | | | implicitly returns `()` as its body has no tail or `return` expression 8 | x + 1; - | - help: consider removing this semicolon + | - help: remove this semicolon ``` -The main error message, “mismatched types,” reveals the core issue with this +The main error message, `mismatched types`, reveals the core issue with this code. The definition of the function `plus_one` says that it will return an `i32`, but statements don’t evaluate to a value, which is expressed by `()`, the unit type. Therefore, nothing is returned, which contradicts the function @@ -1236,16 +1095,16 @@ fn main() { ``` Rust also has another kind of comment, documentation comments, which we’ll -discuss in the “Publishing a Crate to Crates.io” section of Chapter 14. +discuss in “Publishing a Crate to Crates.io” on page XX. ## Control Flow -The ability to run some code depending on if a condition is true, or run some -code repeatedly while a condition is true, are basic building blocks in most -programming languages. The most common constructs that let you control the flow -of execution of Rust code are `if` expressions and loops. +The ability to run some code depending on whether a condition is `true` and to +run some code repeatedly while a condition is `true` are basic building blocks +in most programming languages. The most common constructs that let you control +the flow of execution of Rust code are `if` expressions and loops. -### `if` Expressions +### if Expressions An `if` expression allows you to branch your code depending on conditions. You provide a condition and then state, “If this condition is met, run this block @@ -1270,16 +1129,16 @@ fn main() { All `if` expressions start with the keyword `if`, followed by a condition. In this case, the condition checks whether or not the variable `number` has a -value less than 5. We place the block of code to execute if the condition is true -immediately after the condition inside curly brackets. Blocks of code +value less than 5. We place the block of code to execute if the condition is +`true` immediately after the condition inside curly brackets. Blocks of code associated with the conditions in `if` expressions are sometimes called *arms*, -just like the arms in `match` expressions that we discussed in the “Comparing -the Guess to the Secret Number” section of Chapter 2. +just like the arms in `match` expressions that we discussed in “Comparing the +Guess to the Secret Number” on page XX. -Optionally, we can also include an `else` expression, which we chose -to do here, to give the program an alternative block of code to execute should -the condition evaluate to false. If you don’t provide an `else` expression and -the condition is false, the program will just skip the `if` block and move on +Optionally, we can also include an `else` expression, which we chose to do +here, to give the program an alternative block of code to execute should the +condition evaluate to `false`. If you don’t provide an `else` expression and +the condition is `false`, the program will just skip the `if` block and move on to the next bit of code. Try running this code; you should see the following output: @@ -1359,7 +1218,7 @@ fn main() { Running this code will print `number was something other than zero`. -#### Handling Multiple Conditions with `else if` +#### Handling Multiple Conditions with else if You can use multiple conditions by combining `if` and `else` in an `else if` expression. For example: @@ -1394,17 +1253,17 @@ number is divisible by 3 ``` When this program executes, it checks each `if` expression in turn and executes -the first body for which the condition holds true. Note that even though 6 is -divisible by 2, we don’t see the output `number is divisible by 2`, nor do we -see the `number is not divisible by 4, 3, or 2` text from the `else` block. -That’s because Rust only executes the block for the first true condition, and -once it finds one, it doesn’t even check the rest. +the first body for which the condition evaluates to `true`. Note that even +though 6 is divisible by 2, we don’t see the output `number is divisible by 2`, +nor do we see the `number is not divisible by 4, 3, or 2` text from the `else` +block. That’s because Rust only executes the block for the first `true` +condition, and once it finds one, it doesn’t even check the rest. Using too many `else if` expressions can clutter your code, so if you have more than one, you might want to refactor your code. Chapter 6 describes a powerful Rust branching construct called `match` for these cases. -#### Using `if` in a `let` Statement +#### Using if in a let Statement Because `if` is an expression, we can use it on the right side of a `let` statement to assign the outcome to a variable, as in Listing 3-2. @@ -1420,19 +1279,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` - - - Listing 3-2: Assigning the result of an `if` expression to a variable - - - The `number` variable will be bound to a value based on the outcome of the `if` expression. Run this code to see what happens: @@ -1475,7 +1323,8 @@ error[E0308]: `if` and `else` have incompatible types --> src/main.rs:4:44 | 4 | let number = if condition { 5 } else { "six" }; - | - ^^^^^ expected integer, found `&str` + | - ^^^^^ expected integer, found +`&str` | | | expected because of this ``` @@ -1493,12 +1342,12 @@ if it had to keep track of multiple hypothetical types for any variable. It’s often useful to execute a block of code more than once. For this task, Rust provides several *loops*, which will run through the code inside the loop -body to the end and then start immediately back at the beginning. To -experiment with loops, let’s make a new project called *loops*. +body to the end and then start immediately back at the beginning. To experiment +with loops, let’s make a new project called *loops*. Rust has three kinds of loops: `loop`, `while`, and `for`. Let’s try each one. -#### Repeating Code with `loop` +#### Repeating Code with loop The `loop` keyword tells Rust to execute a block of code over and over again forever or until you explicitly tell it to stop. @@ -1517,9 +1366,9 @@ fn main() { ``` When we run this program, we’ll see `again!` printed over and over continuously -until we stop the program manually. Most terminals support the keyboard shortcut -ctrl-c to interrupt a program that is stuck in -a continual loop. Give it a try: +until we stop the program manually. Most terminals support the keyboard +shortcut ctrl-C to interrupt a program that is stuck in a continual loop. Give +it a try: ``` $ cargo run @@ -1533,25 +1382,20 @@ again! ^Cagain! ``` -The symbol `^C` represents where you pressed ctrl-c -. You may or may not see the word `again!` printed after the `^C`, -depending on where the code was in the loop when it received the interrupt -signal. +The symbol `^C` represents where you pressed ctrl-C. You may or may not see the +word `again!` printed after the `^C`, depending on where the code was in the +loop when it received the interrupt signal. Fortunately, Rust also provides a way to break out of a loop using code. You can place the `break` keyword within the loop to tell the program when to stop -executing the loop. Recall that we did this in the guessing game in the -“Quitting After a Correct Guess” section of Chapter 2 to exit the program when -the user won the game by guessing the correct number. +executing the loop. Recall that we did this in the guessing game in “Quitting +After a Correct Guess” on page XX to exit the program when the user won the +game by guessing the correct number. We also used `continue` in the guessing game, which in a loop tells the program to skip over any remaining code in this iteration of the loop and go to the next iteration. - - - #### Returning Values from Loops One of the uses of a `loop` is to retry an operation you know might fail, such @@ -1580,20 +1424,18 @@ fn main() { Before the loop, we declare a variable named `counter` and initialize it to `0`. Then we declare a variable named `result` to hold the value returned from the loop. On every iteration of the loop, we add `1` to the `counter` variable, -and then check whether the counter is equal to `10`. When it is, we use the +and then check whether the `counter` is equal to `10`. When it is, we use the `break` keyword with the value `counter * 2`. After the loop, we use a semicolon to end the statement that assigns the value to `result`. Finally, we -print the value in `result`, which in this case is 20. +print the value in `result`, which in this case is `20`. #### Loop Labels to Disambiguate Between Multiple Loops - - If you have loops within loops, `break` and `continue` apply to the innermost -loop at that point. You can optionally specify a *loop label* on a loop that we -can then use with `break` or `continue` to specify that those keywords apply to -the labeled loop instead of the innermost loop. Loop labels must begin with a -single quote. Here’s an example with two nested loops: +loop at that point. You can optionally specify a *loop label* on a loop that +you can then use with `break` or `continue` to specify that those keywords +apply to the labeled loop instead of the innermost loop. Loop labels must begin +with a single quote. Here’s an example with two nested loops: ``` fn main() { @@ -1639,10 +1481,10 @@ remaining = 10 End count = 2 ``` -#### Conditional Loops with `while` +#### Conditional Loops with while A program will often need to evaluate a condition within a loop. While the -condition is true, the loop runs. When the condition ceases to be true, the +condition is `true`, the loop runs. When the condition ceases to be `true`, the program calls `break`, stopping the loop. It’s possible to implement behavior like this using a combination of `loop`, `if`, `else`, and `break`; you could try that now in a program, if you’d like. However, this pattern is so common @@ -1666,13 +1508,14 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 3-3: Using a `while` loop to run code while a condition holds true +Listing 3-3: Using a `while` loop to run code while a condition evaluates to +`true` This construct eliminates a lot of nesting that would be necessary if you used -`loop`, `if`, `else`, and `break`, and it’s clearer. While a condition holds -true, the code runs; otherwise, it exits the loop. +`loop`, `if`, `else`, and `break`, and it’s clearer. While a condition +evaluates to `true`, the code runs; otherwise, it exits the loop. -#### Looping Through a Collection with `for` +#### Looping Through a Collection with for You can choose to use the `while` construct to loop over the elements of a collection, such as an array. For example, the loop in Listing 3-4 prints each @@ -1697,8 +1540,8 @@ Listing 3-4: Looping through each element of a collection using a `while` loop Here, the code counts up through the elements in the array. It starts at index `0`, and then loops until it reaches the final index in the array (that is, -when `index < 5` is no longer true). Running this code will print every element -in the array: +when `index < 5` is no longer `true`). Running this code will print every +element in the array: ``` $ cargo run @@ -1717,8 +1560,8 @@ will reach a value of `5` at some point, the loop stops executing before trying to fetch a sixth value from the array. However, this approach is error prone; we could cause the program to panic if -the index value or test condition are incorrect. For example, if you changed -the definition of the `a` array to have four elements but forgot to update the +the index value or test condition is incorrect. For example, if you changed the +definition of the `a` array to have four elements but forgot to update the condition to `while index < 4`, the code would panic. It’s also slow, because the compiler adds runtime code to perform the conditional check of whether the index is within the bounds of the array on every iteration through the loop. @@ -1775,15 +1618,16 @@ This code is a bit nicer, isn’t it? ## Summary -You made it! That was a sizable chapter: you learned about variables, scalar -and compound data types, functions, comments, `if` expressions, and loops! -To practice with the concepts discussed in this chapter, try building -programs to do the following: +You made it! This was a sizable chapter: you learned about variables, scalar +and compound data types, functions, comments, `if` expressions, and loops! To +practice with the concepts discussed in this chapter, try building programs to +do the following: * Convert temperatures between Fahrenheit and Celsius. -* Generate the nth Fibonacci number. +* Generate the *n*th Fibonacci number. * Print the lyrics to the Christmas carol “The Twelve Days of Christmas,” - taking advantage of the repetition in the song. +taking advantage of the repetition in the song. When you’re ready to move on, we’ll talk about a concept in Rust that *doesn’t* commonly exist in other programming languages: ownership. + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter04.md b/nostarch/chapter04.md index cbcad103e2..11f7f4944b 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter04.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter04.md @@ -16,21 +16,15 @@ features: borrowing, slices, and how Rust lays data out in memory. ## What Is Ownership? -*Ownership* is a set of rules that governs how a Rust program manages memory. +*Ownership* is a set of rules that govern how a Rust program manages memory. All programs have to manage the way they use a computer’s memory while running. -Some languages have garbage collection that regularly looks for no-longer used +Some languages have garbage collection that regularly looks for no-longer-used memory as the program runs; in other languages, the programmer must explicitly allocate and free the memory. Rust uses a third approach: memory is managed through a system of ownership with a set of rules that the compiler checks. If any of the rules are violated, the program won’t compile. None of the features of ownership will slow down your program while it’s running. - - - Because ownership is a new concept for many programmers, it does take some time to get used to. The good news is that the more experienced you become with Rust and the rules of the ownership system, the easier you’ll find it to naturally @@ -44,92 +38,63 @@ strings. > ### The Stack and the Heap > > Many programming languages don’t require you to think about the stack and the -> heap very often. But in a systems programming language like Rust, whether a -> value is on the stack or the heap affects how the language behaves and why -> you have to make certain decisions. Parts of ownership will be described in -> relation to the stack and the heap later in this chapter, so here is a brief -> explanation in preparation. +heap very often. But in a systems programming language like Rust, whether a +value is on the stack or the heap affects how the language behaves and why you +have to make certain decisions. Parts of ownership will be described in +relation to the stack and the heap later in this chapter, so here is a brief +explanation in preparation. > > Both the stack and the heap are parts of memory available to your code to use -> at runtime, but they are structured in different ways. The stack stores -> values in the order it gets them and removes the values in the opposite -> order. This is referred to as *last in, first out*. Think of a stack of -> plates: when you add more plates, you put them on top of the pile, and when -> you need a plate, you take one off the top. Adding or removing plates from -> the middle or bottom wouldn’t work as well! Adding data is called *pushing -> onto the stack*, and removing data is called *popping off the stack*. All -> data stored on the stack must have a known, fixed size. Data with an unknown -> size at compile time or a size that might change must be stored on the heap -> instead. +at runtime, but they are structured in different ways. The stack stores values +in the order it gets them and removes the values in the opposite order. This is +referred to as *last in, first out*. Think of a stack of plates: when you add +more plates, you put them on top of the pile, and when you need a plate, you +take one off the top. Adding or removing plates from the middle or bottom +wouldn’t work as well! Adding data is called *pushing onto the stack*, and +removing data is called *popping off the stack*. All data stored on the stack +must have a known, fixed size. Data with an unknown size at compile time or a +size that might change must be stored on the heap instead. > > The heap is less organized: when you put data on the heap, you request a -> certain amount of space. The memory allocator finds an empty spot in the heap -> that is big enough, marks it as being in use, and returns a *pointer*, which -> is the address of that location. This process is called *allocating on the -> heap* and is sometimes abbreviated as just *allocating* (pushing values onto -> the stack is not considered allocating). Because the pointer to the heap is a -> known, fixed size, you can store the pointer on the stack, but when you want -> the actual data, you must follow the pointer. Think of being seated at a -> restaurant. When you enter, you state the number of people in your group, and -> the staff finds an empty table that fits everyone and leads you there. If -> someone in your group comes late, they can ask where you’ve been seated to -> find you. +certain amount of space. The memory allocator finds an empty spot in the heap +that is big enough, marks it as being in use, and returns a *pointer*, which is +the address of that location. This process is called *allocating on the heap* +and is sometimes abbreviated as just *allocating* (pushing values onto the +stack is not considered allocating). Because the pointer to the heap is a +known, fixed size, you can store the pointer on the stack, but when you want +the actual data, you must follow the pointer. Think of being seated at a +restaurant. When you enter, you state the number of people in your group, and +the host finds an empty table that fits everyone and leads you there. If +someone in your group comes late, they can ask where you’ve been seated to find +you. > > Pushing to the stack is faster than allocating on the heap because the -> allocator never has to search for a place to store new data; that location is -> always at the top of the stack. Comparatively, allocating space on the heap -> requires more work, because the allocator must first find a big enough space -> to hold the data and then perform bookkeeping to prepare for the next -> allocation. - - - - +allocator never has to search for a place to store new data; that location is +always at the top of the stack. Comparatively, allocating space on the heap +requires more work because the allocator must first find a big enough space to +hold the data and then perform bookkeeping to prepare for the next allocation. +> > Accessing data in the heap is slower than accessing data on the stack because -> you have to follow a pointer to get there. Contemporary processors are faster -> if they jump around less in memory. Continuing the analogy, consider a server -> at a restaurant taking orders from many tables. It’s most efficient to get -> all the orders at one table before moving on to the next table. Taking an -> order from table A, then an order from table B, then one from A again, and -> then one from B again would be a much slower process. By the same token, a -> processor can do its job better if it works on data that’s close to other -> data (as it is on the stack) rather than farther away (as it can be on the -> heap). - - - - +you have to follow a pointer to get there. Contemporary processors are faster +if they jump around less in memory. Continuing the analogy, consider a server +at a restaurant taking orders from many tables. It’s most efficient to get all +the orders at one table before moving on to the next table. Taking an order +from table A, then an order from table B, then one from A again, and then one +from B again would be a much slower process. By the same token, a processor can +do its job better if it works on data that’s close to other data (as it is on +the stack) rather than farther away (as it can be on the heap). > > When your code calls a function, the values passed into the function -> (including, potentially, pointers to data on the heap) and the function’s -> local variables get pushed onto the stack. When the function is over, those -> values get popped off the stack. - - - - +(including, potentially, pointers to data on the heap) and the function’s local +variables get pushed onto the stack. When the function is over, those values +get popped off the stack. > > Keeping track of what parts of code are using what data on the heap, -> minimizing the amount of duplicate data on the heap, and cleaning up unused -> data on the heap so you don’t run out of space are all problems that ownership -> addresses. Once you understand ownership, you won’t need to think about the -> stack and the heap very often, but knowing that the main purpose of ownership -> is to manage heap data can help explain why it works the way it does. +minimizing the amount of duplicate data on the heap, and cleaning up unused +data on the heap so you don’t run out of space are all problems that ownership +addresses. Once you understand ownership, you won’t need to think about the +stack and the heap very often, but knowing that the main purpose of ownership +is to manage heap data can help explain why it works the way it does. ### Ownership Rules @@ -140,14 +105,6 @@ work through the examples that illustrate them: * There can only be one owner at a time. * When the owner goes out of scope, the value will be dropped. - - - ### Variable Scope Now that we’re past basic Rust syntax, we won’t include all the `fn main() {` @@ -170,8 +127,8 @@ which it’s declared until the end of the current *scope*. Listing 4-1 shows a program with comments annotating where the variable `s` would be valid. ``` -{ // s is not valid here, it’s not yet declared - let s = "hello"; // s is valid from this point forward. +{ // s is not valid here, since it's not yet declared + let s = "hello"; // s is valid from this point forward // do stuff with s } // this scope is now over, and s is no longer valid @@ -181,23 +138,23 @@ Listing 4-1: A variable and the scope in which it is valid In other words, there are two important points in time here: -* When `s` comes *into scope*, it is valid. -* It remains valid until it goes *out of scope*. +* When `s` comes *into* scope, it is valid. +* It remains valid until it goes *out of* scope. At this point, the relationship between scopes and when variables are valid is similar to that in other programming languages. Now we’ll build on top of this understanding by introducing the `String` type. -### The `String` Type +### The String Type To illustrate the rules of ownership, we need a data type that is more complex -than those we covered in the “Data Types” section of Chapter 3. The types -covered previously are all a known size, can be stored on the stack and popped -off the stack when their scope is over, and can be quickly and trivially copied -to make a new, independent instance if another part of code needs to use the -same value in a different scope. But we want to look at data that is stored on -the heap and explore how Rust knows when to clean up that data, and the -`String` type is a great example. +than those we covered in “Data Types” on page XX. The types covered previously +are of a known size, can be stored on the stack and popped off the stack when +their scope is over, and can be quickly and trivially copied to make a new, +independent instance if another part of code needs to use the same value in a +different scope. But we want to look at data that is stored on the heap and +explore how Rust knows when to clean up that data, and the `String` type is a +great example. We’ll concentrate on the parts of `String` that relate to ownership. These aspects also apply to other complex data types, whether they are provided by @@ -220,9 +177,9 @@ let s = String::from("hello"); The double colon `::` operator allows us to namespace this particular `from` function under the `String` type rather than using some sort of name like -`string_from`. We’ll discuss this syntax more in the “Method Syntax” section of -Chapter 5 and when we talk about namespacing with modules in “Paths for -Referring to an Item in the Module Tree” in Chapter 7. +`string_from`. We’ll discuss this syntax more in “Method Syntax” on page XX, +and when we talk about namespacing with modules in “Paths for Referring to an +Item in the Module Tree” on page XX. This kind of string *can* be mutated: @@ -231,11 +188,11 @@ let mut s = String::from("hello"); s.push_str(", world!"); // push_str() appends a literal to a String -println!("{}", s); // This will print `hello, world!` +println!("{s}"); // This will print `hello, world!` ``` So, what’s the difference here? Why can `String` be mutated but literals -cannot? The difference is how these two types deal with memory. +cannot? The difference is in how these two types deal with memory. ### Memory and Allocation @@ -251,8 +208,8 @@ we need to allocate an amount of memory on the heap, unknown at compile time, to hold the contents. This means: * The memory must be requested from the memory allocator at runtime. -* We need a way of returning this memory to the allocator when we’re - done with our `String`. +* We need a way of returning this memory to the allocator when we’re done with +our `String`. That first part is done by us: when we call `String::from`, its implementation requests the memory it needs. This is pretty much universal in programming @@ -261,19 +218,13 @@ languages. However, the second part is different. In languages with a *garbage collector (GC)*, the GC keeps track of and cleans up memory that isn’t being used anymore, and we don’t need to think about it. In most languages without a GC, -it’s our responsibility to identify when memory is no longer being used and +it’s our responsibility to identify when memory is no longer being used and to call code to explicitly free it, just as we did to request it. Doing this correctly has historically been a difficult programming problem. If we forget, we’ll waste memory. If we do it too early, we’ll have an invalid variable. If we do it twice, that’s a bug too. We need to pair exactly one `allocate` with exactly one `free`. - - - Rust takes a different path: the memory is automatically returned once the variable that owns it goes out of scope. Here’s a version of our scope example from Listing 4-1 using a `String` instead of a string literal: @@ -294,23 +245,23 @@ and it’s where the author of `String` can put the code to return the memory. Rust calls `drop` automatically at the closing curly bracket. > Note: In C++, this pattern of deallocating resources at the end of an item’s -> lifetime is sometimes called *Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII)*. -> The `drop` function in Rust will be familiar to you if you’ve used RAII -> patterns. +lifetime is sometimes called *Resource Acquisition Is Initialization* *(RAII)*. +The `drop` function in Rust will be familiar to you if you’ve used RAII +patterns. This pattern has a profound impact on the way Rust code is written. It may seem simple right now, but the behavior of code can be unexpected in more complicated situations when we want to have multiple variables use the data we’ve allocated on the heap. Let’s explore some of those situations now. -#### Ways Variables and Data Interact: Move +#### Variables and Data Interacting with Move Multiple variables can interact with the same data in different ways in Rust. Let’s look at an example using an integer in Listing 4-2. ``` - let x = 5; - let y = x; +let x = 5; +let y = x; ``` Listing 4-2: Assigning the integer value of variable `x` to `y` @@ -324,8 +275,8 @@ onto the stack. Now let’s look at the `String` version: ``` - let s1 = String::from("hello"); - let s2 = s1; +let s1 = String::from("hello"); +let s2 = s1; ``` This looks very similar, so we might assume that the way it works would be the @@ -338,38 +289,20 @@ the memory that holds the contents of the string, a length, and a capacity. This group of data is stored on the stack. On the right is the memory on the heap that holds the contents. -String in memory - - - - -Figure 4-1: Representation in memory of a `String` holding the value `"hello"` +Figure 4-1: Representation in memory of a `String` holding the value `"hello"` bound to `s1` -The length is how much memory, in bytes, the contents of the `String` is +The length is how much memory, in bytes, the contents of the `String` are currently using. The capacity is the total amount of memory, in bytes, that the -`String` has received from the allocator. The difference between length -and capacity matters, but not in this context, so for now, it’s fine to ignore -the capacity. +`String` has received from the allocator. The difference between length and +capacity matters, but not in this context, so for now, it’s fine to ignore the +capacity. When we assign `s1` to `s2`, the `String` data is copied, meaning we copy the pointer, the length, and the capacity that are on the stack. We do not copy the data on the heap that the pointer refers to. In other words, the data representation in memory looks like Figure 4-2. -s1 and s2 pointing to the same value - Figure 4-2: Representation in memory of the variable `s2` that has a copy of the pointer, length, and capacity of `s1` @@ -378,8 +311,6 @@ look like if Rust instead copied the heap data as well. If Rust did this, the operation `s2 = s1` could be very expensive in terms of runtime performance if the data on the heap were large. -s1 and s2 to two places - Figure 4-3: Another possibility for what `s2 = s1` might do if Rust copied the heap data as well @@ -391,7 +322,7 @@ same memory. This is known as a *double free* error and is one of the memory safety bugs we mentioned previously. Freeing memory twice can lead to memory corruption, which can potentially lead to security vulnerabilities. -To ensure memory safety, after the line `let s2 = s1`, Rust considers `s1` as +To ensure memory safety, after the line `let s2 = s1;`, Rust considers `s1` as no longer valid. Therefore, Rust doesn’t need to free anything when `s1` goes out of scope. Check out what happens when you try to use `s1` after `s2` is created; it won’t work: @@ -400,7 +331,7 @@ created; it won’t work: let s1 = String::from("hello"); let s2 = s1; -println!("{}, world!", s1); +println!("{s1}, world!"); ``` You’ll get an error like this because Rust prevents you from using the @@ -411,33 +342,32 @@ error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `s1` --> src/main.rs:5:28 | 2 | let s1 = String::from("hello"); - | -- move occurs because `s1` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | -- move occurs because `s1` has type `String`, which + does not implement the `Copy` trait 3 | let s2 = s1; | -- value moved here 4 | -5 | println!("{}, world!", s1); - | ^^ value borrowed here after move +5 | println!("{s1}, world!"); + | ^^ value borrowed here after move ``` If you’ve heard the terms *shallow copy* and *deep copy* while working with other languages, the concept of copying the pointer, length, and capacity without copying the data probably sounds like making a shallow copy. But -because Rust also invalidates the first variable, instead of calling it a -shallow copy, it’s known as a *move*. In this example, we would say that -`s1` was *moved* into `s2`. So what actually happens is shown in Figure 4-4. - -s1 moved to s2 +because Rust also invalidates the first variable, instead of being called a +shallow copy, it’s known as a *move*. In this example, we would say that `s1` +was *moved* into `s2`. So, what actually happens is shown in Figure 4-4. Figure 4-4: Representation in memory after `s1` has been invalidated -That solves our problem! With only `s2` valid, when it goes out of scope, it +That solves our problem! With only `s2` valid, when it goes out of scope it alone will free the memory, and we’re done. In addition, there’s a design choice that’s implied by this: Rust will never automatically create “deep” copies of your data. Therefore, any *automatic* copying can be assumed to be inexpensive in terms of runtime performance. -#### Ways Variables and Data Interact: Clone +#### Variables and Data Interacting with Clone If we *do* want to deeply copy the heap data of the `String`, not just the stack data, we can use a common method called `clone`. We’ll discuss method @@ -450,7 +380,7 @@ Here’s an example of the `clone` method in action: let s1 = String::from("hello"); let s2 = s1.clone(); -println!("s1 = {}, s2 = {}", s1, s2); +println!("s1 = {s1}, s2 = {s2}"); ``` This works just fine and explicitly produces the behavior shown in Figure 4-3, @@ -462,14 +392,14 @@ different is going on. #### Stack-Only Data: Copy -There’s another wrinkle we haven’t talked about yet. This code using integers – -part of which was shown in Listing 4-2 – works and is valid: +There’s another wrinkle we haven’t talked about yet. This code using +integers—part of which was shown in Listing 4-2—works and is valid: ``` let x = 5; let y = x; -println!("x = {}, y = {}", x, y); +println!("x = {x}, y = {y}"); ``` But this code seems to contradict what we just learned: we don’t have a call to @@ -480,7 +410,7 @@ time are stored entirely on the stack, so copies of the actual values are quick to make. That means there’s no reason we would want to prevent `x` from being valid after we create the variable `y`. In other words, there’s no difference between deep and shallow copying here, so calling `clone` wouldn’t do anything -different from the usual shallow copying and we can leave it out. +different from the usual shallow copying, and we can leave it out. Rust has a special annotation called the `Copy` trait that we can place on types that are stored on the stack, as integers are (we’ll talk more about @@ -488,29 +418,13 @@ traits in Chapter 10). If a type implements the `Copy` trait, variables that use it do not move, but rather are trivially copied, making them still valid after assignment to another variable. - - - - - - Rust won’t let us annotate a type with `Copy` if the type, or any of its parts, has implemented the `Drop` trait. If the type needs something special to happen when the value goes out of scope and we add the `Copy` annotation to that type, we’ll get a compile-time error. To learn about how to add the `Copy` annotation -to your type to implement the trait, see “Derivable Traits” in Appendix C. +to your type to implement the trait, see “Derivable Traits” on page XX. -So what types implement the `Copy` trait? You can check the documentation for +So, what types implement the `Copy` trait? You can check the documentation for the given type to be sure, but as a general rule, any group of simple scalar values can implement `Copy`, and nothing that requires allocation or is some form of resource can implement `Copy`. Here are some of the types that @@ -518,10 +432,10 @@ implement `Copy`: * All the integer types, such as `u32`. * The Boolean type, `bool`, with values `true` and `false`. -* All the floating point types, such as `f64`. +* All the floating-point types, such as `f64`. * The character type, `char`. * Tuples, if they only contain types that also implement `Copy`. For example, - `(i32, i32)` implements `Copy`, but `(i32, String)` does not. +`(i32, i32)` implements `Copy`, but `(i32, String)` does not. ### Ownership and Functions @@ -530,9 +444,8 @@ assigning a value to a variable. Passing a variable to a function will move or copy, just as assignment does. Listing 4-3 has an example with some annotations showing where variables go into and out of scope. -Filename: src/main.rs - ``` +// src/main.rs fn main() { let s = String::from("hello"); // s comes into scope @@ -545,17 +458,17 @@ fn main() { // but i32 is Copy, so it's okay to still // use x afterward -} // Here, x goes out of scope, then s. But because s's value was moved, nothing - // special happens. +} // Here, x goes out of scope, then s. However, because s's value was moved, + // nothing special happens fn takes_ownership(some_string: String) { // some_string comes into scope - println!("{}", some_string); + println!("{some_string}"); } // Here, some_string goes out of scope and `drop` is called. The backing - // memory is freed. + // memory is freed fn makes_copy(some_integer: i32) { // some_integer comes into scope - println!("{}", some_integer); -} // Here, some_integer goes out of scope. Nothing special happens. + println!("{some_integer}"); +} // Here, some_integer goes out of scope. Nothing special happens ``` Listing 4-3: Functions with ownership and scope annotated @@ -567,13 +480,12 @@ the ownership rules prevent you from doing so. ### Return Values and Scope -Returning values can also transfer ownership. Listing 4-4 shows an example -of a function that returns some value, with similar annotations as those in -Listing 4-3. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Returning values can also transfer ownership. Listing 4-4 shows an example of a +function that returns some value, with similar annotations as those in Listing +4-3. ``` +// src/main.rs fn main() { let s1 = gives_ownership(); // gives_ownership moves its return // value into s1 @@ -584,7 +496,7 @@ fn main() { // takes_and_gives_back, which also // moves its return value into s3 } // Here, s3 goes out of scope and is dropped. s2 was moved, so nothing - // happens. s1 goes out of scope and is dropped. + // happens. s1 goes out of scope and is dropped fn gives_ownership() -> String { // gives_ownership will move its // return value into the function @@ -597,7 +509,7 @@ fn gives_ownership() -> String { // gives_ownership will move its // function } -// This function takes a String and returns one +// This function takes a String and returns a String fn takes_and_gives_back(a_string: String) -> String { // a_string comes into // scope @@ -628,7 +540,7 @@ fn main() { let (s2, len) = calculate_length(s1); - println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s2, len); + println!("The length of '{s2}' is {len}."); } fn calculate_length(s: String) -> (String, usize) { @@ -655,12 +567,6 @@ the data stored at that address; that data is owned by some other variable. Unlike a pointer, a reference is guaranteed to point to a valid value of a particular type for the life of that reference. - - - Here is how you would define and use a `calculate_length` function that has a reference to an object as a parameter instead of taking ownership of the value: @@ -672,7 +578,7 @@ fn main() { let len = calculate_length(&s1); - println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s1, len); + println!("The length of '{s1}' is {len}."); } fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize { @@ -686,14 +592,12 @@ function return value is gone. Second, note that we pass `&s1` into `String`. These ampersands represent *references*, and they allow you to refer to some value without taking ownership of it. Figure 4-5 depicts this concept. -&String s pointing at String s1 - Figure 4-5: A diagram of `&String s` pointing at `String s1` > Note: The opposite of referencing by using `&` is *dereferencing*, which is -> accomplished with the dereference operator, `*`. We’ll see some uses of the -> dereference operator in Chapter 8 and discuss details of dereferencing in -> Chapter 15. +accomplished with the dereference operator, `*`. We’ll see some uses of the +dereference operator in Chapter 8 and discuss details of dereferencing in +Chapter 15. Let’s take a closer look at the function call here: @@ -714,12 +618,12 @@ the parameter `s` is a reference. Let’s add some explanatory annotations: fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize { // s is a reference to a String s.len() } // Here, s goes out of scope. But because it does not have ownership of what - // it refers to, it is not dropped. + // it refers to, the String is not dropped ``` The scope in which the variable `s` is valid is the same as any function parameter’s scope, but the value pointed to by the reference is not dropped -when `s` stops being used because `s` doesn’t have ownership. When functions +when `s` stops being used, because `s` doesn’t have ownership. When functions have references as parameters instead of the actual values, we won’t need to return the values in order to give back ownership, because we never had ownership. @@ -728,7 +632,7 @@ We call the action of creating a reference *borrowing*. As in real life, if a person owns something, you can borrow it from them. When you’re done, you have to give it back. You don’t own it. -So what happens if we try to modify something we’re borrowing? Try the code in +So, what happens if we try to modify something we’re borrowing? Try the code in Listing 4-6. Spoiler alert: it doesn’t work! Filename: src/main.rs @@ -750,13 +654,16 @@ Listing 4-6: Attempting to modify a borrowed value Here’s the error: ``` -error[E0596]: cannot borrow `*some_string` as mutable, as it is behind a `&` reference +error[E0596]: cannot borrow `*some_string` as mutable, as it is behind a `&` +reference --> src/main.rs:8:5 | 7 | fn change(some_string: &String) { - | ------- help: consider changing this to be a mutable reference: `&mut String` + | ------- help: consider changing this to be a mutable +reference: `&mut String` 8 | some_string.push_str(", world"); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `some_string` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `some_string` is a `&` reference, so +the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable ``` Just as variables are immutable by default, so are references. We’re not @@ -781,7 +688,7 @@ fn change(some_string: &mut String) { } ``` -First, we change `s` to be `mut`. Then we create a mutable reference with `&mut +First we change `s` to be `mut`. Then we create a mutable reference with `&mut s` where we call the `change` function, and update the function signature to accept a mutable reference with `some_string: &mut String`. This makes it very clear that the `change` function will mutate the value it borrows. @@ -790,22 +697,15 @@ Mutable references have one big restriction: if you have a mutable reference to a value, you can have no other references to that value. This code that attempts to create two mutable references to `s` will fail: - - - Filename: src/main.rs ``` - let mut s = String::from("hello"); +let mut s = String::from("hello"); - let r1 = &mut s; - let r2 = &mut s; +let r1 = &mut s; +let r2 = &mut s; - println!("{}, {}", r1, r2); +println!("{r1}, {r2}"); ``` Here’s the error: @@ -819,8 +719,8 @@ error[E0499]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable more than once at a time 5 | let r2 = &mut s; | ^^^^^^ second mutable borrow occurs here 6 | -7 | println!("{}, {}", r1, r2); - | -- first borrow later used here +7 | println!("{r1}, {r2}"); + | -- first borrow later used here ``` This error says that this code is invalid because we cannot borrow `s` as @@ -831,7 +731,7 @@ in `r2` that borrows the same data as `r1`. The restriction preventing multiple mutable references to the same data at the same time allows for mutation but in a very controlled fashion. It’s something -that new Rustaceans struggle with, because most languages let you mutate +that new Rustaceans struggle with because most languages let you mutate whenever you’d like. The benefit of having this restriction is that Rust can prevent data races at compile time. A *data race* is similar to a race condition and happens when these three behaviors occur: @@ -841,8 +741,8 @@ condition and happens when these three behaviors occur: * There’s no mechanism being used to synchronize access to the data. Data races cause undefined behavior and can be difficult to diagnose and fix -when you’re trying to track them down at runtime; Rust prevents this problem -by refusing to compile code with data races! +when you’re trying to track them down at runtime; Rust prevents this problem by +refusing to compile code with data races! As always, we can use curly brackets to create a new scope, allowing for multiple mutable references, just not *simultaneous* ones: @@ -852,7 +752,7 @@ let mut s = String::from("hello"); { let r1 = &mut s; -} // r1 goes out of scope here, so we can make a new reference with no problems. +} // r1 goes out of scope here, so we can make a new reference with no problems let r2 = &mut s; ``` @@ -867,13 +767,14 @@ let r1 = &s; // no problem let r2 = &s; // no problem let r3 = &mut s; // BIG PROBLEM -println!("{}, {}, and {}", r1, r2, r3); +println!("{r1}, {r2}, and {r3}"); ``` Here’s the error: ``` -error[E0502]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immutable +error[E0502]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable because it is also borrowed as +immutable --> src/main.rs:6:14 | 4 | let r1 = &s; // no problem @@ -882,8 +783,8 @@ error[E0502]: cannot borrow `s` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immuta 6 | let r3 = &mut s; // BIG PROBLEM | ^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here 7 | -8 | println!("{}, {}, and {}", r1, r2, r3); - | -- immutable borrow later used here +8 | println!("{r1}, {r2}, and {r3}"); + | -- immutable borrow later used here ``` Whew! We *also* cannot have a mutable reference while we have an immutable one @@ -904,20 +805,18 @@ let mut s = String::from("hello"); let r1 = &s; // no problem let r2 = &s; // no problem -println!("{} and {}", r1, r2); +println!("{r1} and {r2}"); // variables r1 and r2 will not be used after this point let r3 = &mut s; // no problem -println!("{}", r3); +println!("{r3}"); ``` The scopes of the immutable references `r1` and `r2` end after the `println!` where they are last used, which is before the mutable reference `r3` is -created. These scopes don’t overlap, so this code is allowed. The ability of -the compiler to tell that a reference is no longer being used at a point before -the end of the scope is called *Non-Lexical Lifetimes* (NLL for short), and you -can read more about it in The Edition Guide at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/rust-2018/ownership-and-lifetimes/non-lexical-lifetimes.html*. +created. These scopes don’t overlap, so this code is allowed: the compiler can +tell that the reference is no longer being used at a point before the end of +the scope. Even though borrowing errors may be frustrating at times, remember that it’s the Rust compiler pointing out a potential bug early (at compile time rather @@ -927,9 +826,9 @@ have to track down why your data isn’t what you thought it was. ### Dangling References In languages with pointers, it’s easy to erroneously create a *dangling -pointer*--a pointer that references a location in memory that may have been -given to someone else--by freeing some memory while preserving a pointer to -that memory. In Rust, by contrast, the compiler guarantees that references will +pointer*—a pointer that references a location in memory that may have been +given to someone else—by freeing some memory while preserving a pointer to that +memory. In Rust, by contrast, the compiler guarantees that references will never be dangling references: if you have a reference to some data, the compiler will ensure that the data will not go out of scope before the reference to the data does. @@ -960,7 +859,8 @@ error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier 5 | fn dangle() -> &String { | ^ expected named lifetime parameter | - = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but there is no value for it to be borrowed from + = help: this function's return type contains a borrowed value, +but there is no value for it to be borrowed from help: consider using the `'static` lifetime | 5 | fn dangle() -> &'static String { @@ -972,22 +872,21 @@ discuss lifetimes in detail in Chapter 10. But, if you disregard the parts about lifetimes, the message does contain the key to why this code is a problem: ``` -this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but there is no value -for it to be borrowed from +this function's return type contains a borrowed value, but there +is no value for it to be borrowed from ``` Let’s take a closer look at exactly what’s happening at each stage of our `dangle` code: -Filename: src/main.rs - ``` +// src/main.rs fn dangle() -> &String { // dangle returns a reference to a String let s = String::from("hello"); // s is a new String &s // we return a reference to the String, s -} // Here, s goes out of scope, and is dropped. Its memory goes away. +} // Here, s goes out of scope and is dropped, so its memory goes away // Danger! ``` @@ -1014,7 +913,7 @@ deallocated. Let’s recap what we’ve discussed about references: * At any given time, you can have *either* one mutable reference *or* any - number of immutable references. +number of immutable references. * References must always be valid. Next, we’ll look at a different kind of reference: slices. @@ -1030,12 +929,6 @@ words separated by spaces and returns the first word it finds in that string. If the function doesn’t find a space in the string, the whole string must be one word, so the entire string should be returned. - - - Let’s work through how we’d write the signature of this function without using slices, to understand the problem that slices will solve: @@ -1052,15 +945,15 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn first_word(s: &String) -> usize { - [1] let bytes = s.as_bytes(); + 1 let bytes = s.as_bytes(); - for (i, &item)[2] in bytes.iter()[3].enumerate() { - [4] if item == b' ' { + for (2 i, &item) in 3 bytes.iter().enumerate() { + 4 if item == b' ' { return i; } } - [5] s.len() + 5 s.len() } ``` @@ -1071,13 +964,13 @@ Because we need to go through the `String` element by element and check whether a value is a space, we’ll convert our `String` to an array of bytes using the `as_bytes` method [1]. -Next, we create an iterator over the array of bytes using the `iter` method [3]. -We’ll discuss iterators in more detail in Chapter 13. For now, know that `iter` -is a method that returns each element in a collection and that `enumerate` -wraps the result of `iter` and returns each element as part of a tuple instead. -The first element of the tuple returned from `enumerate` is the index, and the -second element is a reference to the element. This is a bit more convenient -than calculating the index ourselves. +Next, we create an iterator over the array of bytes using the `iter` method +[3]. We’ll discuss iterators in more detail in Chapter 13. For now, know that +`iter` is a method that returns each element in a collection and that +`enumerate` wraps the result of `iter` and returns each element as part of a +tuple instead. The first element of the tuple returned from `enumerate` is the +index, and the second element is a reference to the element. This is a bit more +convenient than calculating the index ourselves. Because the `enumerate` method returns a tuple, we can use patterns to destructure that tuple. We’ll be discussing patterns more in Chapter 6. In the @@ -1096,9 +989,8 @@ because it’s a separate value from the `String`, there’s no guarantee that i will still be valid in the future. Consider the program in Listing 4-8 that uses the `first_word` function from Listing 4-7. -Filename: src/main.rs - ``` +// src/main.rs fn main() { let mut s = String::from("hello world"); @@ -1130,8 +1022,8 @@ fn second_word(s: &String) -> (usize, usize) { Now we’re tracking a starting *and* an ending index, and we have even more values that were calculated from data in a particular state but aren’t tied to -that state at all. We have three unrelated variables floating around that -need to be kept in sync. +that state at all. We have three unrelated variables floating around that need +to be kept in sync. Luckily, Rust has a solution to this problem: string slices. @@ -1140,10 +1032,10 @@ Luckily, Rust has a solution to this problem: string slices. A *string slice* is a reference to part of a `String`, and it looks like this: ``` - let s = String::from("hello world"); +let s = String::from("hello world"); - let hello = &s[0..5]; - let world = &s[6..11]; +let hello = &s[0..5]; +let world = &s[6..11]; ``` Rather than a reference to the entire `String`, `hello` is a reference to a @@ -1152,17 +1044,15 @@ using a range within brackets by specifying `[starting_index..ending_index]`, where `starting_index` is the first position in the slice and `ending_index` is one more than the last position in the slice. Internally, the slice data structure stores the starting position and the length of the slice, which -corresponds to `ending_index` minus `starting_index`. So in the case of `let +corresponds to `ending_index` minus `starting_index`. So, in the case of `let world = &s[6..11];`, `world` would be a slice that contains a pointer to the -byte at index 6 of `s` with a length value of 5. +byte at index 6 of `s` with a length value of `5`. Figure 4-6 shows this in a diagram. -world containing a pointer to the byte at index 6 of String s and a length 5 - Figure 4-6: String slice referring to part of a `String` -With Rust’s `..` range syntax, if you want to start at index zero, you can drop +With Rust’s `..` range syntax, if you want to start at index 0, you can drop the value before the two periods. In other words, these are equal: ``` @@ -1197,11 +1087,11 @@ let slice = &s[..]; ``` > Note: String slice range indices must occur at valid UTF-8 character -> boundaries. If you attempt to create a string slice in the middle of a -> multibyte character, your program will exit with an error. For the purposes -> of introducing string slices, we are assuming ASCII only in this section; a -> more thorough discussion of UTF-8 handling is in the “Storing UTF-8 Encoded -> Text with Strings” section of Chapter 8. +boundaries. If you attempt to create a string slice in the middle of a +multibyte character, your program will exit with an error. For the purposes of +introducing string slices, we are assuming ASCII only in this section; a more +thorough discussion of UTF-8 handling is in “Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with +Strings” on page XX. With all this information in mind, let’s rewrite `first_word` to return a slice. The type that signifies “string slice” is written as `&str`: @@ -1222,10 +1112,10 @@ fn first_word(s: &String) -> &str { } ``` -We get the index for the end of the word in the same way as we did in Listing -4-7, by looking for the first occurrence of a space. When we find a space, we -return a string slice using the start of the string and the index of the space -as the starting and ending indices. +We get the index for the end of the word the same way we did in Listing 4-7, by +looking for the first occurrence of a space. When we find a space, we return a +string slice using the start of the string and the index of the space as the +starting and ending indices. Now when we call `first_word`, we get back a single value that is tied to the underlying data. The value is made up of a reference to the starting point of @@ -1237,7 +1127,7 @@ Returning a slice would also work for a `second_word` function: fn second_word(s: &String) -> &str { ``` -We now have a straightforward API that’s much harder to mess up, because the +We now have a straightforward API that’s much harder to mess up because the compiler will ensure the references into the `String` remain valid. Remember the bug in the program in Listing 4-8, when we got the index to the end of the first word but then cleared the string so our index was invalid? That code was @@ -1257,7 +1147,7 @@ fn main() { s.clear(); // error! - println!("the first word is: {}", word); + println!("the first word is: {word}"); } ``` @@ -1274,8 +1164,8 @@ immutable 18 | s.clear(); // error! | ^^^^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here 19 | -20 | println!("the first word is: {}", word); - | ---- immutable borrow later used here +20 | println!("the first word is: {word}"); + | ---- immutable borrow later used here ``` Recall from the borrowing rules that if we have an immutable reference to @@ -1287,7 +1177,7 @@ reference in `clear` and the immutable reference in `word` from existing at the same time, and compilation fails. Not only has Rust made our API easier to use, but it has also eliminated an entire class of errors at compile time! -#### String Literals Are Slices +#### String Literals as Slices Recall that we talked about string literals being stored inside the binary. Now that we know about slices, we can properly understand string literals: @@ -1323,9 +1213,10 @@ the type of the `s` parameter If we have a string slice, we can pass that directly. If we have a `String`, we can pass a slice of the `String` or a reference to the `String`. This flexibility takes advantage of *deref coercions*, a feature we will cover in -the “Implicit Deref Coercions with Functions and Methods” section of Chapter -15. Defining a function to take a string slice instead of a reference to a -`String` makes our API more general and useful without losing any functionality: +“Implicit Deref Coercions with Functions and Methods” on page XX. + +Defining a function to take a string slice instead of a reference to a `String` +makes our API more general and useful without losing any functionality: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1333,16 +1224,18 @@ Filename: src/main.rs fn main() { let my_string = String::from("hello world"); - // `first_word` works on slices of `String`s, whether partial or whole + // `first_word` works on slices of `String`s, whether partial + // or whole let word = first_word(&my_string[0..6]); let word = first_word(&my_string[..]); - // `first_word` also works on references to `String`s, which are equivalent - // to whole slices of `String`s + // `first_word` also works on references to `String`s, which + // are equivalent to whole slices of `String`s let word = first_word(&my_string); let my_string_literal = "hello world"; - // `first_word` works on slices of string literals, whether partial or whole + // `first_word` works on slices of string literals, + // whether partial or whole let word = first_word(&my_string_literal[0..6]); let word = first_word(&my_string_literal[..]); @@ -1355,14 +1248,14 @@ fn main() { ### Other Slices String slices, as you might imagine, are specific to strings. But there’s a -more general slice type, too. Consider this array: +more general slice type too. Consider this array: ``` let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; ``` -Just as we might want to refer to a part of a string, we might want to refer -to part of an array. We’d do so like this: +Just as we might want to refer to part of a string, we might want to refer to +part of an array. We’d do so like this: ``` let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; @@ -1388,3 +1281,4 @@ means you don’t have to write and debug extra code to get this control. Ownership affects how lots of other parts of Rust work, so we’ll talk about these concepts further throughout the rest of the book. Let’s move on to Chapter 5 and look at grouping pieces of data together in a `struct`. + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter05.md b/nostarch/chapter05.md index 356ba82af7..9881a3b748 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter05.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter05.md @@ -19,16 +19,16 @@ We’ll demonstrate how to define and instantiate structs. We’ll discuss how t define associated functions, especially the kind of associated functions called *methods*, to specify behavior associated with a struct type. Structs and enums (discussed in Chapter 6) are the building blocks for creating new types in your -program’s domain to take full advantage of Rust’s compile time type checking. +program’s domain to take full advantage of Rust’s compile-time type checking. ## Defining and Instantiating Structs -Structs are similar to tuples, discussed in “The Tuple Type” section, in that -both hold multiple related values. Like tuples, the pieces of a struct can be -different types. Unlike with tuples, in a struct you’ll name each piece of data -so it’s clear what the values mean. Adding these names means that structs are -more flexible than tuples: you don’t have to rely on the order of the data to -specify or access the values of an instance. +Structs are similar to tuples, discussed in “The Tuple Type” on page XX, in +that both hold multiple related values. Like tuples, the pieces of a struct can +be different types. Unlike with tuples, in a struct you’ll name each piece of +data so it’s clear what the values mean. Adding these names means that structs +are more flexible than tuples: you don’t have to rely on the order of the data +to specify or access the values of an instance. To define a struct, we enter the keyword `struct` and name the entire struct. A struct’s name should describe the significance of the pieces of data being @@ -36,6 +36,8 @@ grouped together. Then, inside curly brackets, we define the names and types of the pieces of data, which we call *fields*. For example, Listing 5-1 shows a struct that stores information about a user account. +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` struct User { active: bool, @@ -49,20 +51,22 @@ Listing 5-1: A `User` struct definition To use a struct after we’ve defined it, we create an *instance* of that struct by specifying concrete values for each of the fields. We create an instance by -stating the name of the struct and then add curly brackets containing `key: -value` pairs, where the keys are the names of the fields and the values are the +stating the name of the struct and then add curly brackets containing key: +value pairs, where the keys are the names of the fields and the values are the data we want to store in those fields. We don’t have to specify the fields in the same order in which we declared them in the struct. In other words, the struct definition is like a general template for the type, and instances fill in that template with particular data to create values of the type. For example, we can declare a particular user as shown in Listing 5-2. +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` fn main() { let user1 = User { - email: String::from("someone@example.com"), - username: String::from("someusername123"), active: true, + username: String::from("someusername123"), + email: String::from("someone@example.com"), sign_in_count: 1, }; } @@ -76,19 +80,14 @@ mutable, we can change a value by using the dot notation and assigning into a particular field. Listing 5-3 shows how to change the value in the `email` field of a mutable `User` instance. - - +Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let mut user1 = User { - email: String::from("someone@example.com"), - username: String::from("someusername123"), active: true, + username: String::from("someusername123"), + email: String::from("someone@example.com"), sign_in_count: 1, }; @@ -110,9 +109,9 @@ the `sign_in_count` gets a value of `1`. ``` fn build_user(email: String, username: String) -> User { User { - email: email, - username: username, active: true, + username: username, + email: email, sign_in_count: 1, } } @@ -130,22 +129,22 @@ would get even more annoying. Luckily, there’s a convenient shorthand! Because the parameter names and the struct field names are exactly the same in Listing 5-4, we can use the *field init shorthand* syntax to rewrite -`build_user` so that it behaves exactly the same but doesn’t have the -repetition of `email` and `username`, as shown in Listing 5-5. +`build_user` so it behaves exactly the same but doesn’t have the repetition of +`username` and `email`, as shown in Listing 5-5. ``` fn build_user(email: String, username: String) -> User { User { - email, - username, active: true, + username, + email, sign_in_count: 1, } } ``` Listing 5-5: A `build_user` function that uses field init shorthand because the -`email` and `username` parameters have the same name as struct fields +`username` and `email` parameters have the same name as struct fields Here, we’re creating a new instance of the `User` struct, which has a field named `email`. We want to set the `email` field’s value to the value in the @@ -153,7 +152,7 @@ named `email`. We want to set the `email` field’s value to the value in the the `email` parameter have the same name, we only need to write `email` rather than `email: email`. -### Creating Instances From Other Instances With Struct Update Syntax +### Creating Instances from Other Instances with Struct Update Syntax It’s often useful to create a new instance of a struct that includes most of the values from another instance, but changes some. You can do this using @@ -163,9 +162,11 @@ First, in Listing 5-6 we show how to create a new `User` instance in `user2` regularly, without the update syntax. We set a new value for `email` but otherwise use the same values from `user1` that we created in Listing 5-2. +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` fn main() { - // --snip-- + --snip-- let user2 = User { active: user1.active, @@ -182,9 +183,12 @@ Using struct update syntax, we can achieve the same effect with less code, as shown in Listing 5-7. The syntax `..` specifies that the remaining fields not explicitly set should have the same value as the fields in the given instance. +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` fn main() { - // --snip-- + --snip-- + let user2 = User { email: String::from("another@example.com"), @@ -194,7 +198,7 @@ fn main() { ``` Listing 5-7: Using struct update syntax to set a new `email` value for a `User` -instance but use the rest of the values from `user1` +instance but to use the rest of the values from `user1` The code in Listing 5-7 also creates an instance in `user2` that has a different value for `email` but has the same values for the `username`, @@ -204,33 +208,30 @@ corresponding fields in `user1`, but we can choose to specify values for as many fields as we want in any order, regardless of the order of the fields in the struct’s definition. -Note that the struct update syntax uses `=` like an assignment; this is -because it moves the data, just as we saw in the “Ways Variables and Data -Interact: Move” section. In this example, we can no longer use `user1` after -creating `user2` because the `String` in the `username` field of `user1` was -moved into `user2`. If we had given `user2` new `String` values for both -`email` and `username`, and thus only used the `active` and `sign_in_count` -values from `user1`, then `user1` would still be valid after creating `user2`. -The types of `active` and `sign_in_count` are types that implement the `Copy` -trait, so the behavior we discussed in the “Stack-Only Data: Copy” section -would apply. - - - - -### Using Tuple Structs without Named Fields to Create Different Types - -Rust also supports structs that look similar to tuples, called *tuple -structs*. Tuple structs have the added meaning the struct name provides but -don’t have names associated with their fields; rather, they just have the types -of the fields. Tuple structs are useful when you want to give the whole tuple a -name and make the tuple a different type from other tuples, and when naming each +Note that the struct update syntax uses `=` like an assignment; this is because +it moves the data, just as we saw in “Variables and Data Interacting with Move” +on page XX. In this example, we can no longer use `user1` after creating +`user2` because the `String` in the `username` field of `user1` was moved into +`user2`. If we had given `user2` new `String` values for both `email` and +`username`, and thus only used the `active` and `sign_in_count` values from +`user1`, then `user1` would still be valid after creating `user2`. Both +`active` and `sign_in_count` are types that implement the `Copy` trait, so the +behavior we discussed in “Stack-Only Data: Copy” on page XX would apply. + +### Using Tuple Structs Without Named Fields to Create Different Types + +Rust also supports structs that look similar to tuples, called *tuple structs*. +Tuple structs have the added meaning the struct name provides but don’t have +names associated with their fields; rather, they just have the types of the +fields. Tuple structs are useful when you want to give the whole tuple a name +and make the tuple a different type from other tuples, and when naming each field as in a regular struct would be verbose or redundant. To define a tuple struct, start with the `struct` keyword and the struct name -followed by the types in the tuple. For example, here we define and use -two tuple structs named `Color` and `Point`: +followed by the types in the tuple. For example, here we define and use two +tuple structs named `Color` and `Point`: + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` struct Color(i32, i32, i32); @@ -242,7 +243,7 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Note that the `black` and `origin` values are different types, because they’re +Note that the `black` and `origin` values are different types because they’re instances of different tuple structs. Each struct you define is its own type, even though the fields within the struct might have the same types. For example, a function that takes a parameter of type `Color` cannot take a @@ -251,30 +252,17 @@ values. Otherwise, tuple struct instances are similar to tuples in that you can destructure them into their individual pieces, and you can use a `.` followed by the index to access an individual value. - - - ### Unit-Like Structs Without Any Fields You can also define structs that don’t have any fields! These are called *unit-like structs* because they behave similarly to `()`, the unit type that -we mentioned in “The Tuple Type” section. Unit-like structs can be useful when -you need to implement a trait on some type but don’t have any data that you -want to store in the type itself. We’ll discuss traits in Chapter 10. Here’s an -example of declaring and instantiating a unit struct named `AlwaysEqual`: +we mentioned in “The Tuple Type” on page XX. Unit-like structs can be useful +when you need to implement a trait on some type but don’t have any data that +you want to store in the type itself. We’ll discuss traits in Chapter 10. +Here’s an example of declaring and instantiating a unit struct named +`AlwaysEqual`: + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` struct AlwaysEqual; @@ -284,8 +272,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -To define `AlwaysEqual`, we use the `struct` keyword, the name we want, then a -semicolon. No need for curly brackets or parentheses! Then we can get an +To define `AlwaysEqual`, we use the `struct` keyword, the name we want, and +then a semicolon. No need for curly brackets or parentheses! Then we can get an instance of `AlwaysEqual` in the `subject` variable in a similar way: using the name we defined, without any curly brackets or parentheses. Imagine that later we’ll implement behavior for this type such that every instance of @@ -297,31 +285,30 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > ### Ownership of Struct Data > > In the `User` struct definition in Listing 5-1, we used the owned `String` -> type rather than the `&str` string slice type. This is a deliberate choice -> because we want each instance of this struct to own all of its data and for -> that data to be valid for as long as the entire struct is valid. +type rather than the `&str` string slice type. This is a deliberate choice +because we want each instance of this struct to own all of its data and for +that data to be valid for as long as the entire struct is valid. > > It’s also possible for structs to store references to data owned by something -> else, but to do so requires the use of *lifetimes*, a Rust feature that we’ll -> discuss in Chapter 10. Lifetimes ensure that the data referenced by a struct -> is valid for as long as the struct is. Let’s say you try to store a reference -> in a struct without specifying lifetimes, like the following; this won’t work: -> -> Filename: src/main.rs +else, but to do so requires the use of *lifetimes*, a Rust feature that we’ll +discuss in Chapter 10. Lifetimes ensure that the data referenced by a struct is +valid for as long as the struct is. Let’s say you try to store a reference in a +struct without specifying lifetimes, like the following in *src/main.rs*; this +won’t work: > > ``` > struct User { +> active: bool, > username: &str, > email: &str, > sign_in_count: u64, -> active: bool, > } > > fn main() { > let user1 = User { -> email: "someone@example.com", -> username: "someusername123", > active: true, +> username: "someusername123", +> email: "someone@example.com", > sign_in_count: 1, > }; > } @@ -330,7 +317,7 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > The compiler will complain that it needs lifetime specifiers: > > ``` -> $ cargo run +> $ `cargo run` > Compiling structs v0.1.0 (file:///projects/structs) > error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier > --> src/main.rs:3:15 @@ -361,8 +348,8 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > ``` > > In Chapter 10, we’ll discuss how to fix these errors so you can store -> references in structs, but for now, we’ll fix errors like these using owned -> types like `String` instead of references like `&str`. +references in structs, but for now, we’ll fix errors like these using owned +types like `String` instead of references like `&str`. ## An Example Program Using Structs @@ -399,10 +386,6 @@ and height variables Now, run this program using `cargo run`: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s - Running `target/debug/rectangles` The area of the rectangle is 1500 square pixels. ``` @@ -417,10 +400,10 @@ fn area(width: u32, height: u32) -> u32 { ``` The `area` function is supposed to calculate the area of one rectangle, but the -function we wrote has two parameters, and it's not clear anywhere in our +function we wrote has two parameters, and it’s not clear anywhere in our program that the parameters are related. It would be more readable and more manageable to group width and height together. We’ve already discussed one way -we might do that in “The Tuple Type” section of Chapter 3: by using tuples. +we might do that in “The Tuple Type” on page XX: by using tuples. ### Refactoring with Tuples @@ -434,21 +417,21 @@ fn main() { println!( "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.", - area(rect1) + 1 area(rect1) ); } fn area(dimensions: (u32, u32)) -> u32 { - dimensions.0 * dimensions.1 + 2 dimensions.0 * dimensions.1 } ``` Listing 5-9: Specifying the width and height of the rectangle with a tuple In one way, this program is better. Tuples let us add a bit of structure, and -we’re now passing just one argument. But in another way, this version is less -clear: tuples don’t name their elements, so we have to index into the parts of -the tuple, making our calculation less obvious. +we’re now passing just one argument [1]. But in another way, this version is +less clear: tuples don’t name their elements, so we have to index into the +parts of the tuple [2], making our calculation less obvious. Mixing up the width and height wouldn’t matter for the area calculation, but if we want to draw the rectangle on the screen, it would matter! We would have to @@ -466,13 +449,13 @@ parts, as shown in Listing 5-10. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -struct Rectangle { - width: u32, +1 struct Rectangle { + 2 width: u32, height: u32, } fn main() { - let rect1 = Rectangle { + 3 let rect1 = Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, }; @@ -483,27 +466,27 @@ fn main() { ); } -fn area(rectangle: &Rectangle) -> u32 { - rectangle.width * rectangle.height +4 fn area(rectangle: &Rectangle) -> u32 { + 5 rectangle.width * rectangle.height } ``` Listing 5-10: Defining a `Rectangle` struct -Here we’ve defined a struct and named it `Rectangle`. Inside the curly +Here, we’ve defined a struct and named it `Rectangle` [1]. Inside the curly brackets, we defined the fields as `width` and `height`, both of which have -type `u32`. Then in `main`, we created a particular instance of `Rectangle` -that has a width of 30 and a height of 50. +type `u32` [2]. Then, in `main`, we created a particular instance of +`Rectangle` that has a width of `30` and a height of `50` [3]. Our `area` function is now defined with one parameter, which we’ve named -`rectangle`, whose type is an immutable borrow of a struct `Rectangle` -instance. As mentioned in Chapter 4, we want to borrow the struct rather than -take ownership of it. This way, `main` retains its ownership and can continue -using `rect1`, which is the reason we use the `&` in the function signature and -where we call the function. +`rectangle`, whose type is an immutable borrow of a struct `Rectangle` instance +[4]. As mentioned in Chapter 4, we want to borrow the struct rather than take +ownership of it. This way, `main` retains its ownership and can continue using +`rect1`, which is the reason we use the `&` in the function signature and where +we call the function. The `area` function accesses the `width` and `height` fields of the `Rectangle` -instance (note that accessing fields of a borrowed struct instance does not +instance [5] (note that accessing fields of a borrowed struct instance does not move the field values, which is why you often see borrows of structs). Our function signature for `area` now says exactly what we mean: calculate the area of `Rectangle`, using its `width` and `height` fields. This conveys that the @@ -511,14 +494,6 @@ width and height are related to each other, and it gives descriptive names to the values rather than using the tuple index values of `0` and `1`. This is a win for clarity. - - - ### Adding Useful Functionality with Derived Traits It’d be useful to be able to print an instance of `Rectangle` while we’re @@ -555,7 +530,7 @@ error[E0277]: `Rectangle` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` The `println!` macro can do many kinds of formatting, and by default, the curly brackets tell `println!` to use formatting known as `Display`: output intended for direct end user consumption. The primitive types we’ve seen so far -implement `Display` by default, because there’s only one way you’d want to show +implement `Display` by default because there’s only one way you’d want to show a `1` or any other primitive type to a user. But with structs, the way `println!` should format the output is less clear because there are more display possibilities: Do you want commas or not? Do you want to print the @@ -567,7 +542,8 @@ If we continue reading the errors, we’ll find this helpful note: ``` = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Rectangle` -= note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead += note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for +pretty-print) instead ``` Let’s try it! The `println!` macro call will now look like `println!("rect1 is @@ -620,24 +596,16 @@ Now when we run the program, we won’t get any errors, and we’ll see the following output: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s - Running `target/debug/rectangles` rect1 is Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50 } ``` Nice! It’s not the prettiest output, but it shows the values of all the fields for this instance, which would definitely help during debugging. When we have larger structs, it’s useful to have output that’s a bit easier to read; in -those cases, we can use `{:#?}` instead of `{:?}` in the `println!` string. -In this example, using the `{:#?}` style will output: +those cases, we can use `{:#?}` instead of `{:?}` in the `println!` string. In +this example, using the `{:#?}` style will output the following: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s - Running `target/debug/rectangles` rect1 is Rectangle { width: 30, height: 50, @@ -645,20 +613,22 @@ rect1 is Rectangle { ``` Another way to print out a value using the `Debug` format is to use the `dbg!` -macro, which takes ownership of an expression (as opposed to `println!` that +macro, which takes ownership of an expression (as opposed to `println!`, which takes a reference), prints the file and line number of where that `dbg!` macro -call occurs in your code along with the resulting value of that expression, and +call occurs in your code along with the resultant value of that expression, and returns ownership of the value. > Note: Calling the `dbg!` macro prints to the standard error console stream -> (`stderr`), as opposed to `println!` which prints to the standard output -> console stream (`stdout`). We’ll talk more about `stderr` and `stdout` in the -> “Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output” section -> in Chapter 12. +(`stderr`), as opposed to `println!`, which prints to the standard output +console stream (`stdout`). We’ll talk more about `stderr` and `stdout` in +“Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output” on page +XX. Here’s an example where we’re interested in the value that gets assigned to the `width` field, as well as the value of the whole struct in `rect1`: +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` #[derive(Debug)] struct Rectangle { @@ -669,31 +639,21 @@ struct Rectangle { fn main() { let scale = 2; let rect1 = Rectangle { - width: dbg!(30 * scale), + 1 width: dbg!(30 * scale), height: 50, }; - dbg!(&rect1); + 2 dbg!(&rect1); } ``` -We can put `dbg!` around the expression `30 * scale` and, because `dbg!` +We can put `dbg!` around the expression `30 * scale` [1] and, because `dbg!` returns ownership of the expression’s value, the `width` field will get the same value as if we didn’t have the `dbg!` call there. We don’t want `dbg!` to -take ownership of `rect1`, so we use a reference to `rect1` in the next call. -Here’s what the output of this example looks like: - - - +take ownership of `rect1`, so we use a reference to `rect1` in the next call +[2]. Here’s what the output of this example looks like: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling rectangles v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangles) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running `target/debug/rectangles` [src/main.rs:10] 30 * scale = 60 [src/main.rs:14] &rect1 = Rectangle { width: 60, @@ -701,13 +661,13 @@ $ cargo run } ``` -We can see the first bit of output came from *src/main.rs* line 10, where we’re -debugging the expression `30 * scale`, and its resulting value is 60 (the -`Debug` formatting implemented for integers is to print only their value). The -`dbg!` call on line 14 of *src/main.rs* outputs the value of `&rect1`, which is -the `Rectangle` struct. This output uses the pretty `Debug` formatting of the -`Rectangle` type. The `dbg!` macro can be really helpful when you’re trying to -figure out what your code is doing! +We can see the first bit of output came from [1] where we’re debugging the +expression `30 * scale`, and its resultant value is `60` (the `Debug` +formatting implemented for integers is to print only their value). The `dbg!` +call at [2] outputs the value of `&rect1`, which is the `Rectangle` struct. +This output uses the pretty `Debug` formatting of the `Rectangle` type. The +`dbg!` macro can be really helpful when you’re trying to figure out what your +code is doing! In addition to the `Debug` trait, Rust has provided a number of traits for us to use with the `derive` attribute that can add useful behavior to our custom @@ -718,10 +678,10 @@ your own traits in Chapter 10. There are also many attributes other than Reference at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/attributes.html*. Our `area` function is very specific: it only computes the area of rectangles. -It would be helpful to tie this behavior more closely to our `Rectangle` -struct, because it won’t work with any other type. Let’s look at how we can -continue to refactor this code by turning the `area` function into an `area` -*method* defined on our `Rectangle` type. +It would be helpful to tie this behavior more closely to our `Rectangle` struct +because it won’t work with any other type. Let’s look at how we can continue to +refactor this code by turning the `area` function into an `area` *method* +defined on our `Rectangle` type. ## Method Syntax @@ -729,18 +689,9 @@ continue to refactor this code by turning the `area` function into an `area` name, they can have parameters and a return value, and they contain some code that’s run when the method is called from somewhere else. Unlike functions, methods are defined within the context of a struct (or an enum or a trait -object, which we cover in Chapters 6 and 17, respectively), and their first -parameter is always `self`, which represents the instance of the struct the -method is being called on. - - - +object, which we cover in Chapter 6 and Chapter 17, respectively), and their +first parameter is always `self`, which represents the instance of the struct +the method is being called on. ### Defining Methods @@ -757,8 +708,8 @@ struct Rectangle { height: u32, } -impl Rectangle { - fn area(&self) -> u32 { +1 impl Rectangle { + 2 fn area(&self) -> u32 { self.width * self.height } } @@ -771,7 +722,7 @@ fn main() { println!( "The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.", - rect1.area() + 3 rect1.area() ); } ``` @@ -779,14 +730,14 @@ fn main() { Listing 5-13: Defining an `area` method on the `Rectangle` struct To define the function within the context of `Rectangle`, we start an `impl` -(implementation) block for `Rectangle`. Everything within this `impl` block +(implementation) block for `Rectangle` [1]. Everything within this `impl` block will be associated with the `Rectangle` type. Then we move the `area` function -within the `impl` curly brackets and change the first (and in this case, only) -parameter to be `self` in the signature and everywhere within the body. In -`main`, where we called the `area` function and passed `rect1` as an argument, -we can instead use *method syntax* to call the `area` method on our `Rectangle` -instance. The method syntax goes after an instance: we add a dot followed by -the method name, parentheses, and any arguments. +within the `impl` curly brackets [2] and change the first (and in this case, +only) parameter to be `self` in the signature and everywhere within the body. +In `main`, where we called the `area` function and passed `rect1` as an +argument, we can instead use *method syntax* to call the `area` method on our +`Rectangle` instance [3]. The method syntax goes after an instance: we add a +dot followed by the method name, parentheses, and any arguments. In the signature for `area`, we use `&self` instead of `rectangle: &Rectangle`. The `&self` is actually short for `self: &Self`. Within an `impl` block, the @@ -794,28 +745,30 @@ type `Self` is an alias for the type that the `impl` block is for. Methods must have a parameter named `self` of type `Self` for their first parameter, so Rust lets you abbreviate this with only the name `self` in the first parameter spot. Note that we still need to use the `&` in front of the `self` shorthand to -indicate this method borrows the `Self` instance, just as we did in `rectangle: -&Rectangle`. Methods can take ownership of `self`, borrow `self` immutably as -we’ve done here, or borrow `self` mutably, just as they can any other parameter. - -We’ve chosen `&self` here for the same reason we used `&Rectangle` in the -function version: we don’t want to take ownership, and we just want to read the -data in the struct, not write to it. If we wanted to change the instance that -we’ve called the method on as part of what the method does, we’d use `&mut -self` as the first parameter. Having a method that takes ownership of the -instance by using just `self` as the first parameter is rare; this technique is -usually used when the method transforms `self` into something else and you want -to prevent the caller from using the original instance after the transformation. - -The main reason for using methods instead of functions, in addition to providing -method syntax and not having to repeat the type of `self` in every method’s -signature, is for organization. We’ve put all the things we can do with an -instance of a type in one `impl` block rather than making future users of our -code search for capabilities of `Rectangle` in various places in the library we -provide. +indicate that this method borrows the `Self` instance, just as we did in +`rectangle: &Rectangle`. Methods can take ownership of `self`, borrow `self` +immutably, as we’ve done here, or borrow `self` mutably, just as they can any +other parameter. + +We chose `&self` here for the same reason we used `&Rectangle` in the function +version: we don’t want to take ownership, and we just want to read the data in +the struct, not write to it. If we wanted to change the instance that we’ve +called the method on as part of what the method does, we’d use `&mut self` as +the first parameter. Having a method that takes ownership of the instance by +using just `self` as the first parameter is rare; this technique is usually +used when the method transforms `self` into something else and you want to +prevent the caller from using the original instance after the transformation. + +The main reason for using methods instead of functions, in addition to +providing method syntax and not having to repeat the type of `self` in every +method’s signature, is for organization. We’ve put all the things we can do +with an instance of a type in one `impl` block rather than making future users +of our code search for capabilities of `Rectangle` in various places in the +library we provide. Note that we can choose to give a method the same name as one of the struct’s -fields. For example, we can define a method on `Rectangle` also named `width`: +fields. For example, we can define a method on `Rectangle` that is also named +`width`: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -833,42 +786,45 @@ fn main() { }; if rect1.width() { - println!("The rectangle has a nonzero width; it is {}", rect1.width); + println!( + "The rectangle has a nonzero width; it is {}", + rect1.width + ); } } ``` Here, we’re choosing to make the `width` method return `true` if the value in -the instance’s `width` field is greater than 0, and `false` if the value is 0: -we can use a field within a method of the same name for any purpose. In `main`, -when we follow `rect1.width` with parentheses, Rust knows we mean the method -`width`. When we don’t use parentheses, Rust knows we mean the field `width`. +the instance’s `width` field is greater than `0` and `false` if the value is +`0`: we can use a field within a method of the same name for any purpose. In +`main`, when we follow `rect1.width` with parentheses, Rust knows we mean the +method `width`. When we don’t use parentheses, Rust knows we mean the field +`width`. Often, but not always, when we give methods with the same name as a field we want it to only return the value in the field and do nothing else. Methods like this are called *getters*, and Rust does not implement them automatically for struct fields as some other languages do. Getters are useful because you can -make the field private but the method public and thus enable read-only access -to that field as part of the type’s public API. We will be discussing what -public and private are and how to designate a field or method as public or -private in Chapter 7. +make the field private but the method public, and thus enable read-only access +to that field as part of the type’s public API. We will discuss what public and +private are and how to designate a field or method as public or private in +Chapter 7. -> ### Where’s the `->` Operator? +> ### Where’s the -> Operator? > > In C and C++, two different operators are used for calling methods: you use -> `.` if you’re calling a method on the object directly and `->` if you’re -> calling the method on a pointer to the object and need to dereference the -> pointer first. In other words, if `object` is a pointer, -> `object->something()` is similar to `(*object).something()`. +`.` if you’re calling a method on the object directly and `->` if you’re +calling the method on a pointer to the object and need to dereference the +pointer first. In other words, if `object` is a pointer, +`object->`something`()` is similar to `(*object).`something`()`. > > Rust doesn’t have an equivalent to the `->` operator; instead, Rust has a -> feature called *automatic referencing and dereferencing*. Calling methods is -> one of the few places in Rust that has this behavior. -> -> Here’s how it works: when you call a method with `object.something()`, Rust -> automatically adds in `&`, `&mut`, or `*` so `object` matches the signature of -> the method. In other words, the following are the same: +feature called *automatic referencing and dereferencing*. Calling methods is +one of the few places in Rust that has this behavior. > +> Here’s how it works: when you call a method with `object.`something`()`, Rust +automatically adds in `&`, `&mut`, or `*` so `object` matches the signature of +the method. In other words, the following are the same: > > ``` > p1.distance(&p2); @@ -876,20 +832,20 @@ private in Chapter 7. > ``` > > The first one looks much cleaner. This automatic referencing behavior works -> because methods have a clear receiver—the type of `self`. Given the receiver -> and name of a method, Rust can figure out definitively whether the method is -> reading (`&self`), mutating (`&mut self`), or consuming (`self`). The fact -> that Rust makes borrowing implicit for method receivers is a big part of -> making ownership ergonomic in practice. +because methods have a clear receiver—the type of `self`. Given the receiver +and name of a method, Rust can figure out definitively whether the method is +reading (`&self`), mutating (`&mut self`), or consuming (`self`). The fact that +Rust makes borrowing implicit for method receivers is a big part of making +ownership ergonomic in practice. ### Methods with More Parameters Let’s practice using methods by implementing a second method on the `Rectangle` -struct. This time, we want an instance of `Rectangle` to take another instance +struct. This time we want an instance of `Rectangle` to take another instance of `Rectangle` and return `true` if the second `Rectangle` can fit completely -within `self` (the first `Rectangle`); otherwise it should return `false`. That -is, once we’ve defined the `can_hold` method, we want to be able to write the -program shown in Listing 5-14. +within `self` (the first `Rectangle`); otherwise, it should return `false`. +That is, once we’ve defined the `can_hold` method, we want to be able to write +the program shown in Listing 5-14. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -915,8 +871,8 @@ fn main() { Listing 5-14: Using the as-yet-unwritten `can_hold` method -And the expected output would look like the following, because both dimensions -of `rect2` are smaller than the dimensions of `rect1` but `rect3` is wider than +The expected output would look like the following because both dimensions of +`rect2` are smaller than the dimensions of `rect1`, but `rect3` is wider than `rect1`: ``` @@ -934,7 +890,7 @@ read `rect2` (rather than write, which would mean we’d need a mutable borrow), and we want `main` to retain ownership of `rect2` so we can use it again after calling the `can_hold` method. The return value of `can_hold` will be a Boolean, and the implementation will check whether the width and height of -`self` are both greater than the width and height of the other `Rectangle`, +`self` are greater than the width and height of the other `Rectangle`, respectively. Let’s add the new `can_hold` method to the `impl` block from Listing 5-13, shown in Listing 5-15. @@ -981,8 +937,8 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` impl Rectangle { - fn square(size: u32) -> Self [1] { - Self [2] { + fn square(size: u32) -> 1 Self { + 2 Self { width: size, height: size, } @@ -999,17 +955,11 @@ To call this associated function, we use the `::` syntax with the struct name; the struct: the `::` syntax is used for both associated functions and namespaces created by modules. We’ll discuss modules in Chapter 7. - - - -### Multiple `impl` Blocks +### Multiple impl Blocks Each struct is allowed to have multiple `impl` blocks. For example, Listing -5-15 is equivalent to the code shown in Listing 5-16, which has each method -in its own `impl` block. +5-15 is equivalent to the code shown in Listing 5-16, which has each method in +its own `impl` block. ``` impl Rectangle { @@ -1043,31 +993,3 @@ structs have. But structs aren’t the only way you can create custom types: let’s turn to Rust’s enum feature to add another tool to your toolbox. - - diff --git a/nostarch/chapter06.md b/nostarch/chapter06.md index 47b51b5a10..ea4328bea8 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter06.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter06.md @@ -8,8 +8,8 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. # Enums and Pattern Matching -In this chapter we’ll look at *enumerations*, also referred to as *enums*. -Enums allow you to define a type by enumerating its possible *variants*. First, +In this chapter, we’ll look at *enumerations*, also referred to as *enums*. +Enums allow you to define a type by enumerating its possible *variants*. First we’ll define and use an enum to show how an enum can encode meaning along with data. Next, we’ll explore a particularly useful enum, called `Option`, which expresses that a value can be either something or nothing. Then we’ll look at @@ -18,37 +18,8 @@ code for different values of an enum. Finally, we’ll cover how the `if let` construct is another convenient and concise idiom available to handle enums in your code. - - - ## Defining an Enum - - - - - - Where structs give you a way of grouping together related fields and data, like a `Rectangle` with its `width` and `height`, enums give you a way of saying a value is one of a possible set of values. For example, we may want to say that @@ -64,7 +35,7 @@ variants, which is where enumeration gets its name. Any IP address can be either a version four or a version six address, but not both at the same time. That property of IP addresses makes the enum data -structure appropriate, because an enum value can only be one of its variants. +structure appropriate because an enum value can only be one of its variants. Both version four and version six addresses are still fundamentally IP addresses, so they should be treated as the same type when the code is handling situations that apply to any kind of IP address. @@ -114,22 +85,22 @@ Chapter 5, you might be tempted to tackle this problem with structs as shown in Listing 6-1. ``` -enum IpAddrKind { +1 enum IpAddrKind { V4, V6, } -struct IpAddr { - kind: IpAddrKind, - address: String, +2 struct IpAddr { + 3 kind: IpAddrKind, + 4 address: String, } -let home = IpAddr { +5 let home = IpAddr { kind: IpAddrKind::V4, address: String::from("127.0.0.1"), }; -let loopback = IpAddr { +6 let loopback = IpAddr { kind: IpAddrKind::V6, address: String::from("::1"), }; @@ -138,14 +109,14 @@ let loopback = IpAddr { Listing 6-1: Storing the data and `IpAddrKind` variant of an IP address using a `struct` -Here, we’ve defined a struct `IpAddr` that has two fields: a `kind` field that -is of type `IpAddrKind` (the enum we defined previously) and an `address` field -of type `String`. We have two instances of this struct. The first is `home`, -and it has the value `IpAddrKind::V4` as its `kind` with associated address -data of `127.0.0.1`. The second instance is `loopback`. It has the other -variant of `IpAddrKind` as its `kind` value, `V6`, and has address `::1` -associated with it. We’ve used a struct to bundle the `kind` and `address` -values together, so now the variant is associated with the value. +Here, we’ve defined a struct `IpAddr` [2] that has two fields: a `kind` field +[3] that is of type `IpAddrKind` (the enum we defined previously [1]) and an +`address` field [4] of type `String`. We have two instances of this struct. The +first is `home` [5], and it has the value `IpAddrKind::V4` as its `kind` with +associated address data of `127.0.0.1`. The second instance is `loopback` [6]. +It has the other variant of `IpAddrKind` as its `kind` value, `V6`, and has +address `::1` associated with it. We’ve used a struct to bundle the `kind` and +`address` values together, so now the variant is associated with the value. However, representing the same concept using just an enum is more concise: rather than an enum inside a struct, we can put data directly into each enum @@ -164,7 +135,7 @@ let loopback = IpAddr::V6(String::from("::1")); ``` We attach data to each variant of the enum directly, so there is no need for an -extra struct. Here it’s also easier to see another detail of how enums work: +extra struct. Here, it’s also easier to see another detail of how enums work: the name of each enum variant that we define also becomes a function that constructs an instance of the enum. That is, `IpAddr::V4()` is a function call that takes a `String` argument and returns an instance of the `IpAddr` type. We @@ -172,7 +143,7 @@ automatically get this constructor function defined as a result of defining the enum. There’s another advantage to using an enum rather than a struct: each variant -can have different types and amounts of associated data. Version four type IP +can have different types and amounts of associated data. Version four IP addresses will always have four numeric components that will have values between 0 and 255. If we wanted to store `V4` addresses as four `u8` values but still express `V6` addresses as one `String` value, we wouldn’t be able to with @@ -199,11 +170,11 @@ different structs, which are defined differently for each variant: ``` struct Ipv4Addr { - // --snip-- + --snip-- } struct Ipv6Addr { - // --snip-- + --snip-- } enum IpAddr { @@ -240,7 +211,7 @@ types of values This enum has four variants with different types: * `Quit` has no data associated with it at all. -* `Move` has named fields like a struct does. +* `Move` has named fields, like a struct does. * `Write` includes a single `String`. * `ChangeColor` includes three `i32` values. @@ -260,16 +231,10 @@ struct WriteMessage(String); // tuple struct struct ChangeColorMessage(i32, i32, i32); // tuple struct ``` -But if we used the different structs, which each have their own type, we +But if we used the different structs, each of which has its own type, we couldn’t as easily define a function to take any of these kinds of messages as we could with the `Message` enum defined in Listing 6-2, which is a single type. - - - There is one more similarity between enums and structs: just as we’re able to define methods on structs using `impl`, we’re also able to define methods on enums. Here’s a method named `call` that we could define on our `Message` enum: @@ -277,34 +242,34 @@ enums. Here’s a method named `call` that we could define on our `Message` enum ``` impl Message { fn call(&self) { - // method body would be defined here + 1 // method body would be defined here } } -let m = Message::Write(String::from("hello")); +2 let m = Message::Write(String::from("hello")); m.call(); ``` The body of the method would use `self` to get the value that we called the -method on. In this example, we’ve created a variable `m` that has the value +method on. In this example, we’ve created a variable `m` [2] that has the value `Message::Write(String::from("hello"))`, and that is what `self` will be in the -body of the `call` method when `m.call()` runs. +body of the `call` method [1] when `m.call()` runs. Let’s look at another enum in the standard library that is very common and useful: `Option`. -### The `Option` Enum and Its Advantages Over Null Values +### The Option Enum and Its Advantages Over Null Values This section explores a case study of `Option`, which is another enum defined by the standard library. The `Option` type encodes the very common scenario in which a value could be something or it could be nothing. -For example, if you request the first of a list containing items, you would get -a value. If you request the first item of an empty list, you would get nothing. -Expressing this concept in terms of the type system means the compiler can -check whether you’ve handled all the cases you should be handling; this -functionality can prevent bugs that are extremely common in other programming -languages. +For example, if you request the first item in a list containing multiple items, +you would get a value. If you request the first item in an empty list, you +would get nothing. Expressing this concept in terms of the type system means +the compiler can check whether you’ve handled all the cases you should be +handling; this functionality can prevent bugs that are extremely common in +other programming languages. Programming language design is often thought of in terms of which features you include, but the features you exclude are important too. Rust doesn’t have the @@ -316,17 +281,16 @@ In his 2009 presentation “Null References: The Billion Dollar Mistake,” Tony Hoare, the inventor of null, has this to say: > I call it my billion-dollar mistake. At that time, I was designing the first -> comprehensive type system for references in an object-oriented language. My -> goal was to ensure that all use of references should be absolutely safe, with -> checking performed automatically by the compiler. But I couldn’t resist the -> temptation to put in a null reference, simply because it was so easy to -> implement. This has led to innumerable errors, vulnerabilities, and system -> crashes, which have probably caused a billion dollars of pain and damage in -> the last forty years. - -The problem with null values is that if you try to use a null value as a -not-null value, you’ll get an error of some kind. Because this null or not-null -property is pervasive, it’s extremely easy to make this kind of error. +comprehensive type system for references in an object-oriented language. My +goal was to ensure that all use of references should be absolutely safe, with +checking performed automatically by the compiler. But I couldn’t resist the +temptation to put in a null reference, simply because it was so easy to +implement. This has led to innumerable errors, vulnerabilities, and system +crashes, which have probably caused a billion dollars of pain and damage in the +last forty years.The problem with null values is that if you try to use a null +value as a not-null value, you’ll get an error of some kind. Because this null +or not-null property is pervasive, it’s extremely easy to make this kind of +error. However, the concept that null is trying to express is still a useful one: a null is a value that is currently invalid or absent for some reason. @@ -334,8 +298,7 @@ null is a value that is currently invalid or absent for some reason. The problem isn’t really with the concept but with the particular implementation. As such, Rust does not have nulls, but it does have an enum that can encode the concept of a value being present or absent. This enum is -`Option`, and it is defined by the standard library -as follows: +`Option`, and it is defined by the standard library as follows: ``` enum Option { @@ -352,11 +315,11 @@ prefix. The `Option` enum is still just a regular enum, and `Some(T)` and The `` syntax is a feature of Rust we haven’t talked about yet. It’s a generic type parameter, and we’ll cover generics in more detail in Chapter 10. -For now, all you need to know is that `` means the `Some` variant of the -`Option` enum can hold one piece of data of any type, and that each concrete -type that gets used in place of `T` makes the overall `Option` type a -different type. Here are some examples of using `Option` values to hold number -types and string types: +For now, all you need to know is that `` means that the `Some` variant of +the `Option` enum can hold one piece of data of any type, and that each +concrete type that gets used in place of `T` makes the overall `Option` type +a different type. Here are some examples of using `Option` values to hold +number types and string types: ``` let some_number = Some(5); @@ -365,26 +328,6 @@ let some_char = Some('e'); let absent_number: Option = None; ``` - - - The type of `some_number` is `Option`. The type of `some_char` is `Option`, which is a different type. Rust can infer these types because we’ve specified a value inside the `Some` variant. For `absent_number`, Rust @@ -394,13 +337,13 @@ type that the corresponding `Some` variant will hold by looking only at a `Option`. When we have a `Some` value, we know that a value is present and the value is -held within the `Some`. When we have a `None` value, in some sense, it means -the same thing as null: we don’t have a valid value. So why is having -`Option` any better than having null? +held within the `Some`. When we have a `None` value, in some sense it means the +same thing as null: we don’t have a valid value. So why is having `Option` +any better than having null? In short, because `Option` and `T` (where `T` can be any type) are different types, the compiler won’t let us use an `Option` value as if it were -definitely a valid value. For example, this code won’t compile because it’s +definitely a valid value. For example, this code won’t compile, because it’s trying to add an `i8` to an `Option`: ``` @@ -410,11 +353,9 @@ let y: Option = Some(5); let sum = x + y; ``` -If we run this code, we get an error message like this: +If we run this code, we get an error message like this one: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling enums v0.1.0 (file:///projects/enums) error[E0277]: cannot add `Option` to `i8` --> src/main.rs:5:17 | @@ -435,8 +376,7 @@ using the value. In other words, you have to convert an `Option` to a `T` before you can perform `T` operations with it. Generally, this helps catch one of the most -common issues with null: assuming that something isn’t null when it actually -is. +common issues with null: assuming that something isn’t null when it actually is. Eliminating the risk of incorrectly assuming a not-null value helps you to be more confident in your code. In order to have a value that can possibly be @@ -447,30 +387,30 @@ when the value is null. Everywhere that a value has a type that isn’t an deliberate design decision for Rust to limit null’s pervasiveness and increase the safety of Rust code. -So, how do you get the `T` value out of a `Some` variant when you have a value -of type `Option` so you can use that value? The `Option` enum has a large -number of methods that are useful in a variety of situations; you can check -them out in its documentation. Becoming familiar with the methods on +So how do you get the `T` value out of a `Some` variant when you have a value +of type `Option` so that you can use that value? The `Option` enum has a +large number of methods that are useful in a variety of situations; you can +check them out in its documentation. Becoming familiar with the methods on `Option` will be extremely useful in your journey with Rust. In general, in order to use an `Option` value, you want to have code that will handle each variant. You want some code that will run only when you have a `Some(T)` value, and this code is allowed to use the inner `T`. You want some -other code to run if you have a `None` value, and that code doesn’t have a `T` -value available. The `match` expression is a control flow construct that does -just this when used with enums: it will run different code depending on which -variant of the enum it has, and that code can use the data inside the matching -value. - -## The `match` Control Flow Construct - -Rust has an extremely powerful control flow construct called `match` that allows -you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute code based -on which pattern matches. Patterns can be made up of literal values, variable -names, wildcards, and many other things; Chapter 18 covers all the different -kinds of patterns and what they do. The power of `match` comes from the -expressiveness of the patterns and the fact that the compiler confirms that all -possible cases are handled. +other code to run only if you have a `None` value, and that code doesn’t have a +`T` value available. The `match` expression is a control flow construct that +does just this when used with enums: it will run different code depending on +which variant of the enum it has, and that code can use the data inside the +matching value. + +## The match Control Flow Construct + +Rust has an extremely powerful control flow construct called `match` that +allows you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute +code based on which pattern matches. Patterns can be made up of literal values, +variable names, wildcards, and many other things; Chapter 18 covers all the +different kinds of patterns and what they do. The power of `match` comes from +the expressiveness of the patterns and the fact that the compiler confirms that +all possible cases are handled. Think of a `match` expression as being like a coin-sorting machine: coins slide down a track with variously sized holes along it, and each coin falls through @@ -479,12 +419,12 @@ through each pattern in a `match`, and at the first pattern the value “fits, the value falls into the associated code block to be used during execution. Speaking of coins, let’s use them as an example using `match`! We can write a -function that takes an unknown United States coin and, in a similar way as the -counting machine, determines which coin it is and return its value in cents, as -shown here in Listing 6-3. +function that takes an unknown US coin and, in a similar way as the counting +machine, determines which coin it is and returns its value in cents, as shown +in Listing 6-3. ``` -[1]enum Coin { +1 enum Coin { Penny, Nickel, Dime, @@ -492,8 +432,8 @@ shown here in Listing 6-3. } fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 { - match coin { - Coin::Penny => 1, + 2 match coin { + 3 Coin::Penny => 1, Coin::Nickel => 5, Coin::Dime => 10, Coin::Quarter => 25, @@ -504,36 +444,29 @@ fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 { Listing 6-3: An enum and a `match` expression that has the variants of the enum as its patterns -Let’s break down the `match` in the `value_in_cents` function. First, we list +Let’s break down the `match` in the `value_in_cents` function. First we list the `match` keyword followed by an expression, which in this case is the value -`coin`. This seems very similar to an expression used with `if`, but there’s a -big difference: with `if`, the expression needs to return a Boolean value, but -here, it can return any type. The type of `coin` in this example is the `Coin` -enum that we defined at [1]. +`coin` [2]. This seems very similar to an expression used with `if`, but +there’s a big difference: with `if`, the expression needs to return a Boolean +value, but here it can return any type. The type of `coin` in this example is +the `Coin` enum that we defined at [1]. Next are the `match` arms. An arm has two parts: a pattern and some code. The first arm here has a pattern that is the value `Coin::Penny` and then the `=>` -operator that separates the pattern and the code to run. The code in this case -is just the value `1`. Each arm is separated from the next with a comma. +operator that separates the pattern and the code to run [3]. The code in this +case is just the value `1`. Each arm is separated from the next with a comma. - - - -When the `match` expression executes, it compares the resulting value against +When the `match` expression executes, it compares the resultant value against the pattern of each arm, in order. If a pattern matches the value, the code associated with that pattern is executed. If that pattern doesn’t match the value, execution continues to the next arm, much as in a coin-sorting machine. We can have as many arms as we need: in Listing 6-3, our `match` has four arms. -The code associated with each arm is an expression, and the resulting value of +The code associated with each arm is an expression, and the resultant value of the expression in the matching arm is the value that gets returned for the entire `match` expression. -We don't typically use curly brackets if the match arm code is short, as it is +We don’t typically use curly brackets if the match arm code is short, as it is in Listing 6-3 where each arm just returns a value. If you want to run multiple lines of code in a match arm, you must use curly brackets, and the comma following the arm is then optional. For example, the following code prints @@ -554,7 +487,7 @@ fn value_in_cents(coin: Coin) -> u8 { } ``` -### Patterns that Bind to Values +### Patterns That Bind to Values Another useful feature of match arms is that they can bind to the parts of the values that match the pattern. This is how we can extract values out of enum @@ -564,15 +497,15 @@ As an example, let’s change one of our enum variants to hold data inside it. From 1999 through 2008, the United States minted quarters with different designs for each of the 50 states on one side. No other coins got state designs, so only quarters have this extra value. We can add this information to -our `enum` by changing the `Quarter` variant to include a `UsState` value stored -inside it, which we’ve done here in Listing 6-4. +our `enum` by changing the `Quarter` variant to include a `UsState` value +stored inside it, which we’ve done in Listing 6-4. ``` #[derive(Debug)] // so we can inspect the state in a minute enum UsState { Alabama, Alaska, - // --snip-- + --snip-- } enum Coin { @@ -588,8 +521,8 @@ Listing 6-4: A `Coin` enum in which the `Quarter` variant also holds a Let’s imagine that a friend is trying to collect all 50 state quarters. While we sort our loose change by coin type, we’ll also call out the name of the -state associated with each quarter so if it’s one our friend doesn’t have, they -can add it to their collection. +state associated with each quarter so that if it’s one our friend doesn’t have, +they can add it to their collection. In the match expression for this code, we add a variable called `state` to the pattern that matches values of the variant `Coin::Quarter`. When a @@ -617,13 +550,13 @@ that point, the binding for `state` will be the value `UsState::Alaska`. We can then use that binding in the `println!` expression, thus getting the inner state value out of the `Coin` enum variant for `Quarter`. -### Matching with `Option` +### Matching with Option In the previous section, we wanted to get the inner `T` value out of the `Some` -case when using `Option`; we can also handle `Option` using `match` as we -did with the `Coin` enum! Instead of comparing coins, we’ll compare the -variants of `Option`, but the way that the `match` expression works remains -the same. +case when using `Option`; we can also handle `Option` using `match`, as +we did with the `Coin` enum! Instead of comparing coins, we’ll compare the +variants of `Option`, but the way the `match` expression works remains the +same. Let’s say we want to write a function that takes an `Option` and, if there’s a value inside, adds 1 to that value. If there isn’t a value inside, @@ -636,44 +569,40 @@ Listing 6-5. ``` fn plus_one(x: Option) -> Option { match x { - None => None, - Some(i) => Some(i + 1), + 1 None => None, + 2 Some(i) => Some(i + 1), } } let five = Some(5); -let six = plus_one(five); -let none = plus_one(None); +let six = plus_one(five); 3 +let none = plus_one(None); 4 ``` Listing 6-5: A function that uses a `match` expression on an `Option` Let’s examine the first execution of `plus_one` in more detail. When we call -`plus_one(five)`, the variable `x` in the body of `plus_one` will have the -value `Some(5)`. We then compare that against each match arm. +`plus_one(five)` [3], the variable `x` in the body of `plus_one` will have the +value `Some(5)`. We then compare that against each match arm: ``` None => None, ``` -The `Some(5)` value doesn’t match the pattern `None`, so we continue to the -next arm. +The `Some(5)` value doesn’t match the pattern `None` [1], so we continue to the +next arm: ``` Some(i) => Some(i + 1), ``` -Does `Some(5)` match `Some(i)`? Why yes it does! We have the same variant. The -`i` binds to the value contained in `Some`, so `i` takes the value `5`. The +Does `Some(5)` match `Some(i)` [2]? Why yes, it does! We have the same variant. +The `i` binds to the value contained in `Some`, so `i` takes the value `5`. The code in the match arm is then executed, so we add 1 to the value of `i` and create a new `Some` value with our total `6` inside. Now let’s consider the second call of `plus_one` in Listing 6-5, where `x` is -`None`. We enter the `match` and compare to the first arm. - -``` -None => None, -``` +`None` [4]. We enter the `match` and compare to the first arm [1]. It matches! There’s no value to add to, so the program stops and returns the `None` value on the right side of `=>`. Because the first arm matched, no other @@ -704,26 +633,31 @@ a bug Rust knows how to catch. If we try to compile this code, we’ll get this error: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling enums v0.1.0 (file:///projects/enums) error[E0004]: non-exhaustive patterns: `None` not covered - --> src/main.rs:3:15 + --> src/main.rs:3:15 + | +3 | match x { + | ^ pattern `None` not covered + | + note: `Option` defined here + = note: the matched value is of type `Option` +help: ensure that all possible cases are being handled by adding +a match arm with a wildcard pattern or an explicit pattern as +shown | -3 | match x { - | ^ pattern `None` not covered +4 ~ Some(i) => Some(i + 1), +5 ~ None => todo!(), | - = help: ensure that all possible cases are being handled, possibly by adding wildcards or more match arms - = note: the matched value is of type `Option` ``` -Rust knows that we didn’t cover every possible case and even knows which +Rust knows that we didn’t cover every possible case, and even knows which pattern we forgot! Matches in Rust are *exhaustive*: we must exhaust every last possibility in order for the code to be valid. Especially in the case of `Option`, when Rust prevents us from forgetting to explicitly handle the `None` case, it protects us from assuming that we have a value when we might have null, thus making the billion-dollar mistake discussed earlier impossible. -### Catch-all Patterns and the `_` Placeholder +### Catch-all Patterns and the _ Placeholder Using enums, we can also take special actions for a few particular values, but for all other values take one default action. Imagine we’re implementing a game @@ -740,7 +674,7 @@ let dice_roll = 9; match dice_roll { 3 => add_fancy_hat(), 7 => remove_fancy_hat(), - other => move_player(other), + 1 other => move_player(other), } fn add_fancy_hat() {} @@ -748,10 +682,10 @@ fn remove_fancy_hat() {} fn move_player(num_spaces: u8) {} ``` -For the first two arms, the patterns are the literal values 3 and 7. For the -last arm that covers every other possible value, the pattern is the variable -we’ve chosen to name `other`. The code that runs for the `other` arm uses the -variable by passing it to the `move_player` function. +For the first two arms, the patterns are the literal values `3` and `7`. For +the last arm that covers every other possible value, the pattern is the +variable we’ve chosen to name `other` [1]. The code that runs for the `other` +arm uses the variable by passing it to the `move_player` function. This code compiles, even though we haven’t listed all the possible values a `u8` can have, because the last pattern will match all values not specifically @@ -785,10 +719,10 @@ fn reroll() {} This example also meets the exhaustiveness requirement because we’re explicitly ignoring all other values in the last arm; we haven’t forgotten anything. -Finally, we’ll change the rules of the game one more time, so that nothing else +Finally, we’ll change the rules of the game one more time so that nothing else happens on your turn if you roll anything other than a 3 or a 7. We can express that by using the unit value (the empty tuple type we mentioned in “The Tuple -Type” section) as the code that goes with the `_` arm: +Type” on page XX) as the code that goes with the `_` arm: ``` let dice_roll = 9; @@ -810,17 +744,18 @@ There’s more about patterns and matching that we’ll cover in Chapter 18. For now, we’re going to move on to the `if let` syntax, which can be useful in situations where the `match` expression is a bit wordy. -## Concise Control Flow with `if let` +## Concise Control Flow with if let The `if let` syntax lets you combine `if` and `let` into a less verbose way to handle values that match one pattern while ignoring the rest. Consider the -program in Listing 6-6 that matches on an `Option` value in the `config_max` -variable but only wants to execute code if the value is the `Some` variant. +program in Listing 6-6 that matches on an `Option` value in the +`config_max` variable but only wants to execute code if the value is the `Some` +variant. ``` let config_max = Some(3u8); match config_max { - Some(max) => println!("The maximum is configured to be {}", max), + Some(max) => println!("The maximum is configured to be {max}"), _ => (), } ``` @@ -840,7 +775,7 @@ code behaves the same as the `match` in Listing 6-6: ``` let config_max = Some(3u8); if let Some(max) = config_max { - println!("The maximum is configured to be {}", max); + println!("The maximum is configured to be {max}"); } ``` @@ -848,7 +783,7 @@ The syntax `if let` takes a pattern and an expression separated by an equal sign. It works the same way as a `match`, where the expression is given to the `match` and the pattern is its first arm. In this case, the pattern is `Some(max)`, and the `max` binds to the value inside the `Some`. We can then -use `max` in the body of the `if let` block in the same way as we used `max` in +use `max` in the body of the `if let` block in the same way we used `max` in the corresponding `match` arm. The code in the `if let` block isn’t run if the value doesn’t match the pattern. @@ -867,7 +802,7 @@ We can include an `else` with an `if let`. The block of code that goes with the `Coin` enum definition in Listing 6-4, where the `Quarter` variant also held a `UsState` value. If we wanted to count all non-quarter coins we see while also announcing the state of the quarters, we could do that with a `match` -expression like this: +expression, like this: ``` let mut count = 0; @@ -877,7 +812,7 @@ match coin { } ``` -Or we could use an `if let` and `else` expression like this: +Or we could use an `if let` and `else` expression, like this: ``` let mut count = 0; @@ -901,19 +836,10 @@ values, depending on how many cases you need to handle. Your Rust programs can now express concepts in your domain using structs and enums. Creating custom types to use in your API ensures type safety: the -compiler will make certain your functions get only values of the type each +compiler will make certain your functions only get values of the type each function expects. In order to provide a well-organized API to your users that is straightforward to use and only exposes exactly what your users will need, let’s now turn to Rust’s modules. - - diff --git a/nostarch/chapter07.md b/nostarch/chapter07.md index 4949abb36a..0a7a407935 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter07.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter07.md @@ -57,14 +57,6 @@ understanding of the module system and be able to work with scopes like a pro! The first parts of the module system we’ll cover are packages and crates. - - - A *crate* is the smallest amount of code that the Rust compiler considers at a time. Even if you run `rustc` rather than `cargo` and pass a single source code file (as we did all the way back in the “Writing and Running a Rust Program” @@ -80,14 +72,15 @@ created so far have been binary crates. *Library crates* don’t have a `main` function, and they don’t compile to an executable. Instead, they define functionality intended to be shared with -multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in Chapter 2 provides -functionality that generates random numbers. Most of the time when Rustaceans -say “crate”, they mean library crate, and they use “crate” interchangeably with -the general programming concept of a “library". +multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in Chapter +2 provides functionality that generates random numbers. +Most of the time when Rustaceans say “crate”, they mean library crate, and they +use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library”. The *crate root* is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of your crate (we’ll explain modules in depth in the -“Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy” section). +“Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy” +section). A *package* is a bundle of one or more crates that provides a set of functionality. A package contains a *Cargo.toml* file that describes how to @@ -97,15 +90,13 @@ package also contains a library crate that the binary crate depends on. Other projects can depend on the Cargo library crate to use the same logic the Cargo command-line tool uses. - - - -A package can contain as many binary crates as you like, but at most only one +A crate can come in one of two forms: a binary crate or a library crate. A +package can contain as many binary crates as you like, but at most only one library crate. A package must contain at least one crate, whether that’s a library or binary crate. -Let’s walk through what happens when we create a package. First, we enter the -command `cargo new`: +Let’s walk through what happens when we create a package. First we enter the +command `cargo new my-project`: ``` $ cargo new my-project @@ -117,15 +108,15 @@ $ ls my-project/src main.rs ``` -After we run `cargo new`, we use `ls` to see what Cargo creates. In the project -directory, there’s a *Cargo.toml* file, giving us a package. There’s also a -*src* directory that contains *main.rs*. Open *Cargo.toml* in your text editor, -and note there’s no mention of *src/main.rs*. Cargo follows a convention that -*src/main.rs* is the crate root of a binary crate with the same name as the -package. Likewise, Cargo knows that if the package directory contains -*src/lib.rs*, the package contains a library crate with the same name as the -package, and *src/lib.rs* is its crate root. Cargo passes the crate root files -to `rustc` to build the library or binary. +After we run `cargo new my-project`, we use `ls` to see what Cargo creates. In +the project directory, there’s a *Cargo.toml* file, giving us a package. +There’s also a *src* directory that contains *main.rs*. Open *Cargo.toml* in +your text editor, and note there’s no mention of *src/main.rs*. Cargo follows a +convention that *src/main.rs* is the crate root of a binary crate with the same +name as the package. Likewise, Cargo knows that if the package directory +contains *src/lib.rs*, the package contains a library crate with the same name +as the package, and *src/lib.rs* is its crate root. Cargo passes the crate root +files to `rustc` to build the library or binary. Here, we have a package that only contains *src/main.rs*, meaning it only contains a binary crate named `my-project`. If a package contains *src/main.rs* @@ -136,90 +127,52 @@ in the *src/bin* directory: each file will be a separate binary crate. ## Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy In this section, we’ll talk about modules and other parts of the module system, -namely *paths* that allow you to name items; the `use` keyword that brings a +namely *paths*, which allow you to name items; the `use` keyword that brings a path into scope; and the `pub` keyword to make items public. We’ll also discuss the `as` keyword, external packages, and the glob operator. -First, we’re going to start with a list of rules for easy reference when you’re -organizing your code in the future. Then we’ll explain each of the rules in -detail. - ### Modules Cheat Sheet - - - - - -Here we provide a quick reference on how modules, paths, the `use` keyword, and -the `pub` keyword work in the compiler, and how most developers organize their -code. We’ll be going through examples of each of these rules throughout this -chapter, but this is a great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules -work. - -- **Start from the crate root**: When compiling a crate, the compiler first +Before we get to the details of modules and paths, here we provide a quick +reference on how modules, paths, the `use` keyword, and the `pub` keyword work +in the compiler, and how most developers organize their code. We’ll be going +through examples of each of these rules throughout this chapter, but this is a +great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules work. + +* **Start from the crate root**: When compiling a crate, the compiler first looks in the crate root file (usually *src/lib.rs* for a library crate or - *src/main.rs* for a binary crate). - - -- **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; -say, you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look -for the module’s code in these places: - - - - - Inline, directly following `mod garden`, within curly brackets instead of - the semicolon - - - - In the file *src/garden.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* -- **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can + *src/main.rs* for a binary crate) for code to compile. +* **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; + say you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look + for the module’s code in these places: + * Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod garden` + * In the file *src/garden.rs* + * In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* +* **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can declare submodules. For example, you might declare `mod vegetables;` in *src/garden.rs*. The compiler will look for the submodule’s code within the directory named for the parent module in these places: - - Inline, directly following `mod vegetables`, within curly brackets instead + * Inline, directly following `mod vegetables`, within curly brackets instead of the semicolon - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs* -- **Paths to code in modules**: Once a module is part of your crate, you can + * In the file *src/garden/vegetables.rs* + * In the file *src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs* +* **Paths to code in modules**: Once a module is part of your crate, you can refer to code in that module from anywhere else in that same crate, as long as the privacy rules allow, using the path to the code. For example, an `Asparagus` type in the garden vegetables module would be found at `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`. -- **Private vs public**: Code within a module is private from its parent +* **Private vs. public**: Code within a module is private from its parent modules by default. To make a module public, declare it with `pub mod` instead of `mod`. To make items within a public module public as well, use `pub` before their declarations. -- **The `use` keyword**: Within a scope, the `use` keyword creates shortcuts to +* **The `use` keyword**: Within a scope, the `use` keyword creates shortcuts to items to reduce repetition of long paths. In any scope that can refer to - `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use - crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;` and from then on you only need to + `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`, you can create a shortcut with `use crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;` and from then on you only need to write `Asparagus` to make use of that type in the scope. -Here we create a binary crate named `backyard` that illustrates these rules. The -crate’s directory, also named `backyard`, contains these files and directories: +Here, we create a binary crate named `backyard` that illustrates these rules. +The crate’s directory, also named `backyard`, contains these files and +directories: ``` backyard @@ -243,7 +196,7 @@ pub mod garden; fn main() { let plant = Asparagus {}; - println!("I'm growing {:?}!", plant); + println!("I'm growing {plant:?}!"); } ``` @@ -269,20 +222,15 @@ Now let’s get into the details of these rules and demonstrate them in action! ### Grouping Related Code in Modules *Modules* let us organize code within a crate for readability and easy reuse. -Modules also allow us to control the *privacy* of items, because code within a +Modules also allow us to control the *privacy* of items because code within a module is private by default. Private items are internal implementation details not available for outside use. We can choose to make modules and the items within them public, which exposes them to allow external code to use and depend on them. - - As an example, let’s write a library crate that provides the functionality of a restaurant. We’ll define the signatures of functions but leave their bodies -empty to concentrate on the organization of the code, rather than the +empty to concentrate on the organization of the code rather than the implementation of a restaurant. In the restaurant industry, some parts of a restaurant are referred to as @@ -293,9 +241,9 @@ chefs and cooks work in the kitchen, dishwashers clean up, and managers do administrative work. To structure our crate in this way, we can organize its functions into nested -modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new --lib -restaurant`; then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to define -some modules and function signatures. Here’s the front of house section: +modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new restaurant --lib`. Then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to +define some modules and function signatures; this code is the front of house +section. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -317,8 +265,8 @@ mod front_of_house { } ``` -Listing 7-1: A `front_of_house` module containing other modules that then -contain functions +Listing 7-1: A `front_of_house` module containing other +modules that then contain functions We define a module with the `mod` keyword followed by the name of the module (in this case, `front_of_house`). The body of the module then goes inside curly @@ -352,15 +300,16 @@ crate └── take_payment ``` -Listing 7-2: The module tree for the code in Listing 7-1 +Listing 7-2: The module tree for the code in Listing +7-1 -This tree shows how some of the modules nest inside one another; for example, +This tree shows how some of the modules nest inside other modules; for example, `hosting` nests inside `front_of_house`. The tree also shows that some modules -are *siblings* to each other, meaning they’re defined in the same module; -`hosting` and `serving` are siblings defined within `front_of_house`. If module -A is contained inside module B, we say that module A is the *child* of module B -and that module B is the *parent* of module A. Notice that the entire module -tree is rooted under the implicit module named `crate`. +are *siblings*, meaning they’re defined in the same module; `hosting` and +`serving` are siblings defined within `front_of_house`. If module A is +contained inside module B, we say that module A is the *child* of module B and +that module B is the *parent* of module A. Notice that the entire module tree +is rooted under the implicit module named `crate`. The module tree might remind you of the filesystem’s directory tree on your computer; this is a very apt comparison! Just like directories in a filesystem, @@ -387,12 +336,16 @@ separated by double colons (`::`). Returning to Listing 7-1, say we want to call the `add_to_waitlist` function. This is the same as asking: what’s the path of the `add_to_waitlist` function? Listing 7-3 contains Listing 7-1 with some of the modules and functions -removed. We’ll show two ways to call the `add_to_waitlist` function from a new -function `eat_at_restaurant` defined in the crate root. The `eat_at_restaurant` -function is part of our library crate’s public API, so we mark it with the -`pub` keyword. In the “Exposing Paths with the `pub` Keyword” section, we’ll go -into more detail about `pub`. Note that this example won’t compile just yet; -we’ll explain why in a bit. +removed. + +We’ll show two ways to call the `add_to_waitlist` function from a new function, +`eat_at_restaurant`, defined in the crate root. These paths are correct, but +there’s another problem remaining that will prevent this example from compiling +as is. We’ll explain why in a bit. + +The `eat_at_restaurant` function is part of our library crate’s public API, so +we mark it with the `pub` keyword. In the “Exposing Paths with the `pub` +Keyword” section, we’ll go into more detail about `pub`. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -412,8 +365,8 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-3: Calling the `add_to_waitlist` function using absolute and relative -paths +Listing 7-3: Calling the `add_to_waitlist` function using +absolute and relative paths The first time we call the `add_to_waitlist` function in `eat_at_restaurant`, we use an absolute path. The `add_to_waitlist` function is defined in the same @@ -432,21 +385,20 @@ filesystem equivalent would be using the path that the path is relative. Choosing whether to use a relative or absolute path is a decision you’ll make -based on your project, and depends on whether you’re more likely to move item -definition code separately from or together with the code that uses the item. -For example, if we move the `front_of_house` module and the `eat_at_restaurant` -function into a module named `customer_experience`, we’d need to update the -absolute path to `add_to_waitlist`, but the relative path would still be valid. -However, if we moved the `eat_at_restaurant` function separately into a module -named `dining`, the absolute path to the `add_to_waitlist` call would stay the -same, but the relative path would need to be updated. - - -Our preference in general is to specify absolute paths because it’s more likely -we’ll want to move code definitions and item calls independently of each other. +based on your project, and it depends on whether you’re more likely to move +item definition code separately from or together with the code that uses the +item. For example, if we moved the `front_of_house` module and the +`eat_at_restaurant` function into a module named `customer_experience`, we’d +need to update the absolute path to `add_to_waitlist`, but the relative path +would still be valid. However, if we moved the `eat_at_restaurant` function +separately into a module named `dining`, the absolute path to the +`add_to_waitlist` call would stay the same, but the relative path would need to +be updated. Our preference in general is to specify absolute paths because it’s +more likely we’ll want to move code definitions and item calls independently of +each other. Let’s try to compile Listing 7-3 and find out why it won’t compile yet! The -error we get is shown in Listing 7-4. +errors we get are shown in Listing 7-4. ``` $ cargo build @@ -455,7 +407,9 @@ error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private --> src/lib.rs:9:28 | 9 | crate::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); - | ^^^^^^^ private module + | ^^^^^^^ --------------- function `add_to_waitlist` is not publicly re-exported + | | + | private module | note: the module `hosting` is defined here --> src/lib.rs:2:5 @@ -467,16 +421,22 @@ error[E0603]: module `hosting` is private --> src/lib.rs:12:21 | 12 | front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist(); - | ^^^^^^^ private module + | ^^^^^^^ --------------- function `add_to_waitlist` is not publicly re-exported + | | + | private module | note: the module `hosting` is defined here --> src/lib.rs:2:5 | 2 | mod hosting { | ^^^^^^^^^^^ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`. +error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 2 previous errors ``` -Listing 7-4: Compiler errors from building the code in Listing 7-3 +Listing 7-4: Compiler errors from building the code in +Listing 7-3 The error messages say that module `hosting` is private. In other words, we have the correct paths for the `hosting` module and the `add_to_waitlist` @@ -524,11 +484,11 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-5: Declaring the `hosting` module as `pub` to use it from -`eat_at_restaurant` +Listing 7-5: Declaring the `hosting` module as `pub` to +use it from `eat_at_restaurant` -Unfortunately, the code in Listing 7-5 still results in an error, as shown in -Listing 7-6. +Unfortunately, the code in Listing 7-5 still results in compiler errors, as +shown in Listing 7-6. ``` $ cargo build @@ -556,9 +516,13 @@ note: the function `add_to_waitlist` is defined here | 3 | fn add_to_waitlist() {} | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0603`. +error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 2 previous errors ``` -Listing 7-6: Compiler errors from building the code in Listing 7-5 +Listing 7-6: Compiler errors from building the code in +Listing 7-5 What happened? Adding the `pub` keyword in front of `mod hosting` makes the module public. With this change, if we can access `front_of_house`, we can @@ -568,8 +532,6 @@ only lets code in its ancestor modules refer to it, not access its inner code. Because modules are containers, there’s not much we can do by only making the module public; we need to go further and choose to make one or more of the items within the module public as well. - - The errors in Listing 7-6 say that the `add_to_waitlist` function is private. The privacy rules apply to structs, enums, functions, and methods as well as @@ -596,11 +558,12 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-7: Adding the `pub` keyword to `mod hosting` and `fn add_to_waitlist` -lets us call the function from `eat_at_restaurant` +Listing 7-7: Adding the `pub` keyword to `mod hosting` +and `fn add_to_waitlist` lets us call the function from +`eat_at_restaurant` Now the code will compile! To see why adding the `pub` keyword lets us use -these paths in `add_to_waitlist` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look +these paths in `eat_at_restaurant` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look at the absolute and the relative paths. In the absolute path, we start with `crate`, the root of our crate’s module @@ -626,58 +589,45 @@ your public API is your contract with users of your crate that determines how they can interact with your code. There are many considerations around managing changes to your public API to make it easier for people to depend on your crate. These considerations are out of the scope of this book; if you’re -interested in this topic, see The Rust API Guidelines at -*https://rust-lang.github.io/api-guidelines/*. - - - - -> #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library -> -> We mentioned a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate root as -> well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have the -> package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of containing -> both a library and a binary crate will have just - - -> enough code in the binary crate to start an executable that calls code with -> the library crate. This lets other projects benefit from the most -> functionality that the package provides, because the library crate’s code can -> be shared. -> -> The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can -> be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. -> The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely -> external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. -> This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a -> client! -> -> In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational practice with a -> command-line program that will contain both a binary crate and a library -> crate. +interested in this topic, see The Rust API Guidelines at *https://rust-lang.github.io/api-guidelines/*. + + > + > #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library + > + > We mentioned that a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate + > root as well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have + > the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of + > containing both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the + > binary crate to start an executable that calls code within the library crate. + > This lets other projects benefit from most of the functionality that the + > package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared. + > + > The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can + > be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. + > The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely + > external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. + > This helps you design a good API; not only are you the author, you’re also a + > client! + > + > In Chapter 12, we’ll demonstrate this organizational + > practice with a command-line program that will contain both a binary crate + > and a library crate. ### Starting Relative Paths with `super` We can construct relative paths that begin in the parent module, rather than the current module or the crate root, by using `super` at the start of the -path. This is like starting a filesystem path with the `..` syntax. This allows -us to reference an item that we know is in the parent module, which can make -rearranging the module tree easier when the module is closely related to the -parent, but the parent might be moved elsewhere in the module tree someday. - - - +path. This is like starting a filesystem path with the `..` syntax. Using +`super` allows us to reference an item that we know is in the parent module, +which can make rearranging the module tree easier when the module is closely +related to the parent but the parent might be moved elsewhere in the module +tree someday. Consider the code in Listing 7-8 that models the situation in which a chef fixes an incorrect order and personally brings it out to the customer. The function `fix_incorrect_order` defined in the `back_of_house` module calls the function `deliver_order` defined in the parent module by specifying the path to -`deliver_order` starting with `super`: +`deliver_order`, starting with `super`. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -694,7 +644,8 @@ mod back_of_house { } ``` -Listing 7-8: Calling a function using a relative path starting with `super` +Listing 7-8: Calling a function using a relative path +starting with `super` The `fix_incorrect_order` function is in the `back_of_house` module, so we can use `super` to go to the parent module of `back_of_house`, which in this case @@ -708,7 +659,7 @@ code gets moved to a different module. ### Making Structs and Enums Public We can also use `pub` to designate structs and enums as public, but there are a -few details extra to the usage of `pub` with structs and enums. If we use `pub` +few extra details to the usage of `pub` with structs and enums. If we use `pub` before a struct definition, we make the struct public, but the struct’s fields will still be private. We can make each field public or not on a case-by-case basis. In Listing 7-9, we’ve defined a public `back_of_house::Breakfast` struct @@ -750,12 +701,13 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-9: A struct with some public fields and some private fields +Listing 7-9: A struct with some public fields and some +private fields Because the `toast` field in the `back_of_house::Breakfast` struct is public, in `eat_at_restaurant` we can write and read to the `toast` field using dot notation. Notice that we can’t use the `seasonal_fruit` field in -`eat_at_restaurant` because `seasonal_fruit` is private. Try uncommenting the +`eat_at_restaurant`, because `seasonal_fruit` is private. Try uncommenting the line modifying the `seasonal_fruit` field value to see what error you get! Also, note that because `back_of_house::Breakfast` has a private field, the @@ -784,7 +736,8 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-10: Designating an enum as public makes all its variants public +Listing 7-10: Designating an enum as public makes all its +variants public Because we made the `Appetizer` enum public, we can use the `Soup` and `Salad` variants in `eat_at_restaurant`. @@ -829,7 +782,8 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-11: Bringing a module into scope with `use` +Listing 7-11: Bringing a module into scope with +`use` Adding `use` and a path in a scope is similar to creating a symbolic link in the filesystem. By adding `use crate::front_of_house::hosting` in the crate @@ -840,7 +794,7 @@ also check privacy, like any other paths. Note that `use` only creates the shortcut for the particular scope in which the `use` occurs. Listing 7-12 moves the `eat_at_restaurant` function into a new child module named `customer`, which is then a different scope than the `use` -statement, so the function body won’t compile: +statement, so the function body won’t compile. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -860,17 +814,25 @@ mod customer { } ``` -Listing 7-12: A `use` statement only applies in the scope it’s in +Listing 7-12: A `use` statement only applies in the scope +it’s in The compiler error shows that the shortcut no longer applies within the `customer` module: ``` +$ cargo build + Compiling restaurant v0.1.0 (file:///projects/restaurant) error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared crate or module `hosting` --> src/lib.rs:11:9 | 11 | hosting::add_to_waitlist(); | ^^^^^^^ use of undeclared crate or module `hosting` + | +help: consider importing this module through its public re-export + | +10 + use crate::hosting; + | warning: unused import: `crate::front_of_house::hosting` --> src/lib.rs:7:5 @@ -879,6 +841,10 @@ warning: unused import: `crate::front_of_house::hosting` | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ | = note: `#[warn(unused_imports)]` on by default + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0433`. +warning: `restaurant` (lib) generated 1 warning +error: could not compile `restaurant` (lib) due to 1 previous error; 1 warning emitted ``` Notice there’s also a warning that the `use` is no longer used in its scope! To @@ -888,9 +854,8 @@ the shortcut in the parent module with `super::hosting` within the child ### Creating Idiomatic `use` Paths -In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified `use -crate::front_of_house::hosting` and then called `hosting::add_to_waitlist` in -`eat_at_restaurant` rather than specifying the `use` path all the way out to +In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified `use crate::front_of_house::hosting` and then called `hosting::add_to_waitlist` in +`eat_at_restaurant`, rather than specifying the `use` path all the way out to the `add_to_waitlist` function to achieve the same result, as in Listing 7-13. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -909,12 +874,12 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-13: Bringing the `add_to_waitlist` function into scope with `use`, -which is unidiomatic +Listing 7-13: Bringing the `add_to_waitlist` function +into scope with `use`, which is unidiomatic -Although both Listing 7-11 and 7-13 accomplish the same task, Listing 7-11 is -the idiomatic way to bring a function into scope with `use`. Bringing the -function’s parent module into scope with `use` means we have to specify the +Although both Listing 7-11 and Listing 7-13 accomplish the same task, Listing +7-11 is the idiomatic way to bring a function into scope with `use`. Bringing +the function’s parent module into scope with `use` means we have to specify the parent module when calling the function. Specifying the parent module when calling the function makes it clear that the function isn’t locally defined while still minimizing repetition of the full path. The code in Listing 7-13 is @@ -936,7 +901,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 7-14: Bringing `HashMap` into scope in an idiomatic way +Listing 7-14: Bringing `HashMap` into scope in an +idiomatic way There’s no strong reason behind this idiom: it’s just the convention that has emerged, and folks have gotten used to reading and writing Rust code this way. @@ -944,7 +910,7 @@ emerged, and folks have gotten used to reading and writing Rust code this way. The exception to this idiom is if we’re bringing two items with the same name into scope with `use` statements, because Rust doesn’t allow that. Listing 7-15 shows how to bring two `Result` types into scope that have the same name but -different parent modules and how to refer to them. +different parent modules, and how to refer to them. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -961,12 +927,12 @@ fn function2() -> io::Result<()> { } ``` -Listing 7-15: Bringing two types with the same name into the same scope -requires using their parent modules. +Listing 7-15: Bringing two types with the same name into +the same scope requires using their parent modules. As you can see, using the parent modules distinguishes the two `Result` types. If instead we specified `use std::fmt::Result` and `use std::io::Result`, we’d -have two `Result` types in the same scope and Rust wouldn’t know which one we +have two `Result` types in the same scope, and Rust wouldn’t know which one we meant when we used `Result`. ### Providing New Names with the `as` Keyword @@ -991,7 +957,8 @@ fn function2() -> IoResult<()> { } ``` -Listing 7-16: Renaming a type when it’s brought into scope with the `as` keyword +Listing 7-16: Renaming a type when it’s brought into +scope with the `as` keyword In the second `use` statement, we chose the new name `IoResult` for the `std::io::Result` type, which won’t conflict with the `Result` from `std::fmt` @@ -1003,8 +970,8 @@ considered idiomatic, so the choice is up to you! When we bring a name into scope with the `use` keyword, the name available in the new scope is private. To enable the code that calls our code to refer to that name as if it had been defined in that code’s scope, we can combine `pub` -and `use`. This technique is called *re-exporting* because we’re bringing -an item into scope but also making that item available for others to bring into +and `use`. This technique is called *re-exporting* because we’re bringing an +item into scope but also making that item available for others to bring into their scope. Listing 7-17 shows the code in Listing 7-11 with `use` in the root module @@ -1026,14 +993,14 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-17: Making a name available for any code to use from a new scope with -`pub use` +Listing 7-17: Making a name available for any code to use +from a new scope with `pub use` Before this change, external code would have to call the `add_to_waitlist` function by using the path -`restaurant::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist()`. Now that this `pub -use` has re-exported the `hosting` module from the root module, external code -can now use the path `restaurant::hosting::add_to_waitlist()` instead. +`restaurant::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist()`, which also would have +required the `front_of_house` module to be marked as `pub`. Now that this `pub use` has re-exported the `hosting` module from the root module, external code +can use the path `restaurant::hosting::add_to_waitlist()` instead. Re-exporting is useful when the internal structure of your code is different from how programmers calling your code would think about the domain. For @@ -1044,7 +1011,8 @@ probably won’t think about the parts of the restaurant in those terms. With structure. Doing so makes our library well organized for programmers working on the library and programmers calling the library. We’ll look at another example of `pub use` and how it affects your crate’s documentation in the “Exporting a -Convenient Public API with `pub use`” section of Chapter 14. +Convenient Public API with `pub use`” section of +Chapter 14. ### Using External Packages @@ -1052,34 +1020,40 @@ In Chapter 2, we programmed a guessing game project that used an external package called `rand` to get random numbers. To use `rand` in our project, we added this line to *Cargo.toml*: + + Filename: Cargo.toml ``` -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" ``` Adding `rand` as a dependency in *Cargo.toml* tells Cargo to download the -`rand` package and any dependencies from *https://crates.io/* and make `rand` -available to our project. +`rand` package and any dependencies from crates.io at *https://crates.io/* and +make `rand` available to our project. Then, to bring `rand` definitions into the scope of our package, we added a -`use` line starting with the name of the crate, `rand`, and listed the items we -wanted to bring into scope. Recall that in the “Generating a Random Number” -section in Chapter 2, we brought the `Rng` trait into scope and called the -`rand::thread_rng` function: +`use` line starting with the name of the crate, `rand`, and listed the items +we wanted to bring into scope. Recall that in the “Generating a Random +Number” section in Chapter 2, we brought the `Rng` trait +into scope and called the `rand::thread_rng` function: ``` use rand::Rng; fn main() { - let secret_number = rand::thread_rng().gen_range(1..101); + let secret_number = rand::thread_rng().gen_range(1..=100); } ``` Members of the Rust community have made many packages available at -*https://crates.io/*, and pulling any of them into your package involves these -same steps: listing them in your package’s *Cargo.toml* file and using `use` to -bring items from their crates into scope. +crates.io at *https://crates.io/*, and pulling any of them into your package +involves these same steps: listing them in your package’s *Cargo.toml* file and +using `use` to bring items from their crates into scope. Note that the standard `std` library is also a crate that’s external to our package. Because the standard library is shipped with the Rust language, we @@ -1096,10 +1070,10 @@ crate. ### Using Nested Paths to Clean Up Large `use` Lists -If we’re using multiple items defined in the same crate or same module, -listing each item on its own line can take up a lot of vertical space in our -files. For example, these two `use` statements we had in the Guessing Game in -Listing 2-4 bring items from `std` into scope: +If we’re using multiple items defined in the same crate or same module, listing +each item on its own line can take up a lot of vertical space in our files. For +example, these two `use` statements we had in the guessing game in Listing 2-4 +bring items from `std` into scope: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1123,8 +1097,8 @@ use std::{cmp::Ordering, io}; // --snip-- ``` -Listing 7-18: Specifying a nested path to bring multiple items with the same -prefix into scope +Listing 7-18: Specifying a nested path to bring multiple +items with the same prefix into scope In bigger programs, bringing many items into scope from the same crate or module using nested paths can reduce the number of separate `use` statements @@ -1142,7 +1116,8 @@ use std::io; use std::io::Write; ``` -Listing 7-19: Two `use` statements where one is a subpath of the other +Listing 7-19: Two `use` statements where one is a subpath +of the other The common part of these two paths is `std::io`, and that’s the complete first path. To merge these two paths into one `use` statement, we can use `self` in @@ -1154,7 +1129,8 @@ Filename: src/lib.rs use std::io::{self, Write}; ``` -Listing 7-20: Combining the paths in Listing 7-19 into one `use` statement +Listing 7-20: Combining the paths in Listing 7-19 into +one `use` statement This line brings `std::io` and `std::io::Write` into scope. @@ -1173,10 +1149,11 @@ harder to tell what names are in scope and where a name used in your program was defined. The glob operator is often used when testing to bring everything under test -into the `tests` module; we’ll talk about that in the “How to Write Tests” -section in Chapter 11. The glob operator is also sometimes used as part of the -prelude pattern: see the standard library documentation for more information on -that pattern. +into the `tests` module; we’ll talk about that in the “How to Write +Tests” section in Chapter 11. The glob operator +is also sometimes used as part of the prelude pattern: see the standard +library documentation +for more information on that pattern. ## Separating Modules into Different Files @@ -1184,21 +1161,13 @@ So far, all the examples in this chapter defined multiple modules in one file. When modules get large, you might want to move their definitions to a separate file to make the code easier to navigate. - - For example, let’s start from the code in Listing 7-17 that had multiple -restaurant modules. We’ll - - -extract modules into files instead of having all the modules defined in the -crate root file. In this case, the crate root file is *src/lib.rs*, but this -procedure also works with binary crates whose crate root file is *src/main.rs*. - -First, we’ll extract the `front_of_house` module to its own file. Remove the +restaurant modules. We’ll extract modules into files instead of having all the +modules defined in the crate root file. In this case, the crate root file is +*src/lib.rs*, but this procedure also works with binary crates whose crate root +file is *src/main.rs*. + +First we’ll extract the `front_of_house` module to its own file. Remove the code inside the curly brackets for the `front_of_house` module, leaving only the `mod front_of_house;` declaration, so that *src/lib.rs* contains the code shown in Listing 7-21. Note that this won’t compile until we create the @@ -1216,8 +1185,8 @@ pub fn eat_at_restaurant() { } ``` -Listing 7-21: Declaring the `front_of_house` module whose body will be in -*src/front_of_house.rs* +Listing 7-21: Declaring the `front_of_house` module whose +body will be in *src/front_of_house.rs* Next, place the code that was in the curly brackets into a new file named *src/front_of_house.rs*, as shown in Listing 7-22. The compiler knows to look @@ -1232,30 +1201,25 @@ pub mod hosting { } ``` -Listing 7-22: Definitions inside the `front_of_house` module in -*src/front_of_house.rs* +Listing 7-22: Definitions inside the `front_of_house` +module in *src/front_of_house.rs* Note that you only need to load a file using a `mod` declaration *once* in your module tree. Once the compiler knows the file is part of the project (and knows where in the module tree the code resides because of where you’ve put the `mod` statement), other files in your project should refer to the loaded file’s code using a path to where it was declared, as covered in the “Paths for Referring -to an Item in the Module Tree” section. In other words, `mod` is *not* an -“include” operation that you may have seen in other programming languages. - -Next, we’ll extract the `hosting` module to its own file. The process -is a bit different because `hosting` is a child module of `front_of_house`, not -of the root module. We’ll place the file for `hosting` in a new directory that -will be named for its ancestors in the module tree, in this case -*src/front_of_house/*. - - - -To start moving `hosting`, we change *src/front_of_house.rs* to contain only the -declaration of the `hosting` module: +to an Item in the Module Tree” section. In other words, +`mod` is *not* an “include” operation that you may have seen in other +programming languages. + +Next, we’ll extract the `hosting` module to its own file. The process is a bit +different because `hosting` is a child module of `front_of_house`, not of the +root module. We’ll place the file for `hosting` in a new directory that will be +named for its ancestors in the module tree, in this case *src/front_of_house*. + +To start moving `hosting`, we change *src/front_of_house.rs* to contain only +the declaration of the `hosting` module: Filename: src/front_of_house.rs @@ -1263,7 +1227,7 @@ Filename: src/front_of_house.rs pub mod hosting; ``` -Then we create a *src/front_of_house* directory and a file *hosting.rs* to +Then we create a *src/front_of_house* directory and a *hosting.rs* file to contain the definitions made in the `hosting` module: Filename: src/front_of_house/hosting.rs @@ -1274,42 +1238,34 @@ pub fn add_to_waitlist() {} If we instead put *hosting.rs* in the *src* directory, the compiler would expect the *hosting.rs* code to be in a `hosting` module declared in the crate -root, and not delcared as a child of the `front_of_house` module. The -compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code means the +root, and not declared as a child of the `front_of_house` module. The +compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code mean the directories and files more closely match the module tree. - - -> ### Alternate File Paths -> -> So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, -> but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named - - -> `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the -> module’s code in: -> -> * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> -> For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the -> compiler will look for the module’s code in: -> -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) -> -> If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. Using - - -> both styles for different modules in the same project is allowed, but -> might be confusing for people navigating your project. -> -> The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your -> project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing -> when you have them open in your editor at the same time. + > + > ### Alternate File Paths + > + > So far we’ve covered the most idiomatic file paths the Rust compiler uses, + > but Rust also supports an older style of file path. For a module named + > `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the + > module’s code in: + > + > * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) + > * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) + > + > For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the + > compiler will look for the module’s code in: + > + > * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) + > * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) + > + > If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. + > Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is + > allowed, but might be confusing for people navigating your project. + > + > The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your + > project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing + > when you have them open in your editor at the same time. We’ve moved each module’s code to a separate file, and the module tree remains the same. The function calls in `eat_at_restaurant` will work without any @@ -1324,8 +1280,8 @@ that module. ## Summary -Rust lets you split a package into multiple crates and a crate into modules -so you can refer to items defined in one module from another module. You can do +Rust lets you split a package into multiple crates and a crate into modules so +you can refer to items defined in one module from another module. You can do this by specifying absolute or relative paths. These paths can be brought into scope with a `use` statement so you can use a shorter path for multiple uses of the item in that scope. Module code is private by default, but you can make diff --git a/nostarch/chapter08.md b/nostarch/chapter08.md index cec8b9ed6e..fd1cd93085 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter08.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter08.md @@ -21,11 +21,11 @@ collections that are used very often in Rust programs: * A *vector* allows you to store a variable number of values next to each other. * A *string* is a collection of characters. We’ve mentioned the `String` type previously, but in this chapter we’ll talk about it in depth. -* A *hash map* allows you to associate a value with a particular key. It’s a +* A *hash map* allows you to associate a value with a specific key. It’s a particular implementation of the more general data structure called a *map*. To learn about the other kinds of collections provided by the standard library, -see the documentation at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/collections/index.html*. +see the documentation at *../std/collections/index.html*. We’ll discuss how to create and update vectors, strings, and hash maps, as well as what makes each special. @@ -44,10 +44,11 @@ To create a new empty vector, we call the `Vec::new` function, as shown in Listing 8-1. ``` -let v: Vec = Vec::new(); + let v: Vec = Vec::new(); ``` -Listing 8-1: Creating a new, empty vector to hold values of type `i32` +Listing 8-1: Creating a new, empty vector to hold values +of type `i32` Note that we added a type annotation here. Because we aren’t inserting any values into this vector, Rust doesn’t know what kind of elements we intend to @@ -58,19 +59,20 @@ When we create a vector to hold a specific type, we can specify the type within angle brackets. In Listing 8-1, we’ve told Rust that the `Vec` in `v` will hold elements of the `i32` type. -More often, you'll create a `Vec` with initial values and Rust will infer +More often, you’ll create a `Vec` with initial values and Rust will infer the type of value you want to store, so you rarely need to do this type annotation. Rust conveniently provides the `vec!` macro, which will create a new vector that holds the values you give it. Listing 8-2 creates a new `Vec` that holds the values `1`, `2`, and `3`. The integer type is `i32` -because that’s the default integer type, as we discussed in the “Data Types” -section of Chapter 3. +because that’s the default integer type, as we discussed in the “Data +Types” section of Chapter 3. ``` -let v = vec![1, 2, 3]; + let v = vec![1, 2, 3]; ``` -Listing 8-2: Creating a new vector containing values +Listing 8-2: Creating a new vector containing +values Because we’ve given initial `i32` values, Rust can infer that the type of `v` is `Vec`, and the type annotation isn’t necessary. Next, we’ll look at how @@ -82,86 +84,68 @@ To create a vector and then add elements to it, we can use the `push` method, as shown in Listing 8-3. ``` -let mut v = Vec::new(); + let mut v = Vec::new(); -v.push(5); -v.push(6); -v.push(7); -v.push(8); + v.push(5); + v.push(6); + v.push(7); + v.push(8); ``` -Listing 8-3: Using the `push` method to add values to a vector +Listing 8-3: Using the `push` method to add values to a +vector As with any variable, if we want to be able to change its value, we need to make it mutable using the `mut` keyword, as discussed in Chapter 3. The numbers we place inside are all of type `i32`, and Rust infers this from the data, so we don’t need the `Vec` annotation. -### Dropping a Vector Drops Its Elements - -Like any other `struct`, a vector is freed when it goes out of scope, as -annotated in Listing 8-4. - -``` -{ - let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4]; - - // do stuff with v -} // <- v goes out of scope and is freed here -``` - -Listing 8-4: Showing where the vector and its elements are dropped - -When the vector gets dropped, all of its contents are also dropped, meaning -those integers it holds will be cleaned up. This may seem like a -straightforward point but it can get complicated when you start to introduce -references to the elements of the vector. Let’s tackle that next! - ### Reading Elements of Vectors -There are two ways to reference a value stored in a vector: via indexing or +There are two ways to reference a value stored in a vector: via indexing or by using the `get` method. In the following examples, we’ve annotated the types of the values that are returned from these functions for extra clarity. -Listing 8-5 shows both methods of accessing a value in a vector, with indexing +Listing 8-4 shows both methods of accessing a value in a vector, with indexing syntax and the `get` method. ``` -let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; + let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; -let third: &i32 = &v[2]; -println!("The third element is {}", third); + let third: &i32 = &v[2]; + println!("The third element is {third}"); -match v.get(2) { - Some(third) => println!("The third element is {}", third), - None => println!("There is no third element."), -} + let third: Option<&i32> = v.get(2); + match third { + Some(third) => println!("The third element is {third}"), + None => println!("There is no third element."), + } ``` -Listing 8-5: Using indexing syntax or the `get` method to access an item in a -vector +Listing 8-4: Using indexing syntax and using the `get` +method to access an item in a vector -Note two details here. First, we use the index value of `2` to get the third -element because vectors are indexed by number, starting at zero. Second, we get -the third element by either using `&` and `[]`, which gives us a reference, or -using the `get` method with the index passed as an argument, which gives us an -`Option<&T>`. +Note a few details here. We use the index value of `2` to get the third element +because vectors are indexed by number, starting at zero. Using `&` and `[]` +gives us a reference to the element at the index value. When we use the `get` +method with the index passed as an argument, we get an `Option<&T>` that we can +use with `match`. -The reason Rust provides these two ways to reference an element is so you can -choose how the program behaves when you try to use an index value outside the -range of existing elements. As an example, let’s see what happens when we have -a vector of five elements and then we try to access an element at index 100 -with each technique, as shown in Listing 8-6. +Rust provides these two ways to reference an element so you can choose how the +program behaves when you try to use an index value outside the range of +existing elements. As an example, let’s see what happens when we have a vector +of five elements and then we try to access an element at index 100 with each +technique, as shown in Listing 8-5. ``` -let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; + let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; -let does_not_exist = &v[100]; -let does_not_exist = v.get(100); + let does_not_exist = &v[100]; + let does_not_exist = v.get(100); ``` -Listing 8-6: Attempting to access the element at index 100 in a vector -containing five elements +Listing 8-5: Attempting to access the element at index +100 in a vector containing five elements When we run this code, the first `[]` method will cause the program to panic because it references a nonexistent element. This method is best used when you @@ -183,27 +167,30 @@ When the program has a valid reference, the borrow checker enforces the ownership and borrowing rules (covered in Chapter 4) to ensure this reference and any other references to the contents of the vector remain valid. Recall the rule that states you can’t have mutable and immutable references in the same -scope. That rule applies in Listing 8-7, where we hold an immutable reference +scope. That rule applies in Listing 8-6, where we hold an immutable reference to the first element in a vector and try to add an element to the end. This program won’t work if we also try to refer to that element later in the -function: +function. ``` -let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; + let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; -let first = &v[0]; + let first = &v[0]; -v.push(6); + v.push(6); -println!("The first element is: {}", first); + println!("The first element is: {first}"); ``` -Listing 8-7: Attempting to add an element to a vector while holding a reference -to an item +Listing 8-6: Attempting to add an element to a vector +while holding a reference to an item Compiling this code will result in this error: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling collections v0.1.0 (file:///projects/collections) +error[E0502]: cannot borrow `v` as mutable because it is also borrowed as immutable --> src/main.rs:6:5 | 4 | let first = &v[0]; @@ -212,11 +199,14 @@ Compiling this code will result in this error: 6 | v.push(6); | ^^^^^^^^^ mutable borrow occurs here 7 | -8 | println!("The first element is: {}", first); - | ----- immutable borrow later used here +8 | println!("The first element is: {first}"); + | ------- immutable borrow later used here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0502`. +error: could not compile `collections` (bin "collections") due to 1 previous error ``` -The code in Listing 8-7 might look like it should work: why should a reference +The code in Listing 8-6 might look like it should work: why should a reference to the first element care about changes at the end of the vector? This error is due to the way vectors work: because vectors put the values next to each other in memory, adding a new element onto the end of the vector might require @@ -227,75 +217,83 @@ pointing to deallocated memory. The borrowing rules prevent programs from ending up in that situation. > Note: For more on the implementation details of the `Vec` type, see “The -> Rustonomicon” at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/vec/vec.html*. +> Rustonomicon” at *../nomicon/vec/vec.html*. -### Iterating over the Values in a Vector +### Iterating Over the Values in a Vector To access each element in a vector in turn, we would iterate through all of the -elements rather than use indices to access one at a time. Listing 8-8 shows how +elements rather than use indices to access one at a time. Listing 8-7 shows how to use a `for` loop to get immutable references to each element in a vector of `i32` values and print them. ``` -let v = vec![100, 32, 57]; -for i in &v { - println!("{}", i); -} + let v = vec![100, 32, 57]; + for i in &v { + println!("{i}"); + } ``` -Listing 8-8: Printing each element in a vector by iterating over the elements -using a `for` loop +Listing 8-7: Printing each element in a vector by +iterating over the elements using a `for` loop We can also iterate over mutable references to each element in a mutable vector -in order to make changes to all the elements. The `for` loop in Listing 8-9 +in order to make changes to all the elements. The `for` loop in Listing 8-8 will add `50` to each element. ``` -let mut v = vec![100, 32, 57]; -for i in &mut v { - *i += 50; -} + let mut v = vec![100, 32, 57]; + for i in &mut v { + *i += 50; + } ``` -Listing 8-9: Iterating over mutable references to elements in a vector +Listing 8-8: Iterating over mutable references to +elements in a vector To change the value that the mutable reference refers to, we have to use the -`*` dereference operator to get to the value in `i` before we can use the -`+=` operator. We’ll talk more about the dereference operator in the -“Following the Pointer to the Value with the Dereference Operator” +`*` dereference operator to get to the value in `i` before we can use the `+=` +operator. We’ll talk more about the dereference operator in the “Following the +Pointer to the Value with the Dereference Operator” section of Chapter 15. +Iterating over a vector, whether immutably or mutably, is safe because of the +borrow checker’s rules. If we attempted to insert or remove items in the `for` +loop bodies in Listing 8-7 and Listing 8-8, we would get a compiler error +similar to the one we got with the code in Listing 8-6. The reference to the +vector that the `for` loop holds prevents simultaneous modification of the +whole vector. + ### Using an Enum to Store Multiple Types -Vectors can only store values that are the same type. This can be inconvenient; -there are definitely use cases for needing to store a list of items of -different types. Fortunately, the variants of an enum are defined under the -same enum type, so when we need one type to represent elements of different -types, we can define and use an enum! +Vectors can only store values that are of the same type. This can be +inconvenient; there are definitely use cases for needing to store a list of +items of different types. Fortunately, the variants of an enum are defined +under the same enum type, so when we need one type to represent elements of +different types, we can define and use an enum! For example, say we want to get values from a row in a spreadsheet in which some of the columns in the row contain integers, some floating-point numbers, and some strings. We can define an enum whose variants will hold the different value types, and all the enum variants will be considered the same type: that of the enum. Then we can create a vector to hold that enum and so, ultimately, -holds different types. We’ve demonstrated this in Listing 8-10. +hold different types. We’ve demonstrated this in Listing 8-9. ``` -enum SpreadsheetCell { - Int(i32), - Float(f64), - Text(String), -} + enum SpreadsheetCell { + Int(i32), + Float(f64), + Text(String), + } -let row = vec![ - SpreadsheetCell::Int(3), - SpreadsheetCell::Text(String::from("blue")), - SpreadsheetCell::Float(10.12), -]; + let row = vec![ + SpreadsheetCell::Int(3), + SpreadsheetCell::Text(String::from("blue")), + SpreadsheetCell::Float(10.12), + ]; ``` -Listing 8-10: Defining an `enum` to store values of different types in one -vector +Listing 8-9: Defining an `enum` to store values of +different types in one vector Rust needs to know what types will be in the vector at compile time so it knows exactly how much memory on the heap will be needed to store each element. We @@ -310,10 +308,32 @@ store in a vector, the enum technique won’t work. Instead, you can use a trait object, which we’ll cover in Chapter 17. Now that we’ve discussed some of the most common ways to use vectors, be sure -to review the API documentation for all the many useful methods defined on -`Vec` by the standard library. For example, in addition to `push`, a `pop` -method removes and returns the last element. Let’s move on to the next -collection type: `String`! +to review the API documentation for all of the many +useful methods defined on `Vec` by the standard library. For example, in +addition to `push`, a `pop` method removes and returns the last element. + +### Dropping a Vector Drops Its Elements + +Like any other `struct`, a vector is freed when it goes out of scope, as +annotated in Listing 8-10. + +``` + { + let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4]; + + // do stuff with v + } // <- v goes out of scope and is freed here +``` + +Listing 8-10: Showing where the vector and its elements +are dropped + +When the vector gets dropped, all of its contents are also dropped, meaning the +integers it holds will be cleaned up. The borrow checker ensures that any +references to contents of a vector are only used while the vector itself is +valid. + +Let’s move on to the next collection type: `String`! ## Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with Strings @@ -346,90 +366,80 @@ The `String` type, which is provided by Rust’s standard library rather than coded into the core language, is a growable, mutable, owned, UTF-8 encoded string type. When Rustaceans refer to “strings” in Rust, they might be referring to either the `String` or the string slice `&str` types, not just one -of those types. - - -Although this section is largely about `String`, both types are used heavily in -Rust’s standard library, and both `String` and string slices are UTF-8 encoded. - -Rust’s standard library also includes a number of other string types, such as -`OsString`, `OsStr`, `CString`, and `CStr`. Library crates can provide even -more options for storing string data. See how those names all end in `String` -or `Str`? They refer to owned and borrowed variants, just like the `String` and -`str` types you’ve seen previously. These string types can store text in -different encodings or be represented in memory in a different way, for -example. We won’t discuss these other string types in this chapter; see their -API documentation for more about how to use them and when each is appropriate. +of those types. Although this section is largely about `String`, both types are +used heavily in Rust’s standard library, and both `String` and string slices +are UTF-8 encoded. ### Creating a New String Many of the same operations available with `Vec` are available with `String` -as well, starting with the `new` function to create a string, shown in Listing -8-11. +as well because `String` is actually implemented as a wrapper around a vector +of bytes with some extra guarantees, restrictions, and capabilities. An example +of a function that works the same way with `Vec` and `String` is the `new` +function to create an instance, shown in Listing 8-11. ``` -let mut s = String::new(); + let mut s = String::new(); ``` Listing 8-11: Creating a new, empty `String` -This line creates a new empty string called `s`, which we can then load data -into. Often, we’ll have some initial data that we want to start the string -with. For that, we use the `to_string` method, which is available on any type +This line creates a new, empty string called `s`, into which we can then load +data. Often, we’ll have some initial data with which we want to start the +string. For that, we use the `to_string` method, which is available on any type that implements the `Display` trait, as string literals do. Listing 8-12 shows two examples. ``` -let data = "initial contents"; + let data = "initial contents"; -let s = data.to_string(); + let s = data.to_string(); -// the method also works on a literal directly: -let s = "initial contents".to_string(); + // the method also works on a literal directly: + let s = "initial contents".to_string(); ``` -Listing 8-12: Using the `to_string` method to create a `String` from a string -literal +Listing 8-12: Using the `to_string` method to create a +`String` from a string literal This code creates a string containing `initial contents`. We can also use the function `String::from` to create a `String` from a string -literal. The code in Listing 8-13 is equivalent to the code from Listing 8-12 +literal. The code in Listing 8-13 is equivalent to the code in Listing 8-12 that uses `to_string`. ``` -let s = String::from("initial contents"); + let s = String::from("initial contents"); ``` -Listing 8-13: Using the `String::from` function to create a `String` from a -string literal +Listing 8-13: Using the `String::from` function to create +a `String` from a string literal Because strings are used for so many things, we can use many different generic APIs for strings, providing us with a lot of options. Some of them can seem redundant, but they all have their place! In this case, `String::from` and -`to_string` do the same thing, so which you choose is a matter of style and +`to_string` do the same thing, so which one you choose is a matter of style and readability. Remember that strings are UTF-8 encoded, so we can include any properly encoded data in them, as shown in Listing 8-14. ``` -let hello = String::from("السلام عليكم"); -let hello = String::from("Dobrý den"); -let hello = String::from("Hello"); -let hello = String::from("שָׁלוֹם"); -let hello = String::from("नमस्ते"); -let hello = String::from("こんにちは"); -let hello = String::from("안녕하세요"); -let hello = String::from("你好"); -let hello = String::from("Olá"); -let hello = String::from("Здравствуйте"); -let hello = String::from("Hola"); + let hello = String::from("السلام عليكم"); + let hello = String::from("Dobrý den"); + let hello = String::from("Hello"); + let hello = String::from("שלום"); + let hello = String::from("नमस्ते"); + let hello = String::from("こんにちは"); + let hello = String::from("안녕하세요"); + let hello = String::from("你好"); + let hello = String::from("Olá"); + let hello = String::from("Здравствуйте"); + let hello = String::from("Hola"); ``` -Listing 8-14: Storing greetings in different languages in strings +Listing 8-14: Storing greetings in different languages in +strings All of these are valid `String` values. @@ -445,11 +455,12 @@ We can grow a `String` by using the `push_str` method to append a string slice, as shown in Listing 8-15. ``` -let mut s = String::from("foo"); -s.push_str("bar"); + let mut s = String::from("foo"); + s.push_str("bar"); ``` -Listing 8-15: Appending a string slice to a `String` using the `push_str` method +Listing 8-15: Appending a string slice to a `String` +using the `push_str` method After these two lines, `s` will contain `foobar`. The `push_str` method takes a string slice because we don’t necessarily want to take ownership of the @@ -457,27 +468,29 @@ parameter. For example, in the code in Listing 8-16, we want to be able to use `s2` after appending its contents to `s1`. ``` -let mut s1 = String::from("foo"); -let s2 = "bar"; -s1.push_str(s2); -println!("s2 is {}", s2); + let mut s1 = String::from("foo"); + let s2 = "bar"; + s1.push_str(s2); + println!("s2 is {s2}"); ``` -Listing 8-16: Using a string slice after appending its contents to a `String` +Listing 8-16: Using a string slice after appending its +contents to a `String` If the `push_str` method took ownership of `s2`, we wouldn’t be able to print its value on the last line. However, this code works as we’d expect! The `push` method takes a single character as a parameter and adds it to the -`String`. Listing 8-17 adds the letter "l" to a `String` using the `push` +`String`. Listing 8-17 adds the letter *l* to a `String` using the `push` method. ``` -let mut s = String::from("lo"); -s.push('l'); + let mut s = String::from("lo"); + s.push('l'); ``` -Listing 8-17: Adding one character to a `String` value using `push` +Listing 8-17: Adding one character to a `String` value +using `push` As a result, `s` will contain `lol`. @@ -487,13 +500,13 @@ Often, you’ll want to combine two existing strings. One way to do so is to use the `+` operator, as shown in Listing 8-18. ``` -let s1 = String::from("Hello, "); -let s2 = String::from("world!"); -let s3 = s1 + &s2; // note s1 has been moved here and can no longer be used + let s1 = String::from("Hello, "); + let s2 = String::from("world!"); + let s3 = s1 + &s2; // note s1 has been moved here and can no longer be used ``` -Listing 8-18: Using the `+` operator to combine two `String` values into a new -`String` value +Listing 8-18: Using the `+` operator to combine two +`String` values into a new `String` value The string `s3` will contain `Hello, world!`. The reason `s1` is no longer valid after the addition, and the reason we used a reference to `s2`, has to do @@ -505,11 +518,11 @@ this: fn add(self, s: &str) -> String { ``` -In the standard library, you'll see `add` defined using generics. Here, we’ve -substituted in concrete types for the generic ones, which is what happens when -we call this method with `String` values. We’ll discuss generics in Chapter 10. -This signature gives us the clues we need to understand the tricky bits of the -`+` operator. +In the standard library, you’ll see `add` defined using generics and associated +types. Here, we’ve substituted in concrete types, which is what happens when we +call this method with `String` values. We’ll discuss generics in Chapter 10. +This signature gives us the clues we need in order to understand the tricky +bits of the `+` operator. First, `s2` has an `&`, meaning that we’re adding a *reference* of the second string to the first string. This is because of the `s` parameter in the `add` @@ -524,36 +537,36 @@ We’ll discuss deref coercion in more depth in Chapter 15. Because `add` does not take ownership of the `s` parameter, `s2` will still be a valid `String` after this operation. -Second, we can see in the signature that `add` takes ownership of `self`, +Second, we can see in the signature that `add` takes ownership of `self` because `self` does *not* have an `&`. This means `s1` in Listing 8-18 will be -moved into the `add` call and will no longer be valid after that. So although +moved into the `add` call and will no longer be valid after that. So, although `let s3 = s1 + &s2;` looks like it will copy both strings and create a new one, this statement actually takes ownership of `s1`, appends a copy of the contents of `s2`, and then returns ownership of the result. In other words, it looks -like it’s making a lot of copies but isn’t; the implementation is more +like it’s making a lot of copies, but it isn’t; the implementation is more efficient than copying. If we need to concatenate multiple strings, the behavior of the `+` operator gets unwieldy: ``` -let s1 = String::from("tic"); -let s2 = String::from("tac"); -let s3 = String::from("toe"); + let s1 = String::from("tic"); + let s2 = String::from("tac"); + let s3 = String::from("toe"); -let s = s1 + "-" + &s2 + "-" + &s3; + let s = s1 + "-" + &s2 + "-" + &s3; ``` At this point, `s` will be `tic-tac-toe`. With all of the `+` and `"` -characters, it’s difficult to see what’s going on. For more complicated string -combining, we can instead use the `format!` macro: +characters, it’s difficult to see what’s going on. For combining strings in +more complicated ways, we can instead use the `format!` macro: ``` -let s1 = String::from("tic"); -let s2 = String::from("tac"); -let s3 = String::from("toe"); + let s1 = String::from("tic"); + let s2 = String::from("tac"); + let s3 = String::from("toe"); -let s = format!("{}-{}-{}", s1, s2, s3); + let s = format!("{s1}-{s2}-{s3}"); ``` This code also sets `s` to `tic-tac-toe`. The `format!` macro works like @@ -570,22 +583,35 @@ if you try to access parts of a `String` using indexing syntax in Rust, you’ll get an error. Consider the invalid code in Listing 8-19. ``` -let s1 = String::from("hello"); -let h = s1[0]; + let s1 = String::from("hello"); + let h = s1[0]; ``` -Listing 8-19: Attempting to use indexing syntax with a String +Listing 8-19: Attempting to use indexing syntax with a +String This code will result in the following error: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling collections v0.1.0 (file:///projects/collections) error[E0277]: the type `String` cannot be indexed by `{integer}` - --> src/main.rs:3:13 + --> src/main.rs:3:16 | 3 | let h = s1[0]; - | ^^^^^ `String` cannot be indexed by `{integer}` + | ^ `String` cannot be indexed by `{integer}` | = help: the trait `Index<{integer}>` is not implemented for `String` + = help: the following other types implement trait `Index`: + > + >> + >> + >> + >> + >> + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +error: could not compile `collections` (bin "collections") due to 1 previous error ``` The error and the note tell the story: Rust strings don’t support indexing. But @@ -598,23 +624,24 @@ A `String` is a wrapper over a `Vec`. Let’s look at some of our properly encoded UTF-8 example strings from Listing 8-14. First, this one: ``` -let hello = String::from("Hola"); + let hello = String::from("Hola"); ``` -In this case, `len` will be 4, which means the vector storing the string “Hola” -is 4 bytes long. Each of these letters takes 1 byte when encoded in UTF-8. The -following line, however, may surprise you. (Note that this string begins with -the capital Cyrillic letter Ze, not the Arabic number 3.) +In this case, `len` will be `4`, which means the vector storing the string +`"Hola"` is 4 bytes long. Each of these letters takes one byte when encoded in +UTF-8. The following line, however, may surprise you (note that this string +begins with the capital Cyrillic letter *Ze*, not the number 3): ``` -let hello = String::from("Здравствуйте"); + let hello = String::from("Здравствуйте"); ``` -Asked how long the string is, you might say 12. In fact, Rust’s answer is 24: -that’s the number of bytes it takes to encode “Здравствуйте” in UTF-8, because -each Unicode scalar value in that string takes 2 bytes of storage. Therefore, -an index into the string’s bytes will not always correlate to a valid Unicode -scalar value. To demonstrate, consider this invalid Rust code: +If you were asked how long the string is, you might say 12. In fact, Rust’s +answer is 24: that’s the number of bytes it takes to encode “Здравствуйте” in +UTF-8, because each Unicode scalar value in that string takes 2 bytes of +storage. Therefore, an index into the string’s bytes will not always correlate +to a valid Unicode scalar value. To demonstrate, consider this invalid Rust +code: ``` let hello = "Здравствуйте"; @@ -691,80 +718,72 @@ let hello = "Здравствуйте"; let s = &hello[0..4]; ``` -Here, `s` will be a `&str` that contains the first 4 bytes of the string. -Earlier, we mentioned that each of these characters was 2 bytes, which means +Here, `s` will be a `&str` that contains the first four bytes of the string. +Earlier, we mentioned that each of these characters was two bytes, which means `s` will be `Зд`. -If we were to try to slice only part of a character's bytes with something like +If we were to try to slice only part of a character’s bytes with something like `&hello[0..1]`, Rust would panic at runtime in the same way as if an invalid index were accessed in a vector: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'byte index 1 is not a char boundary; it is inside 'З' (bytes 0..2) of `Здравствуйте`', src/main.rs:4:14 +$ cargo run + Compiling collections v0.1.0 (file:///projects/collections) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s + Running `target/debug/collections` +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:19: +byte index 1 is not a char boundary; it is inside 'З' (bytes 0..2) of `Здравствуйте` +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` -You should use ranges to create string slices with caution, because doing so -can crash your program. +You should use caution when creating string slices with ranges, because doing +so can crash your program. ### Methods for Iterating Over Strings - - - The best way to operate on pieces of strings is to be explicit about whether you want characters or bytes. For individual Unicode scalar values, use the -`chars` method. Calling `chars` on “नमस्ते” separates out and returns six values -of type `char`, and you can iterate over the result to access each element: +`chars` method. Calling `chars` on “Зд” separates out and returns two values of +type `char`, and you can iterate over the result to access each element: ``` -for c in "नमस्ते".chars() { - println!("{}", c); +for c in "Зд".chars() { + println!("{c}"); } ``` This code will print the following: ``` -न -म -स -् -त -े +З +д ``` Alternatively, the `bytes` method returns each raw byte, which might be appropriate for your domain: ``` -for b in "नमस्ते".bytes() { - println!("{}", b); +for b in "Зд".bytes() { + println!("{b}"); } ``` -This code will print the 18 bytes that make up this `String`: +This code will print the four bytes that make up this string: ``` -224 -164 -// --snip-- -165 -135 +208 +151 +208 +180 ``` But be sure to remember that valid Unicode scalar values may be made up of more -than 1 byte. +than one byte. -Getting grapheme clusters from strings is complex, so this functionality is not -provided by the standard library. Crates are available on *https://crates.io/* -if this is the functionality you need. +Getting grapheme clusters from strings, as with the Devanagari script, is +complex, so this functionality is not provided by the standard library. Crates +are available on crates.io if this is the +functionality you need. ### Strings Are Not So Simple @@ -772,21 +791,27 @@ To summarize, strings are complicated. Different programming languages make different choices about how to present this complexity to the programmer. Rust has chosen to make the correct handling of `String` data the default behavior for all Rust programs, which means programmers have to put more thought into -handling UTF-8 data upfront. This trade-off exposes more of the complexity of +handling UTF-8 data up front. This trade-off exposes more of the complexity of strings than is apparent in other programming languages, but it prevents you from having to handle errors involving non-ASCII characters later in your development life cycle. +The good news is that the standard library offers a lot of functionality built +off the `String` and `&str` types to help handle these complex situations +correctly. Be sure to check out the documentation for useful methods like +`contains` for searching in a string and `replace` for substituting parts of a +string with another string. + Let’s switch to something a bit less complex: hash maps! ## Storing Keys with Associated Values in Hash Maps The last of our common collections is the *hash map*. The type `HashMap` -stores a mapping of keys of type `K` to values of type `V` using a -*hashing function*, which determines how it places these keys and values into -memory. Many programming languages support this kind of data structure, but -they often use a different name, such as hash, map, object, hash table, -dictionary, or associative array, just to name a few. +stores a mapping of keys of type `K` to values of type `V` using a *hashing +function*, which determines how it places these keys and values into memory. +Many programming languages support this kind of data structure, but they often +use a different name, such as *hash*, *map*, *object*, *hash table*, +*dictionary*, or *associative array*, just to name a few. Hash maps are useful when you want to look up data not by using an index, as you can with vectors, but by using a key that can be of any type. For example, @@ -800,21 +825,22 @@ As always, check the standard library documentation for more information. ### Creating a New Hash Map -One way to create an empty hash map is using `new` and adding elements with +One way to create an empty hash map is to use `new` and to add elements with `insert`. In Listing 8-20, we’re keeping track of the scores of two teams whose names are *Blue* and *Yellow*. The Blue team starts with 10 points, and the Yellow team starts with 50. ``` -use std::collections::HashMap; + use std::collections::HashMap; -let mut scores = HashMap::new(); + let mut scores = HashMap::new(); -scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); -scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); + scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); ``` -Listing 8-20: Creating a new hash map and inserting some keys and values +Listing 8-20: Creating a new hash map and inserting some +keys and values Note that we need to first `use` the `HashMap` from the collections portion of the standard library. Of our three common collections, this one is the least @@ -827,110 +853,47 @@ keys of type `String` and values of type `i32`. Like vectors, hash maps are homogeneous: all of the keys must have the same type, and all of the values must have the same type. - - - -Another way of constructing a hash map is by using iterators and the `collect` -method on a vector of tuples, where each tuple consists of a key and its value. -We’ll be going into more detail about iterators and their associated methods in -the ”Processing a Series of Items with Iterators” section of Chapter 13. The -`collect` method gathers data into a number of collection types, including -`HashMap`. For example, if we had the team names and initial scores in two -separate vectors, we could use the `zip` method to create an iterator of tuples -where “Blue” is paired with 10, and so forth. Then we could use the `collect` -method to turn that iterator of tuples into a hash map, as shown in Listing -8-21. - -``` -use std::collections::HashMap; - -let teams = vec![String::from("Blue"), String::from("Yellow")]; -let initial_scores = vec![10, 50]; - -let mut scores: HashMap<_, _> = - teams.into_iter().zip(initial_scores.into_iter()).collect(); -``` - -Listing 8-21: Creating a hash map from a list of teams and a list of scores - -The type annotation `HashMap<_, _>` is needed here because it’s possible to -`collect` into many different data structures and Rust doesn’t know which you -want unless you specify. For the parameters for the key and value types, -however, we use underscores, and Rust can infer the types that the hash map -contains based on the types of the data in the vectors. In Listing 8-21, the -key type will be `String` and the value type will be `i32`, just as in Listing -8-20. - -### Hash Maps and Ownership - -For types that implement the `Copy` trait, like `i32`, the values are copied -into the hash map. For owned values like `String`, the values will be moved and -the hash map will be the owner of those values, as demonstrated in Listing 8-22. - -``` -use std::collections::HashMap; - -let field_name = String::from("Favorite color"); -let field_value = String::from("Blue"); - -let mut map = HashMap::new(); -map.insert(field_name, field_value); -// field_name and field_value are invalid at this point, try using them and -// see what compiler error you get! -``` - -Listing 8-22: Showing that keys and values are owned by the hash map once -they’re inserted - -We aren’t able to use the variables `field_name` and `field_value` after -they’ve been moved into the hash map with the call to `insert`. - -If we insert references to values into the hash map, the values won’t be moved -into the hash map. The values that the references point to must be valid for at -least as long as the hash map is valid. We’ll talk more about these issues in -the “Validating References with Lifetimes” section in Chapter 10. - ### Accessing Values in a Hash Map We can get a value out of the hash map by providing its key to the `get` -method, as shown in Listing 8-23. +method, as shown in Listing 8-21. ``` -use std::collections::HashMap; + use std::collections::HashMap; -let mut scores = HashMap::new(); + let mut scores = HashMap::new(); -scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); -scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); + scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); -let team_name = String::from("Blue"); -let score = scores.get(&team_name); + let team_name = String::from("Blue"); + let score = scores.get(&team_name).copied().unwrap_or(0); ``` -Listing 8-23: Accessing the score for the Blue team stored in the hash map +Listing 8-21: Accessing the score for the Blue team +stored in the hash map Here, `score` will have the value that’s associated with the Blue team, and the -result will be `Some(&10)`. The result is wrapped in `Some` because `get` -returns an `Option<&V>`; if there’s no value for that key in the hash map, -`get` will return `None`. The program will need to handle the `Option` in one -of the ways that we covered in Chapter 6. +result will be `10`. The `get` method returns an `Option<&V>`; if there’s no +value for that key in the hash map, `get` will return `None`. This program +handles the `Option` by calling `copied` to get an `Option` rather than an +`Option<&i32>`, then `unwrap_or` to set `score` to zero if `scores` doesn’t +have an entry for the key. -We can iterate over each key/value pair in a hash map in a similar manner as we +We can iterate over each key–value pair in a hash map in a similar manner as we do with vectors, using a `for` loop: ``` -use std::collections::HashMap; + use std::collections::HashMap; -let mut scores = HashMap::new(); + let mut scores = HashMap::new(); -scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); -scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); + scores.insert(String::from("Yellow"), 50); -for (key, value) in &scores { - println!("{}: {}", key, value); -} + for (key, value) in &scores { + println!("{key}: {value}"); + } ``` This code will print each pair in an arbitrary order: @@ -940,16 +903,44 @@ Yellow: 50 Blue: 10 ``` +### Hash Maps and Ownership + +For types that implement the `Copy` trait, like `i32`, the values are copied +into the hash map. For owned values like `String`, the values will be moved and +the hash map will be the owner of those values, as demonstrated in Listing 8-22. + +``` + use std::collections::HashMap; + + let field_name = String::from("Favorite color"); + let field_value = String::from("Blue"); + + let mut map = HashMap::new(); + map.insert(field_name, field_value); + // field_name and field_value are invalid at this point, try using them and + // see what compiler error you get! +``` + +Listing 8-22: Showing that keys and values are owned by +the hash map once they’re inserted + +We aren’t able to use the variables `field_name` and `field_value` after +they’ve been moved into the hash map with the call to `insert`. + +If we insert references to values into the hash map, the values won’t be moved +into the hash map. The values that the references point to must be valid for at +least as long as the hash map is valid. We’ll talk more about these issues in +the “Validating References with +Lifetimes” section in +Chapter 10. + ### Updating a Hash Map -Although the number of key and value pairs is growable, each key can only have -one value associated with it at a time. - - +Although the number of key and value pairs is growable, each unique key can +only have one value associated with it at a time (but not vice versa: for +example, both the Blue team and the Yellow team could have the value `10` +stored in the `scores` hash map). + When you want to change the data in a hash map, you have to decide how to handle the case when a key already has a value assigned. You could replace the old value with the new value, completely disregarding the old value. You could @@ -961,126 +952,126 @@ new value. Let’s look at how to do each of these! If we insert a key and a value into a hash map and then insert that same key with a different value, the value associated with that key will be replaced. -Even though the code in Listing 8-24 calls `insert` twice, the hash map will -only contain one key/value pair because we’re inserting the value for the Blue +Even though the code in Listing 8-23 calls `insert` twice, the hash map will +only contain one key–value pair because we’re inserting the value for the Blue team’s key both times. ``` -use std::collections::HashMap; + use std::collections::HashMap; -let mut scores = HashMap::new(); + let mut scores = HashMap::new(); -scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); -scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 25); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 25); -println!("{:?}", scores); + println!("{scores:?}"); ``` -Listing 8-24: Replacing a value stored with a particular key +Listing 8-23: Replacing a value stored with a particular +key This code will print `{"Blue": 25}`. The original value of `10` has been overwritten. -#### Only Inserting a Value If the Key Has No Value + + + +#### Adding a Key and Value Only If a Key Isn’t Present - - +It’s common to check whether a particular key already exists in the hash map +with a value and then to take the following actions: if the key does exist in +the hash map, the existing value should remain the way it is; if the key +doesn’t exist, insert it and a value for it. -It’s common to check whether a particular key has a value and, if it doesn’t, -insert a value for it. Hash maps have a special API for this called `entry` -that takes the key you want to check as a parameter. The return value of the -`entry` method is an enum called `Entry` that represents a value that might or -might not exist. Let’s say we want to check whether the key for the Yellow team -has a value associated with it. If it doesn’t, we want to insert the value 50, -and the same for the Blue team. Using the `entry` API, the code looks like -Listing 8-25. +Hash maps have a special API for this called `entry` that takes the key you +want to check as a parameter. The return value of the `entry` method is an enum +called `Entry` that represents a value that might or might not exist. Let’s say +we want to check whether the key for the Yellow team has a value associated +with it. If it doesn’t, we want to insert the value `50`, and the same for the +Blue team. Using the `entry` API, the code looks like Listing 8-24. ``` -use std::collections::HashMap; + use std::collections::HashMap; -let mut scores = HashMap::new(); -scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); + let mut scores = HashMap::new(); + scores.insert(String::from("Blue"), 10); -scores.entry(String::from("Yellow")).or_insert(50); -scores.entry(String::from("Blue")).or_insert(50); + scores.entry(String::from("Yellow")).or_insert(50); + scores.entry(String::from("Blue")).or_insert(50); -println!("{:?}", scores); + println!("{scores:?}"); ``` -Listing 8-25: Using the `entry` method to only insert if the key does not -already have a value +Listing 8-24: Using the `entry` method to only insert if +the key does not already have a value The `or_insert` method on `Entry` is defined to return a mutable reference to -the value for the corresponding `Entry` key if that key exists, and if not, +the value for the corresponding `Entry` key if that key exists, and if not, it inserts the parameter as the new value for this key and returns a mutable reference to the new value. This technique is much cleaner than writing the logic ourselves and, in addition, plays more nicely with the borrow checker. -Running the code in Listing 8-25 will print `{"Yellow": 50, "Blue": 10}`. The +Running the code in Listing 8-24 will print `{"Yellow": 50, "Blue": 10}`. The first call to `entry` will insert the key for the Yellow team with the value -50 because the Yellow team doesn’t have a value already. The second call to +`50` because the Yellow team doesn’t have a value already. The second call to `entry` will not change the hash map because the Blue team already has the -value 10. +value `10`. #### Updating a Value Based on the Old Value Another common use case for hash maps is to look up a key’s value and then -update it based on the old value. For instance, Listing 8-26 shows code that +update it based on the old value. For instance, Listing 8-25 shows code that counts how many times each word appears in some text. We use a hash map with the words as keys and increment the value to keep track of how many times we’ve seen that word. If it’s the first time we’ve seen a word, we’ll first insert -the value 0. +the value `0`. ``` -use std::collections::HashMap; + use std::collections::HashMap; -let text = "hello world wonderful world"; + let text = "hello world wonderful world"; -let mut map = HashMap::new(); + let mut map = HashMap::new(); -for word in text.split_whitespace() { - let count = map.entry(word).or_insert(0); - *count += 1; -} + for word in text.split_whitespace() { + let count = map.entry(word).or_insert(0); + *count += 1; + } -println!("{:?}", map); + println!("{map:?}"); ``` -Listing 8-26: Counting occurrences of words using a hash map that stores words -and counts +Listing 8-25: Counting occurrences of words using a hash +map that stores words and counts -This code will print `{"world": 2, "hello": 1, "wonderful": 1}`. The -`split_whitespace` method iterates over sub-slices, separated by whitespace, of -the value in `text`. The `or_insert` method returns a mutable reference (`&mut -V`) to the value for the specified key. Here we store that mutable reference in -the `count` variable, so in order to assign to that value, we must first -dereference `count` using the asterisk (`*`). The mutable reference goes out of -scope at the end of the `for` loop, so all of these changes are safe and -allowed by the borrowing rules. +This code will print `{"world": 2, "hello": 1, "wonderful": 1}`. You might see +the same key–value pairs printed in a different order: recall from the +“Accessing Values in a Hash Map” section that +iterating over a hash map happens in an arbitrary order. + +The `split_whitespace` method returns an iterator over subslices, separated by +whitespace, of the value in `text`. The `or_insert` method returns a mutable +reference (`&mut V`) to the value for the specified key. Here, we store that +mutable reference in the `count` variable, so in order to assign to that value, +we must first dereference `count` using the asterisk (`*`). The mutable +reference goes out of scope at the end of the `for` loop, so all of these +changes are safe and allowed by the borrowing rules. ### Hashing Functions By default, `HashMap` uses a hashing function called *SipHash* that can provide -resistance to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks involving hash tables. This is -not the fastest hashing algorithm available, but the trade-off for better -security that comes with the drop in performance is worth it. If you profile -your code and find that the default hash function is too slow for your -purposes, you can switch to another function by specifying a different hasher. -A *hasher* is a type that implements the `BuildHasher` trait. We’ll talk about -traits and how to implement them in Chapter 10. You don’t necessarily have to -implement your own hasher from scratch; *https://crates.io/* has libraries -shared by other Rust users that provide hashers implementing many common -hashing algorithms. +resistance to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks involving hash +tables^siphash at *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SipHash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SipHash)*. This is not the fastest hashing algorithm +available, but the trade-off for better security that comes with the drop in +performance is worth it. If you profile your code and find that the default +hash function is too slow for your purposes, you can switch to another function +by specifying a different hasher. A *hasher* is a type that implements the +`BuildHasher` trait. We’ll talk about traits and how to implement them in +Chapter 10. You don’t necessarily have to implement +your own hasher from scratch; crates.io +has libraries shared by other Rust users that provide hashers implementing many +common hashing algorithms. + ## Summary @@ -1088,21 +1079,21 @@ Vectors, strings, and hash maps will provide a large amount of functionality necessary in programs when you need to store, access, and modify data. Here are some exercises you should now be equipped to solve: -* Given a list of integers, use a vector and return the median (when sorted, - the value in the middle position) and mode (the value that occurs most often; - a hash map will be helpful here) of the list. -* Convert strings to pig latin. The first consonant of each word is moved to - the end of the word and “ay” is added, so “first” becomes “irst-fay.” Words - that start with a vowel have “hay” added to the end instead (“apple” becomes - “apple-hay”). Keep in mind the details about UTF-8 encoding! -* Using a hash map and vectors, create a text interface to allow a user to add - employee names to a department in a company. For example, “Add Sally to - Engineering” or “Add Amir to Sales.” Then let the user retrieve a list of all - people in a department or all people in the company by department, sorted - alphabetically. +1. Given a list of integers, use a vector and return the median (when sorted, + the value in the middle position) and mode (the value that occurs most + often; a hash map will be helpful here) of the list. +1. Convert strings to pig latin. The first consonant of each word is moved to + the end of the word and *ay* is added, so *first* becomes *irst-fay*. Words + that start with a vowel have *hay* added to the end instead (*apple* becomes + *apple-hay*). Keep in mind the details about UTF-8 encoding! +1. Using a hash map and vectors, create a text interface to allow a user to add + employee names to a department in a company; for example, “Add Sally to + Engineering” or “Add Amir to Sales.” Then let the user retrieve a list of all + people in a department or all people in the company by department, sorted + alphabetically. The standard library API documentation describes methods that vectors, strings, and hash maps have that will be helpful for these exercises! -We’re getting into more complex programs in which operations can fail, so, it’s +We’re getting into more complex programs in which operations can fail, so it’s a perfect time to discuss error handling. We’ll do that next! diff --git a/nostarch/chapter09.md b/nostarch/chapter09.md index 54f0afceaa..a7188076c7 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter09.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter09.md @@ -18,13 +18,9 @@ deployed your code to production! Rust groups errors into two major categories: *recoverable* and *unrecoverable* errors. For a recoverable error, such as a *file not found* error, we most likely just want to report the problem to the user and retry the operation. -Unrecoverable errors are always symptoms of bugs, like trying to access a +Unrecoverable errors are always symptoms of bugs, such as trying to access a location beyond the end of an array, and so we want to immediately stop the program. - - Most languages don’t distinguish between these two kinds of errors and handle both in the same way, using mechanisms such as exceptions. Rust doesn’t have @@ -37,38 +33,32 @@ execution. ## Unrecoverable Errors with `panic!` -Sometimes, bad things happen in your code, and there’s nothing you can do about -it. In these cases, Rust has the `panic!` macro. When the `panic!` macro -executes, your program will print a failure message, unwind and clean up the -stack, and then quit. We’ll commonly invoke a panic when a bug of some kind has -been detected and it’s not clear how to handle the problem at the time we’re -writing our program. - - - +Sometimes bad things happen in your code, and there’s nothing you can do about +it. In these cases, Rust has the `panic!` macro. There are two ways to cause a +panic in practice: by taking an action that causes our code to panic (such as +accessing an array past the end) or by explicitly calling the `panic!` macro. +In both cases, we cause a panic in our program. By default, these panics will +print a failure message, unwind, clean up the stack, and quit. Via an +environment variable, you can also have Rust display the call stack when a +panic occurs to make it easier to track down the source of the panic. > ### Unwinding the Stack or Aborting in Response to a Panic > -> By default, when a panic occurs, the program starts *unwinding*, which -> means Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data from each function -> it encounters. However, this walking back and cleanup is a lot of work. Rust, therefore, -> allows you to choose the alternative of immediately *aborting*, which ends the program without -> cleaning up. -> -> -> Memory that the program was using will then need to be cleaned -> up by the operating system. If in your project you need to make the resulting -> binary as small as possible, you can switch from unwinding to aborting upon a -> panic by adding `panic = 'abort'` to the appropriate `[profile]` sections in -> your *Cargo.toml* file. For example, if you want to abort on panic in release -> mode, add this: +> By default, when a panic occurs the program starts *unwinding*, which means +> Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data from each function it +> encounters. However, walking back and cleaning up is a lot of work. Rust, +> therefore, allows you to choose the alternative of immediately *aborting*, +> which ends the program without cleaning up. +> +> Memory that the program was using will then need to be cleaned up by the +> operating system. If in your project you need to make the resultant binary as +> small as possible, you can switch from unwinding to aborting upon a panic by +> adding `panic = 'abort'` to the appropriate `[profile]` sections in your +> *Cargo.toml* file. For example, if you want to abort on panic in release mode, +> add this: > > ```toml -> [profile.release] +> profile.release > panic = 'abort' > ``` @@ -85,7 +75,12 @@ fn main() { When you run the program, you’ll see something like this: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'crash and burn', src/main.rs:2:5 +$ cargo run + Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.25s + Running `target/debug/panic` +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:2:5: +crash and burn note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` @@ -98,17 +93,17 @@ In this case, the line indicated is part of our code, and if we go to that line, we see the `panic!` macro call. In other cases, the `panic!` call might be in code that our code calls, and the filename and line number reported by the error message will be someone else’s code where the `panic!` macro is -called, not the line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!` call. We -can use the backtrace of the functions the `panic!` call came from to figure -out the part of our code that is causing the problem. We’ll discuss backtraces -in more detail next. +called, not the line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!` call. -### Using a `panic!` Backtrace + + -Let’s look at another example to see what it’s like when a `panic!` call comes -from a library because of a bug in our code instead of from our code calling -the macro directly. Listing 9-1 has some code that attempts to access an -index in a vector beyond the range of valid indexes. +We can use the backtrace of the functions the `panic!` call came from to figure +out the part of our code that is causing the problem. To understand how to use +a `panic!` backtrace, let’s look at another example and see what it’s like when +a `panic!` call comes from a library because of a bug in our code instead of +from our code calling the macro directly. Listing 9-1 has some code that +attempts to access an index in a vector beyond the range of valid indexes. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -120,14 +115,14 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 9-1: Attempting to access an element beyond the end of a vector, which -will cause a call to `panic!` +Listing 9-1: Attempting to access an element beyond the +end of a vector, which will cause a call to `panic!` Here, we’re attempting to access the 100th element of our vector (which is at -index 99 because indexing starts at zero), but the vector has only 3 elements. -In this situation, Rust will panic. Using `[]` is supposed to return an -element, but if you pass an invalid index, there’s no element that Rust could -return here that would be correct. +index 99 because indexing starts at zero), but the vector has only three +elements. In this situation, Rust will panic. Using `[]` is supposed to return +an element, but if you pass an invalid index, there’s no element that Rust +could return here that would be correct. In C, attempting to read beyond the end of a data structure is undefined behavior. You might get whatever is at the location in memory that would @@ -142,48 +137,63 @@ element at an index that doesn’t exist, Rust will stop execution and refuse to continue. Let’s try it and see: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99', src/main.rs:4:5 +$ cargo run + Compiling panic v0.1.0 (file:///projects/panic) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s + Running `target/debug/panic` +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:6: +index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` -This error points at line 4 of our `main.rs` where we attempt to access index -99. The next note line tells us that we can set the `RUST_BACKTRACE` -environment variable to get a backtrace of exactly what happened to cause the -error. A *backtrace* is a list of all the functions that have been called to -get to this point. Backtraces in Rust work as they do in other languages: the -key to reading the backtrace is to start from the top and read until you see -files you wrote. That’s the spot where the problem originated. The lines above -that spot are code that your code has called; the lines below are code that -called your code. These before-and-after lines might include core Rust code, -standard library code, or crates that you’re using. Let’s try getting a -backtrace by setting the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment variable to any value -except 0. Listing 9-2 shows output similar to what you’ll see. +This error points at line 4 of our *main.rs* where we attempt to access index +`99` of the vector in `v`. + +The `note:` line tells us that we can set the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment +variable to get a backtrace of exactly what happened to cause the error. A +*backtrace* is a list of all the functions that have been called to get to this +point. Backtraces in Rust work as they do in other languages: the key to +reading the backtrace is to start from the top and read until you see files you +wrote. That’s the spot where the problem originated. The lines above that spot +are code that your code has called; the lines below are code that called your +code. These before-and-after lines might include core Rust code, standard +library code, or crates that you’re using. Let’s try getting a backtrace by +setting the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment variable to any value except `0`. +Listing 9-2 shows output similar to what you’ll see. + + ``` $ RUST_BACKTRACE=1 cargo run -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99', src/main.rs:4:5 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:6: +index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99 stack backtrace: 0: rust_begin_unwind - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/std/src/panicking.rs:483 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/std/src/panicking.rs:645:5 1: core::panicking::panic_fmt - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/panicking.rs:85 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/panicking.rs:72:14 2: core::panicking::panic_bounds_check - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/panicking.rs:62 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/panicking.rs:208:5 3: >::index - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:255 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:255:10 4: core::slice::index:: for [T]>::index - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:15 - 5: as core::ops::index::Index>::index - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/alloc/src/vec.rs:1982 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:18:9 + 5: as core::ops::index::Index>::index + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/alloc/src/vec/mod.rs:2770:9 6: panic::main - at ./src/main.rs:4 + at ./src/main.rs:4:6 7: core::ops::function::FnOnce::call_once - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:227 + at /rustc/07dca489ac2d933c78d3c5158e3f43beefeb02ce/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:250:5 note: Some details are omitted, run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=full` for a verbose backtrace. ``` -Listing 9-2: The backtrace generated by a call to `panic!` displayed when the -environment variable `RUST_BACKTRACE` is set +Listing 9-2: The backtrace generated by a call to +`panic!` displayed when the environment variable `RUST_BACKTRACE` is set That’s a lot of output! The exact output you see might be different depending on your operating system and Rust version. In order to get backtraces with this @@ -201,21 +211,20 @@ panics in the future, you’ll need to figure out what action the code is taking with what values to cause the panic and what the code should do instead. We’ll come back to `panic!` and when we should and should not use `panic!` to -handle error conditions in the “To `panic!` or Not to `panic!`” section later -in this chapter. Next, we’ll look at how to recover from an error using -`Result`. +handle error conditions in the “To `panic!` or Not to +`panic!`” section later in this +chapter. Next, we’ll look at how to recover from an error using `Result`. ## Recoverable Errors with `Result` Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely. -Sometimes, when a function fails, it’s for a reason that you can easily -interpret and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that -operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the -file instead of terminating the process. +Sometimes when a function fails it’s for a reason that you can easily interpret +and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that operation fails +because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the file instead of +terminating the process. -Recall from “Handling Potential Failure with the `Result` Type” in Chapter 2 -that the `Result` enum is defined as having two variants, `Ok` and `Err`, as -follows: +Recall from “Handling Potential Failure with `Result`” in Chapter 2 that the `Result` enum is defined as having two +variants, `Ok` and `Err`, as follows: ``` enum Result { @@ -230,7 +239,7 @@ the type of the value that will be returned in a success case within the `Ok` variant, and `E` represents the type of the error that will be returned in a failure case within the `Err` variant. Because `Result` has these generic type parameters, we can use the `Result` type and the functions defined on it in -many different situations where the successful value and error value we want to +many different situations where the success value and error value we want to return may differ. Let’s call a function that returns a `Result` value because the function could @@ -242,56 +251,28 @@ Filename: src/main.rs use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); } ``` Listing 9-3: Opening a file -How do we know `File::open` returns a `Result`? We could look at the standard -library API documentation, or we could ask the compiler! If we give `f` a type -annotation that we know is *not* the return type of the function and then try -to compile the code, the compiler will tell us that the types don’t match. The -error message will then tell us what the type of `f` *is*. Let’s try it! We -know that the return type of `File::open` isn’t of type `u32`, so let’s change -the `let f` statement to this: - -``` - let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt"); -``` - -Attempting to compile now gives us the following output: - -``` -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:4:18 - | -4 | let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt"); - | --- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected `u32`, found enum `Result` - | | - | expected due to this - | - = note: expected type `u32` - found enum `Result` -``` - -This tells us the return type of the `File::open` function is a `Result`. -The generic parameter `T` has been filled in here with the type of the success -value, `std::fs::File`, which is a file handle. The type of `E` used in the -error value is `std::io::Error`. - -This return type means the call to `File::open` might succeed and return a file -handle that we can read from or write to. The function call also might fail: -for example, the file might not exist, or we might not have permission to -access the file. The `File::open` function needs to have a way to tell us -whether it succeeded or failed and at the same time give us either the file -handle or error information. This information is exactly what the `Result` enum -conveys. - -In the case where `File::open` succeeds, the value in the variable `f` will be -an instance of `Ok` that contains a file handle. In the case where it fails, -the value in `f` will be an instance of `Err` that contains more information -about the kind of error that happened. +The return type of `File::open` is a `Result`. The generic parameter `T` +has been filled in by the implementation of `File::open` with the type of the +success value, `std::fs::File`, which is a file handle. The type of `E` used in +the error value is `std::io::Error`. This return type means the call to +`File::open` might succeed and return a file handle that we can read from or +write to. The function call also might fail: for example, the file might not +exist, or we might not have permission to access the file. The `File::open` +function needs to have a way to tell us whether it succeeded or failed and at +the same time give us either the file handle or error information. This +information is exactly what the `Result` enum conveys. + +In the case where `File::open` succeeds, the value in the variable +`greeting_file_result` will be an instance of `Ok` that contains a file handle. +In the case where it fails, the value in `greeting_file_result` will be an +instance of `Err` that contains more information about the kind of error that +occurred. We need to add to the code in Listing 9-3 to take different actions depending on the value `File::open` returns. Listing 9-4 shows one way to handle the @@ -304,17 +285,17 @@ Filename: src/main.rs use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); - let f = match f { + let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result { Ok(file) => file, - Err(error) => panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error), + Err(error) => panic!("Problem opening the file: {error:?}"), }; } ``` -Listing 9-4: Using a `match` expression to handle the `Result` variants that -might be returned +Listing 9-4: Using a `match` expression to handle the +`Result` variants that might be returned Note that, like the `Option` enum, the `Result` enum and its variants have been brought into scope by the prelude, so we don’t need to specify `Result::` @@ -322,7 +303,8 @@ before the `Ok` and `Err` variants in the `match` arms. When the result is `Ok`, this code will return the inner `file` value out of the `Ok` variant, and we then assign that file handle value to the variable -`f`. After the `match`, we can use the file handle for reading or writing. +`greeting_file`. After the `match`, we can use the file handle for reading or +writing. The other arm of the `match` handles the case where we get an `Err` value from `File::open`. In this example, we’ve chosen to call the `panic!` macro. If @@ -330,7 +312,13 @@ there’s no file named *hello.txt* in our current directory and we run this code, we’ll see the following output from the `panic!` macro: ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'Problem opening the file: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', src/main.rs:8:23 +$ cargo run + Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.73s + Running `target/debug/error-handling` +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:8:23: +Problem opening the file: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } +note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` As usual, this output tells us exactly what has gone wrong. @@ -338,38 +326,42 @@ As usual, this output tells us exactly what has gone wrong. ### Matching on Different Errors The code in Listing 9-4 will `panic!` no matter why `File::open` failed. -However, we want to take different actions for different failure reasons: if +However, we want to take different actions for different failure reasons. If `File::open` failed because the file doesn’t exist, we want to create the file and return the handle to the new file. If `File::open` failed for any other reason—for example, because we didn’t have permission to open the file—we still -want the code to `panic!` in the same way as it did in Listing 9-4. For this we -add an inner `match` expression, shown in Listing 8-5. +want the code to `panic!` in the same way it did in Listing 9-4. For this, we +add an inner `match` expression, shown in Listing 9-5. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; use std::io::ErrorKind; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); - let f = match f { + let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result { Ok(file) => file, Err(error) => match error.kind() { ErrorKind::NotFound => match File::create("hello.txt") { Ok(fc) => fc, - Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", e), + Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {e:?}"), }, other_error => { - panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", other_error) + panic!("Problem opening the file: {other_error:?}"); } }, }; } ``` -Listing 9-5: Handling different kinds of errors in different ways +Listing 9-5: Handling different kinds of errors in +different ways The type of the value that `File::open` returns inside the `Err` variant is `io::Error`, which is a struct provided by the standard library. This struct @@ -377,8 +369,8 @@ has a method `kind` that we can call to get an `io::ErrorKind` value. The enum `io::ErrorKind` is provided by the standard library and has variants representing the different kinds of errors that might result from an `io` operation. The variant we want to use is `ErrorKind::NotFound`, which indicates -the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet. So we match on `f`, but we -also have an inner match on `error.kind()`. +the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet. So we match on +`greeting_file_result`, but we also have an inner match on `error.kind()`. The condition we want to check in the inner match is whether the value returned by `error.kind()` is the `NotFound` variant of the `ErrorKind` enum. If it is, @@ -388,36 +380,30 @@ file can’t be created, a different error message is printed. The second arm of the outer `match` stays the same, so the program panics on any error besides the missing file error. - - - -> ### Alternatives to Using `match` with `Result` +> #### Alternatives to Using `match` with `Result` > > That’s a lot of `match`! The `match` expression is very useful but also very > much a primitive. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn about closures, which are used > with many of the methods defined on `Result`. These methods can be more > concise than using `match` when handling `Result` values in your code. > -> -> -> -> -> > For example, here’s another way to write the same logic as shown in Listing -> 9-5 but using closures and the `unwrap_or_else` method: +> 9-5, this time using closures and the `unwrap_or_else` method: > -> ``` +> +> +> ```rust,ignore > use std::fs::File; > use std::io::ErrorKind; > > fn main() { -> let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { +> let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { > if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound { > File::create("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { -> panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", error); +> panic!("Problem creating the file: {error:?}"); > }) > } else { -> panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error); +> panic!("Problem opening the file: {error:?}"); > } > }); > } @@ -429,7 +415,7 @@ the missing file error. > standard library documentation. Many more of these methods can clean up huge > nested `match` expressions when you’re dealing with errors. -### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: `unwrap` and `expect` +#### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: `unwrap` and `expect` Using `match` works well enough, but it can be a bit verbose and doesn’t always communicate intent well. The `Result` type has many helper methods @@ -445,17 +431,22 @@ Filename: src/main.rs use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap(); + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap(); } ``` If we run this code without a *hello.txt* file, we’ll see an error message from the `panic!` call that the `unwrap` method makes: + + ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Error { -repr: Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', -src/libcore/result.rs:906:4 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:49: +called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } ``` Similarly, the `expect` method lets us also choose the `panic!` error message. @@ -469,7 +460,8 @@ Filename: src/main.rs use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt").expect("Failed to open hello.txt"); + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt") + .expect("hello.txt should be included in this project"); } ``` @@ -478,21 +470,26 @@ the `panic!` macro. The error message used by `expect` in its call to `panic!` will be the parameter that we pass to `expect`, rather than the default `panic!` message that `unwrap` uses. Here’s what it looks like: + + ``` -thread 'main' panicked at 'Failed to open hello.txt: Error { repr: Os { code: -2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', src/libcore/result.rs:906:4 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:5:10: +hello.txt should be included in this project: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } ``` -Because this error message starts with the text we specified, `Failed to open -hello.txt`, it will be easier to find where in the code this error message is -coming from. If we use `unwrap` in multiple places, it can take more time to -figure out exactly which `unwrap` is causing the panic because all `unwrap` -calls that panic print the same message. +In production-quality code, most Rustaceans choose `expect` rather than +`unwrap` and give more context about why the operation is expected to always +succeed. That way, if your assumptions are ever proven wrong, you have more +information to use in debugging. ### Propagating Errors When a function’s implementation calls something that might fail, instead of -handling the error within the function itself, you can return the error to the +handling the error within the function itself you can return the error to the calling code so that it can decide what to do. This is known as *propagating* the error and gives more control to the calling code, where there might be more information or logic that dictates how the error should be handled than what @@ -504,64 +501,72 @@ to the code that called the function. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; use std::io::{self, Read}; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { - let f = File::open("hello.txt"); + let username_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); - let mut f = match f { + let mut username_file = match username_file_result { Ok(file) => file, Err(e) => return Err(e), }; - let mut s = String::new(); + let mut username = String::new(); - match f.read_to_string(&mut s) { - Ok(_) => Ok(s), + match username_file.read_to_string(&mut username) { + Ok(_) => Ok(username), Err(e) => Err(e), } } ``` -Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the calling code using `match` +Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the +calling code using `match` This function can be written in a much shorter way, but we’re going to start by doing a lot of it manually in order to explore error handling; at the end, we’ll show the shorter way. Let’s look at the return type of the function first: `Result`. This means the function is returning a -value of the type `Result` where the generic parameter `T` has been -filled in with the concrete type `String`, and the generic type `E` has been -filled in with the concrete type `io::Error`. If this function succeeds without -any problems, the code that calls this function will receive an `Ok` value that -holds a `String`—the username that this function read from the file. If this -function encounters any problems, the calling code will receive an `Err` value -that holds an instance of `io::Error` that contains more information about what -the problems were. We chose `io::Error` as the return type of this function -because that happens to be the type of the error value returned from both of -the operations we’re calling in this function’s body that might fail: the -`File::open` function and the `read_to_string` method. +value of the type `Result`, where the generic parameter `T` has been +filled in with the concrete type `String` and the generic type `E` has been +filled in with the concrete type `io::Error`. + +If this function succeeds without any problems, the code that calls this +function will receive an `Ok` value that holds a `String`—the `username` that +this function read from the file. If this function encounters any problems, the +calling code will receive an `Err` value that holds an instance of `io::Error` +that contains more information about what the problems were. We chose +`io::Error` as the return type of this function because that happens to be the +type of the error value returned from both of the operations we’re calling in +this function’s body that might fail: the `File::open` function and the +`read_to_string` method. The body of the function starts by calling the `File::open` function. Then we handle the `Result` value with a `match` similar to the `match` in Listing 9-4. If `File::open` succeeds, the file handle in the pattern variable `file` -becomes the value in the mutable variable `f` and the function continues. In -the `Err` case, instead of calling `panic!`, we use the `return` keyword to -return early out of the function entirely and pass the error value from -`File::open`, now in the pattern variable `e`, back to the calling code as this -function’s error value. - -So if we have a file handle in `f`, the function then creates a new `String` in -variable `s` and calls the `read_to_string` method on the file handle in `f` to -read the contents of the file into `s`. The `read_to_string` method also -returns a `Result` because it might fail, even though `File::open` succeeded. -So we need another `match` to handle that `Result`: if `read_to_string` -succeeds, then our function has succeeded, and we return the username from the -file that’s now in `s` wrapped in an `Ok`. If `read_to_string` fails, we return -the error value in the same way that we returned the error value in the `match` -that handled the return value of `File::open`. However, we don’t need to -explicitly say `return`, because this is the last expression in the function. +becomes the value in the mutable variable `username_file` and the function +continues. In the `Err` case, instead of calling `panic!`, we use the `return` +keyword to return early out of the function entirely and pass the error value +from `File::open`, now in the pattern variable `e`, back to the calling code as +this function’s error value. + +So, if we have a file handle in `username_file`, the function then creates a +new `String` in variable `username` and calls the `read_to_string` method on +the file handle in `username_file` to read the contents of the file into +`username`. The `read_to_string` method also returns a `Result` because it +might fail, even though `File::open` succeeded. So we need another `match` to +handle that `Result`: if `read_to_string` succeeds, then our function has +succeeded, and we return the username from the file that’s now in `username` +wrapped in an `Ok`. If `read_to_string` fails, we return the error value in the +same way that we returned the error value in the `match` that handled the +return value of `File::open`. However, we don’t need to explicitly say +`return`, because this is the last expression in the function. The code that calls this code will then handle getting either an `Ok` value that contains a username or an `Err` value that contains an `io::Error`. It’s @@ -578,26 +583,29 @@ question mark operator `?` to make this easier. #### A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: the `?` Operator Listing 9-7 shows an implementation of `read_username_from_file` that has the -same functionality as in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the -`?` operator. +same functionality as in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the `?` +operator. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; -use std::io; -use std::io::Read; +use std::io::{self, Read}; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { - let mut f = File::open("hello.txt")?; - let mut s = String::new(); - f.read_to_string(&mut s)?; - Ok(s) + let mut username_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; + let mut username = String::new(); + username_file.read_to_string(&mut username)?; + Ok(username) } ``` -Listing 9-7: A function that returns errors to the calling code using the `?` -operator +Listing 9-7: A function that returns errors to the +calling code using the `?` operator The `?` placed after a `Result` value is defined to work in almost the same way as the `match` expressions we defined to handle the `Result` values in Listing @@ -610,20 +618,25 @@ code. There is a difference between what the `match` expression from Listing 9-6 does and what the `?` operator does: error values that have the `?` operator called on them go through the `from` function, defined in the `From` trait in the -standard library, which is used to convert errors from one type into another. +standard library, which is used to convert values from one type into another. When the `?` operator calls the `from` function, the error type received is converted into the error type defined in the return type of the current function. This is useful when a function returns one error type to represent all the ways a function might fail, even if parts might fail for many different -reasons. As long as there’s an `impl From for ReturnedError` to -define the conversion in the trait’s `from` function, the `?` operator takes -care of calling the `from` function automatically. +reasons. + +For example, we could change the `read_username_from_file` function in Listing +9-7 to return a custom error type named `OurError` that we define. If we also +define `impl From for OurError` to construct an instance of +`OurError` from an `io::Error`, then the `?` operator calls in the body of +`read_username_from_file` will call `from` and convert the error types without +needing to add any more code to the function. In the context of Listing 9-7, the `?` at the end of the `File::open` call will -return the value inside an `Ok` to the variable `f`. If an error occurs, the -`?` operator will return early out of the whole function and give any `Err` -value to the calling code. The same thing applies to the `?` at the end of the -`read_to_string` call. +return the value inside an `Ok` to the variable `username_file`. If an error +occurs, the `?` operator will return early out of the whole function and give +any `Err` value to the calling code. The same thing applies to the `?` at the +end of the `read_to_string` call. The `?` operator eliminates a lot of boilerplate and makes this function’s implementation simpler. We could even shorten this code further by chaining @@ -631,35 +644,43 @@ method calls immediately after the `?`, as shown in Listing 9-8. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs::File; -use std::io; -use std::io::Read; +use std::io::{self, Read}; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { - let mut s = String::new(); + let mut username = String::new(); - File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut s)?; + File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut username)?; - Ok(s) + Ok(username) } ``` -Listing 9-8: Chaining method calls after the `?` operator +Listing 9-8: Chaining method calls after the `?` +operator -We’ve moved the creation of the new `String` in `s` to the beginning of the -function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable `f`, we’ve -chained the call to `read_to_string` directly onto the result of -`File::open("hello.txt")?`. We still have a `?` at the end of the -`read_to_string` call, and we still return an `Ok` value containing the -username in `s` when both `File::open` and `read_to_string` succeed rather than -returning errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-6 and -Listing 9-7; this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it. +We’ve moved the creation of the new `String` in `username` to the beginning of +the function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable +`username_file`, we’ve chained the call to `read_to_string` directly onto the +result of `File::open("hello.txt")?`. We still have a `?` at the end of the +`read_to_string` call, and we still return an `Ok` value containing `username` +when both `File::open` and `read_to_string` succeed rather than returning +errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-6 and Listing 9-7; +this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it. Listing 9-9 shows a way to make this even shorter using `fs::read_to_string`. Filename: src/main.rs + + ``` use std::fs; use std::io; @@ -669,8 +690,8 @@ fn read_username_from_file() -> Result { } ``` -Listing 9-9: Using `fs::read_to_string` instead of opening and then reading the -file +Listing 9-9: Using `fs::read_to_string` instead of +opening and then reading the file Reading a file into a string is a fairly common operation, so the standard library provides the convenient `fs::read_to_string` function that opens the @@ -690,19 +711,21 @@ as the `match` expression we defined in Listing 9-6. In Listing 9-6, the it’s compatible with this `return`. In Listing 9-10, let’s look at the error we’ll get if we use the `?` operator -in a `main` function with a return type incompatible with the type of the value -we use `?` on: +in a `main` function with a return type that is incompatible with the type of +the value we use `?` on. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` use std::fs::File; fn main() { - let f = File::open("hello.txt")?; + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; } ``` -Listing 9-10: Attempting to use the `?` in the `main` function that returns -`()` won’t compile +Listing 9-10: Attempting to use the `?` in the `main` +function that returns `()` won’t compile. This code opens a file, which might fail. The `?` operator follows the `Result` value returned by `File::open`, but this `main` function has the return type of @@ -710,28 +733,31 @@ value returned by `File::open`, but this `main` function has the return type of message: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling error-handling v0.1.0 (file:///projects/error-handling) error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns `Result` or `Option` (or another type that implements `FromResidual`) - --> src/main.rs:4:36 - | -3 | / fn main() { -4 | | let f = File::open("hello.txt")?; - | | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()` -5 | | } - | |_- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?` - | + --> src/main.rs:4:48 + | +3 | fn main() { + | --------- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?` +4 | let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; + | ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()` + | + = help: the trait `FromResidual>` is not implemented for `()` + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +error: could not compile `error-handling` (bin "error-handling") due to 1 previous error ``` This error points out that we’re only allowed to use the `?` operator in a function that returns `Result`, `Option`, or another type that implements `FromResidual`. - - + To fix the error, you have two choices. One choice is to change the return type of your function to be compatible with the value you’re using the `?` operator -on as long as you have no restrictions preventing that. The other technique is -to use a `match` or one of the `Result` methods to handle the `Result` in whatever way is appropriate. +on as long as you have no restrictions preventing that. The other choice is to +use a `match` or one of the `Result` methods to handle the `Result` +in whatever way is appropriate. The error message also mentioned that `?` can be used with `Option` values as well. As with using `?` on `Result`, you can only use `?` on `Option` in a @@ -739,9 +765,9 @@ function that returns an `Option`. The behavior of the `?` operator when called on an `Option` is similar to its behavior when called on a `Result`: if the value is `None`, the `None` will be returned early from the function at that point. If the value is `Some`, the value inside the `Some` is the -resulting value of the expression and the function continues. Listing 9-11 has +resultant value of the expression, and the function continues. Listing 9-11 has an example of a function that finds the last character of the first line in the -given text: +given text. ``` fn last_char_of_first_line(text: &str) -> Option { @@ -749,7 +775,8 @@ fn last_char_of_first_line(text: &str) -> Option { } ``` -Listing 9-11: Using the `?` operator on an `Option` value +Listing 9-11: Using the `?` operator on an `Option` +value This function returns `Option` because it’s possible that there is a character there, but it’s also possible that there isn’t. This code takes the @@ -765,7 +792,7 @@ The `?` extracts the string slice, and we can call `chars` on that string slice to get an iterator of its characters. We’re interested in the last character in this first line, so we call `last` to return the last item in the iterator. This is an `Option` because it’s possible that the first line is the empty -string, for example if `text` starts with a blank line but has characters on +string; for example, if `text` starts with a blank line but has characters on other lines, as in `"\nhi"`. However, if there is a last character on the first line, it will be returned in the `Some` variant. The `?` operator in the middle gives us a concise way to express this logic, allowing us to implement the @@ -780,51 +807,53 @@ you can use methods like the `ok` method on `Result` or the `ok_or` method on `Option` to do the conversion explicitly. So far, all the `main` functions we’ve used return `()`. The `main` function is -special because it’s the entry and exit point of executable programs, and there -are restrictions on what its return type can be for the programs to behave as -expected. +special because it’s the entry point and exit point of an executable program, +and there are restrictions on what its return type can be for the program to +behave as expected. -Luckily, `main` can also return a `Result<(), E>`. Listing 9-12 has the -code from Listing 9-10 but we’ve changed the return type of `main` to be +Luckily, `main` can also return a `Result<(), E>`. Listing 9-12 has the code +from Listing 9-10, but we’ve changed the return type of `main` to be `Result<(), Box>` and added a return value `Ok(())` to the end. This -code will now compile: +code will now compile. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` use std::error::Error; use std::fs::File; fn main() -> Result<(), Box> { - let f = File::open("hello.txt")?; + let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?; Ok(()) } ``` -Listing 9-12: Changing `main` to return `Result<(), E>` allows the use of the -`?` operator on `Result` values +Listing 9-12: Changing `main` to return `Result<(), E>` +allows the use of the `?` operator on `Result` values. The `Box` type is a *trait object*, which we’ll talk about in the -“Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different Types” section in -Chapter 17. For now, you can read `Box` to mean “any kind of error.” -Using `?` on a `Result` value in a `main` function with the error type -`Box` is allowed, because it allows any `Err` value to be returned -early. - -When a `main` function returns a `Result<(), E>`, the executable will -exit with a value of `0` if `main` returns `Ok(())` and will exit with a -nonzero value if `main` returns an `Err` value. Executables written in C return -integers when they exit: programs that exit successfully return the integer -`0`, and programs that error return some integer other than `0`. Rust also -returns integers from executables to be compatible with this convention. - - - +“Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different +Types” section in Chapter 17. For now, you can +read `Box` to mean “any kind of error.” Using `?` on a `Result` +value in a `main` function with the error type `Box` is allowed +because it allows any `Err` value to be returned early. Even though the body of +this `main` function will only ever return errors of type `std::io::Error`, by +specifying `Box`, this signature will continue to be correct even if +more code that returns other errors is added to the body of `main`. + +When a `main` function returns a `Result<(), E>`, the executable will exit with +a value of `0` if `main` returns `Ok(())` and will exit with a nonzero value if +`main` returns an `Err` value. Executables written in C return integers when +they exit: programs that exit successfully return the integer `0`, and programs +that error return some integer other than `0`. Rust also returns integers from +executables to be compatible with this convention. The `main` function may return any types that implement the -`std::process::Termination` trait. As of this writing, the `Termination` trait -is an unstable feature only available in Nightly Rust, so you can’t yet -implement it for your own types in Stable Rust, but you might be able to -someday! +`std::process::Termination` trait, which contains +a function `report` that returns an `ExitCode`. Consult the standard library +documentation for more information on implementing the `Termination` trait for +your own types. Now that we’ve discussed the details of calling `panic!` or returning `Result`, let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in which @@ -851,11 +880,11 @@ some general guidelines on how to decide whether to panic in library code. ### Examples, Prototype Code, and Tests -When you’re writing an example to illustrate some concept, also including robust -error-handling code can make the example less clear. In -examples, it’s understood that a call to a method like `unwrap` that could -panic is meant as a placeholder for the way you’d want your application to -handle errors, which can differ based on what the rest of your code is doing. +When you’re writing an example to illustrate some concept, also including +robust error-handling code can make the example less clear. In examples, it’s +understood that a call to a method like `unwrap` that could panic is meant as a +placeholder for the way you’d want your application to handle errors, which can +differ based on what the rest of your code is doing. Similarly, the `unwrap` and `expect` methods are very handy when prototyping, before you’re ready to decide how to handle errors. They leave clear markers in @@ -868,23 +897,26 @@ happen. ### Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler -It would also be appropriate to call `unwrap` when you have some other logic -that ensures the `Result` will have an `Ok` value, but the logic isn’t -something the compiler understands. You’ll still have a `Result` value that you -need to handle: whatever operation you’re calling still has the possibility of -failing in general, even though it’s logically impossible in your particular -situation. If you can ensure by manually inspecting the code that you’ll never -have an `Err` variant, it’s perfectly acceptable to call `unwrap`. Here’s an -example: +It would also be appropriate to call `unwrap` or `expect` when you have some +other logic that ensures the `Result` will have an `Ok` value, but the logic +isn’t something the compiler understands. You’ll still have a `Result` value +that you need to handle: whatever operation you’re calling still has the +possibility of failing in general, even though it’s logically impossible in +your particular situation. If you can ensure by manually inspecting the code +that you’ll never have an `Err` variant, it’s perfectly acceptable to call +`unwrap`, and even better to document the reason you think you’ll never have an +`Err` variant in the `expect` text. Here’s an example: ``` -use std::net::IpAddr; + use std::net::IpAddr; -let home: IpAddr = "127.0.0.1".parse().unwrap(); + let home: IpAddr = "127.0.0.1" + .parse() + .expect("Hardcoded IP address should be valid"); ``` We’re creating an `IpAddr` instance by parsing a hardcoded string. We can see -that `127.0.0.1` is a valid IP address, so it’s acceptable to use `unwrap` +that `127.0.0.1` is a valid IP address, so it’s acceptable to use `expect` here. However, having a hardcoded, valid string doesn’t change the return type of the `parse` method: we still get a `Result` value, and the compiler will still make us handle the `Result` as if the `Err` variant is a possibility @@ -892,14 +924,17 @@ because the compiler isn’t smart enough to see that this string is always a valid IP address. If the IP address string came from a user rather than being hardcoded into the program and therefore *did* have a possibility of failure, we’d definitely want to handle the `Result` in a more robust way instead. +Mentioning the assumption that this IP address is hardcoded will prompt us to +change `expect` to better error-handling code if, in the future, we need to get +the IP address from some other source instead. ### Guidelines for Error Handling -It’s advisable to have your code panic when it’s possible that your code -could end up in a bad state. In this context, a *bad state* is when some -assumption, guarantee, contract, or invariant has been broken, such as when -invalid values, contradictory values, or missing values are passed to your -code—plus one or more of the following: +It’s advisable to have your code panic when it’s possible that your code could +end up in a bad state. In this context, a *bad state* is when some assumption, +guarantee, contract, or invariant has been broken, such as when invalid values, +contradictory values, or missing values are passed to your code—plus one or +more of the following: * The bad state is something that is unexpected, as opposed to something that will likely happen occasionally, like a user entering data in the wrong @@ -910,11 +945,14 @@ code—plus one or more of the following: work through an example of what we mean in the “Encoding States and Behavior as Types” section of Chapter 17. -If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, the best -choice might be to call `panic!` and alert the person using your library to the -bug in their code so they can fix it during development. Similarly, `panic!` is -often appropriate if you’re calling external code that is out of your control -and it returns an invalid state that you have no way of fixing. +If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, it’s +best to return an error if you can so the user of the library can decide what +they want to do in that case. However, in cases where continuing could be +insecure or harmful, the best choice might be to call `panic!` and alert the +person using your library to the bug in their code so they can fix it during +development. Similarly, `panic!` is often appropriate if you’re calling +external code that is out of your control and it returns an invalid state that +you have no way of fixing. However, when failure is expected, it’s more appropriate to return a `Result` than to make a `panic!` call. Examples include a parser being given malformed @@ -922,20 +960,20 @@ data or an HTTP request returning a status that indicates you have hit a rate limit. In these cases, returning a `Result` indicates that failure is an expected possibility that the calling code must decide how to handle. -When your code performs operations on values, your code should verify the -values are valid first and panic if the values aren’t valid. This is mostly for -safety reasons: attempting to operate on invalid data can expose your code to -vulnerabilities. This is the main reason the standard library will call -`panic!` if you attempt an out-of-bounds memory access: trying to access memory -that doesn’t belong to the current data structure is a common security problem. -Functions often have *contracts*: their behavior is only guaranteed if the -inputs meet particular requirements. Panicking when the contract is violated -makes sense because a contract violation always indicates a caller-side bug and -it’s not a kind of error you want the calling code to have to explicitly -handle. In fact, there’s no reasonable way for calling code to recover; the -calling *programmers* need to fix the code. Contracts for a function, -especially when a violation will cause a panic, should be explained in the API -documentation for the function. +When your code performs an operation that could put a user at risk if it’s +called using invalid values, your code should verify the values are valid first +and panic if the values aren’t valid. This is mostly for safety reasons: +attempting to operate on invalid data can expose your code to vulnerabilities. +This is the main reason the standard library will call `panic!` if you attempt +an out-of-bounds memory access: trying to access memory that doesn’t belong to +the current data structure is a common security problem. Functions often have +*contracts*: their behavior is only guaranteed if the inputs meet particular +requirements. Panicking when the contract is violated makes sense because a +contract violation always indicates a caller-side bug, and it’s not a kind of +error you want the calling code to have to explicitly handle. In fact, there’s +no reasonable way for calling code to recover; the calling *programmers* need +to fix the code. Contracts for a function, especially when a violation will +cause a panic, should be explained in the API documentation for the function. However, having lots of error checks in all of your functions would be verbose and annoying. Fortunately, you can use Rust’s type system (and thus the type @@ -960,30 +998,32 @@ numbers before checking it against our secret number; we only validated that the guess was positive. In this case, the consequences were not very dire: our output of “Too high” or “Too low” would still be correct. But it would be a useful enhancement to guide the user toward valid guesses and have different -behavior when a user guesses a number that’s out of range versus when a user -types, for example, letters instead. +behavior when the user guesses a number that’s out of range versus when the +user types, for example, letters instead. One way to do this would be to parse the guess as an `i32` instead of only a `u32` to allow potentially negative numbers, and then add a check for the number being in range, like so: +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` -loop { - // --snip-- + loop { + // --snip-- - let guess: i32 = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(num) => num, - Err(_) => continue, - }; + let guess: i32 = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(num) => num, + Err(_) => continue, + }; - if guess < 1 || guess > 100 { - println!("The secret number will be between 1 and 100."); - continue; - } + if guess < 1 || guess > 100 { + println!("The secret number will be between 1 and 100."); + continue; + } - match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { - // --snip-- -} + match guess.cmp(&secret_number) { + // --snip-- + } ``` The `if` expression checks whether our value is out of range, tells the user @@ -992,7 +1032,7 @@ and ask for another guess. After the `if` expression, we can proceed with the comparisons between `guess` and the secret number knowing that `guess` is between 1 and 100. -However, this is not an ideal solution: if it was absolutely critical that the +However, this is not an ideal solution: if it were absolutely critical that the program only operated on values between 1 and 100, and it had many functions with this requirement, having a check like this in every function would be tedious (and might impact performance). @@ -1004,6 +1044,8 @@ confidently use the values they receive. Listing 9-13 shows one way to define a `Guess` type that will only create an instance of `Guess` if the `new` function receives a value between 1 and 100. +Filename: src/lib.rs + ``` pub struct Guess { value: i32, @@ -1012,7 +1054,7 @@ pub struct Guess { impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 || value > 100 { - panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value); + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } Guess { value } @@ -1024,10 +1066,10 @@ impl Guess { } ``` -Listing 9-13: A `Guess` type that will only continue with values between 1 and -100 +Listing 9-13: A `Guess` type that will only continue with +values between 1 and 100 -First, we define a struct named `Guess` that has a field named `value` that +First we define a struct named `Guess` that has a field named `value` that holds an `i32`. This is where the number will be stored. Then we implement an associated function named `new` on `Guess` that creates @@ -1046,7 +1088,7 @@ to the `value` parameter and return the `Guess`. Next, we implement a method named `value` that borrows `self`, doesn’t have any other parameters, and returns an `i32`. This kind of method is sometimes called -a *getter*, because its purpose is to get some data from its fields and return +a *getter* because its purpose is to get some data from its fields and return it. This public method is necessary because the `value` field of the `Guess` struct is private. It’s important that the `value` field be private so code using the `Guess` struct is not allowed to set `value` directly: code outside @@ -1060,7 +1102,7 @@ then declare in its signature that it takes or returns a `Guess` rather than an ## Summary -Rust’s error handling features are designed to help you write more robust code. +Rust’s error-handling features are designed to help you write more robust code. The `panic!` macro signals that your program is in a state it can’t handle and lets you tell the process to stop instead of trying to proceed with invalid or incorrect values. The `Result` enum uses Rust’s type system to indicate that diff --git a/nostarch/chapter10.md b/nostarch/chapter10.md index ee77829fed..bc315d12ce 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter10.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter10.md @@ -15,13 +15,13 @@ how they relate to other generics without knowing what will be in their place when compiling and running the code. Functions can take parameters of some generic type, instead of a concrete type -like `i32` or `String`, in the same way a function takes parameters with -unknown values to run the same code on multiple concrete values. In fact, we’ve -already used generics in Chapter 6 with `Option`, Chapter 8 with `Vec` -and `HashMap`, and Chapter 9 with `Result`. In this chapter, you’ll +like `i32` or `String`, in the same way they take parameters with unknown +values to run the same code on multiple concrete values. In fact, we’ve already +used generics in Chapter 6 with `Option`, in Chapter 8 with `Vec` and +`HashMap`, and in Chapter 9 with `Result`. In this chapter, you’ll explore how to define your own types, functions, and methods with generics! -First, we’ll review how to extract a function to reduce code duplication. We’ll +First we’ll review how to extract a function to reduce code duplication. We’ll then use the same technique to make a generic function from two functions that differ only in the types of their parameters. We’ll also explain how to use generic types in struct and enum definitions. @@ -39,21 +39,16 @@ help. ## Removing Duplication by Extracting a Function Generics allow us to replace specific types with a placeholder that represents -multiple types to remove code duplication. - - -Before diving into generics syntax, then, let’s first look at how to remove -duplication in a way that doesn’t involve generic types by extracting a -function that replaces specific values with a placeholder that represents -multiple values. Then we’ll apply the same technique to extract a generic -function! By looking at how to recognize duplicated code you can extract into a -function, you’ll start to recognize duplicated code that can use generics. - -We begin with the short program in Listing 10-1 that finds the largest number -in a list. +multiple types to remove code duplication. Before diving into generics syntax, +let’s first look at how to remove duplication in a way that doesn’t involve +generic types by extracting a function that replaces specific values with a +placeholder that represents multiple values. Then we’ll apply the same +technique to extract a generic function! By looking at how to recognize +duplicated code you can extract into a function, you’ll start to recognize +duplicated code that can use generics. + +We’ll begin with the short program in Listing 10-1 that finds the largest +number in a list. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -61,30 +56,31 @@ Filename: src/main.rs fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - let mut largest = number_list[0]; + let mut largest = &number_list[0]; - for number in number_list { + for number in &number_list { if number > largest { largest = number; } } - println!("The largest number is {}", largest); + println!("The largest number is {largest}"); } ``` -Listing 10-1: Finding the largest number in a list of numbers +Listing 10-1: Finding the largest number in a list of +numbers -We store a list of integers in the variable `number_list` and place the first -number in the list in a variable named `largest`. We then iterate through all -the numbers in the list, and if the current number is greater than the number -stored in `largest`, replace the number in that variable. However, if the -current number is less than or equal to the largest number seen so far, the -variable doesn’t change, and the code moves on to the next number in the list. -After considering all the numbers in the list, `largest` should hold the -largest number, which in this case is 100. +We store a list of integers in the variable `number_list` and place a reference +to the first number in the list in a variable named `largest`. We then iterate +through all the numbers in the list, and if the current number is greater than +the number stored in `largest`, we replace the reference in that variable. +However, if the current number is less than or equal to the largest number seen +so far, the variable doesn’t change, and the code moves on to the next number +in the list. After considering all the numbers in the list, `largest` should +refer to the largest number, which in this case is 100. -We've now been tasked with finding the largest number in two different lists of +We’ve now been tasked with finding the largest number in two different lists of numbers. To do so, we can choose to duplicate the code in Listing 10-1 and use the same logic at two different places in the program, as shown in Listing 10-2. @@ -94,31 +90,32 @@ Filename: src/main.rs fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - let mut largest = number_list[0]; + let mut largest = &number_list[0]; - for number in number_list { + for number in &number_list { if number > largest { largest = number; } } - println!("The largest number is {}", largest); + println!("The largest number is {largest}"); let number_list = vec![102, 34, 6000, 89, 54, 2, 43, 8]; - let mut largest = number_list[0]; + let mut largest = &number_list[0]; - for number in number_list { + for number in &number_list { if number > largest { largest = number; } } - println!("The largest number is {}", largest); + println!("The largest number is {largest}"); } ``` -Listing 10-2: Code to find the largest number in *two* lists of numbers +Listing 10-2: Code to find the largest number in *two* +lists of numbers Although this code works, duplicating code is tedious and error prone. We also have to remember to update the code in multiple places when we want to change @@ -134,19 +131,13 @@ function named `largest`. Then we call the function to find the largest number in the two lists from Listing 10-2. We could also use the function on any other list of `i32` values we might have in the future. - - - Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn largest(list: &[i32]) -> i32 { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest(list: &[i32]) -> &i32 { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -159,33 +150,30 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); let number_list = vec![102, 34, 6000, 89, 54, 2, 43, 8]; let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); } ``` -Listing 10-3: Abstracted code to find the largest number in two lists +Listing 10-3: Abstracted code to find the largest number +in two lists The `largest` function has a parameter called `list`, which represents any concrete slice of `i32` values we might pass into the function. As a result, when we call the function, the code runs on the specific values that we pass -in. Don’t worry about the syntax of the `for` loop for now. We aren’t -referencing a reference to an `i32` here; we’re pattern matching and -destructuring each `&i32` that the `for` loop gets so that `item` will be an -`i32` inside the loop body. We’ll cover pattern matching in detail in Chapter -18. +in. -In sum, here are the steps we took to change the code from Listing 10-2 to +In summary, here are the steps we took to change the code from Listing 10-2 to Listing 10-3: 1. Identify duplicate code. -2. Extract the duplicate code into the body of the function and specify the +1. Extract the duplicate code into the body of the function, and specify the inputs and return values of that code in the function signature. -3. Update the two instances of duplicated code to call the function instead. +1. Update the two instances of duplicated code to call the function instead. Next, we’ll use these same steps with generics to reduce code duplication. In the same way that the function body can operate on an abstract `list` instead @@ -210,16 +198,16 @@ parameters and return value. Doing so makes our code more flexible and provides more functionality to callers of our function while preventing code duplication. Continuing with our `largest` function, Listing 10-4 shows two functions that -both find the largest value in a slice. We'll then combine these into a single +both find the largest value in a slice. We’ll then combine these into a single function that uses generics. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn largest_i32(list: &[i32]) -> i32 { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest_i32(list: &[i32]) -> &i32 { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -228,10 +216,10 @@ fn largest_i32(list: &[i32]) -> i32 { largest } -fn largest_char(list: &[char]) -> char { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest_char(list: &[char]) -> &char { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -244,17 +232,17 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; let result = largest_i32(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q']; let result = largest_char(&char_list); - println!("The largest char is {}", result); + println!("The largest char is {result}"); } ``` -Listing 10-4: Two functions that differ only in their names and the types in -their signatures +Listing 10-4: Two functions that differ only in their +names and in the types in their signatures The `largest_i32` function is the one we extracted in Listing 10-3 that finds the largest `i32` in a slice. The `largest_char` function finds the largest @@ -264,24 +252,24 @@ the duplication by introducing a generic type parameter in a single function. To parameterize the types in a new single function, we need to name the type parameter, just as we do for the value parameters to a function. You can use any identifier as a type parameter name. But we’ll use `T` because, by -convention, parameter names in Rust are short, often just a letter, and Rust’s -type-naming convention is CamelCase. Short for “type,” `T` is the default -choice of most Rust programmers. +convention, type parameter names in Rust are short, often just one letter, and +Rust’s type-naming convention is UpperCamelCase. Short for *type*, `T` is the +default choice of most Rust programmers. When we use a parameter in the body of the function, we have to declare the parameter name in the signature so the compiler knows what that name means. Similarly, when we use a type parameter name in a function signature, we have to declare the type parameter name before we use it. To define the generic -`largest` function, place type name declarations inside angle brackets, `<>`, -between the name of the function and the parameter list, like this: +`largest` function, we place type name declarations inside angle brackets, +`<>`, between the name of the function and the parameter list, like this: ``` -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { +fn largest(list: &[T]) -> &T { ``` We read this definition as: the function `largest` is generic over some type `T`. This function has one parameter named `list`, which is a slice of values -of type `T`. The `largest` function will return a value of the +of type `T`. The `largest` function will return a reference to a value of the same type `T`. Listing 10-5 shows the combined `largest` function definition using the generic @@ -292,10 +280,10 @@ compile yet, but we’ll fix it later in this chapter. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { - let mut largest = list[0]; +fn largest(list: &[T]) -> &T { + let mut largest = &list[0]; - for &item in list { + for item in list { if item > largest { largest = item; } @@ -308,50 +296,50 @@ fn main() { let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); + println!("The largest number is {result}"); let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q']; let result = largest(&char_list); - println!("The largest char is {}", result); + println!("The largest char is {result}"); } ``` -Listing 10-5: The `largest` function using generic type parameters; this -doesn’t yet compile yet +Listing 10-5: The `largest` function using generic type +parameters; this doesn’t compile yet If we compile this code right now, we’ll get this error: ``` -error[E0369]: binary operation `>` cannot be applied to type `T` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) +error[E0369]: binary operation `>` cannot be applied to type `&T` --> src/main.rs:5:17 | 5 | if item > largest { - | ---- ^ ------- T + | ---- ^ ------- &T | | - | T + | &T | help: consider restricting type parameter `T` | -1 | fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ -``` - -The note mentions `std::cmp::PartialOrd`, which is a *trait*. We’ll talk about -traits in the next section. For now, know that this error states that the body -of `largest` won’t work for all possible types that `T` could be. Because we -want to compare values of type `T` in the body, we can only use types whose -values can be ordered. To enable comparisons, the standard library has the -`std::cmp::PartialOrd` trait that you can implement on types (see Appendix C -for more on this trait). You’ll learn how to specify that a generic type has a -particular trait in the “Traits as Parameters” section. Before we fix this code -(in the section “Fixing the `largest` Function with Trait Bounds”), let’s first -explore other ways of using generic type parameters. - - - +1 | fn largest(list: &[T]) -> &T { + | ++++++++++++++++++++++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0369`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error +``` + +The help text mentions `std::cmp::PartialOrd`, which is a *trait*, and we’re +going to talk about traits in the next section. For now, know that this error +states that the body of `largest` won’t work for all possible types that `T` +could be. Because we want to compare values of type `T` in the body, we can +only use types whose values can be ordered. To enable comparisons, the standard +library has the `std::cmp::PartialOrd` trait that you can implement on types +(see Appendix C for more on this trait). By following the help text’s +suggestion, we restrict the types valid for `T` to only those that implement +`PartialOrd` and this example will compile, because the standard library +implements `PartialOrd` on both `i32` and `char`. ### In Struct Definitions @@ -373,12 +361,14 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-6: A `Point` struct that holds `x` and `y` values of type `T` +Listing 10-6: A `Point` struct that holds `x` and `y` +values of type `T` The syntax for using generics in struct definitions is similar to that used in -function definitions. First, we declare the name of the type parameter inside -angle brackets just after the name of the struct. Then we use the generic type -in the struct definition where we would otherwise specify concrete data types. +function definitions. First we declare the name of the type parameter inside +angle brackets just after the name of the struct. Then we use the generic +type in the struct definition where we would otherwise specify concrete data +types. Note that because we’ve used only one generic type to define `Point`, this definition says that the `Point` struct is generic over some type `T`, and @@ -399,20 +389,25 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-7: The fields `x` and `y` must be the same type because both have -the same generic data type `T`. +Listing 10-7: The fields `x` and `y` must be the same +type because both have the same generic data type `T`. -In this example, when we assign the integer value 5 to `x`, we let the compiler -know that the generic type `T` will be an integer for this instance of -`Point`. Then when we specify 4.0 for `y`, which we’ve defined to have the +In this example, when we assign the integer value `5` to `x`, we let the +compiler know that the generic type `T` will be an integer for this instance of +`Point`. Then when we specify `4.0` for `y`, which we’ve defined to have the same type as `x`, we’ll get a type mismatch error like this: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0308]: mismatched types --> src/main.rs:7:38 | 7 | let wont_work = Point { x: 5, y: 4.0 }; | ^^^ expected integer, found floating-point number + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0308`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` To define a `Point` struct where `x` and `y` are both generics but could have @@ -435,12 +430,12 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-8: A `Point` generic over two types so that `x` and `y` can be -values of different types +Listing 10-8: A `Point` generic over two types so +that `x` and `y` can be values of different types Now all the instances of `Point` shown are allowed! You can use as many generic type parameters in a definition as you want, but using more than a few makes -your code hard to read. If you're finding you need lots of generic types in +your code hard to read. If you’re finding you need lots of generic types in your code, it could indicate that your code needs restructuring into smaller pieces. @@ -490,7 +485,7 @@ avoid duplication by using generic types instead. ### In Method Definitions We can implement methods on structs and enums (as we did in Chapter 5) and use -generic types in their definitions, too. Listing 10-9 shows the `Point` +generic types in their definitions too. Listing 10-9 shows the `Point` struct we defined in Listing 10-6 with a method named `x` implemented on it. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -514,8 +509,9 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-9: Implementing a method named `x` on the `Point` struct that -will return a reference to the `x` field of type `T` +Listing 10-9: Implementing a method named `x` on the +`Point` struct that will return a reference to the `x` field of type +`T` Here, we’ve defined a method named `x` on `Point` that returns a reference to the data in the field `x`. @@ -545,14 +541,14 @@ impl Point { } ``` -Listing 10-10: An `impl` block that only applies to a struct with a particular -concrete type for the generic type parameter `T` +Listing 10-10: An `impl` block that only applies to a +struct with a particular concrete type for the generic type parameter `T` This code means the type `Point` will have a `distance_from_origin` method; other instances of `Point` where `T` is not of type `f32` will not have this method defined. The method measures how far our point is from the point at coordinates (0.0, 0.0) and uses mathematical operations that are -available only for floating point types. +available only for floating-point types. Generic type parameters in a struct definition aren’t always the same as those you use in that same struct’s method signatures. Listing 10-11 uses the generic @@ -588,29 +584,29 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-11: A method that uses generic types different from its struct’s -definition +Listing 10-11: A method that uses generic types different +from its struct’s definition In `main`, we’ve defined a `Point` that has an `i32` for `x` (with value `5`) and an `f64` for `y` (with value `10.4`). The `p2` variable is a `Point` struct that has a string slice for `x` (with value `"Hello"`) and a `char` for `y` (with value `c`). Calling `mixup` on `p1` with the argument `p2` gives us `p3`, -which will have an `i32` for `x`, because `x` came from `p1`. The `p3` variable -will have a `char` for `y`, because `y` came from `p2`. The `println!` macro +which will have an `i32` for `x` because `x` came from `p1`. The `p3` variable +will have a `char` for `y` because `y` came from `p2`. The `println!` macro call will print `p3.x = 5, p3.y = c`. The purpose of this example is to demonstrate a situation in which some generic parameters are declared with `impl` and some are declared with the method definition. Here, the generic parameters `X1` and `Y1` are declared after `impl` because they go with the struct definition. The generic parameters `X2` -and `Y2` are declared after `fn mixup`, because they’re only relevant to the +and `Y2` are declared after `fn mixup` because they’re only relevant to the method. ### Performance of Code Using Generics You might be wondering whether there is a runtime cost when using generic type -parameters. The good news is that using generic types won't make your run any -slower than it would with concrete types. +parameters. The good news is that using generic types won’t make your program +run any slower than it would with concrete types. Rust accomplishes this by performing monomorphization of the code using generics at compile time. *Monomorphization* is the process of turning generic @@ -631,11 +627,12 @@ let float = Some(5.0); When Rust compiles this code, it performs monomorphization. During that process, the compiler reads the values that have been used in `Option` instances and identifies two kinds of `Option`: one is `i32` and the other -is `f64`. As such, it expands the generic definition of `Option` into -`Option_i32` and `Option_f64`, thereby replacing the generic definition with -the specific ones. +is `f64`. As such, it expands the generic definition of `Option` into two +definitions specialized to `i32` and `f64`, thereby replacing the generic +definition with the specific ones. -The monomorphized version of the code looks like the following: +The monomorphized version of the code looks similar to the following (the +compiler uses different names than what we’re using here for illustration): Filename: src/main.rs @@ -665,9 +662,9 @@ at runtime. ## Traits: Defining Shared Behavior -A *trait* defines functionality a particular type has and can share with other -types. We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way. We can -use *trait bounds* to specify that a generic type can be any type that has +A *trait* defines the functionality a particular type has and can share with +other types. We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way. We +can use *trait bounds* to specify that a generic type can be any type that has certain behavior. > Note: Traits are similar to a feature often called *interfaces* in other @@ -682,15 +679,15 @@ define a set of behaviors necessary to accomplish some purpose. For example, let’s say we have multiple structs that hold various kinds and amounts of text: a `NewsArticle` struct that holds a news story filed in a -particular location and a `Tweet` that can have at most 280 characters along +particular location and a `Tweet` that can have, at most, 280 characters along with metadata that indicates whether it was a new tweet, a retweet, or a reply to another tweet. We want to make a media aggregator library crate named `aggregator` that can display summaries of data that might be stored in a `NewsArticle` or `Tweet` -instance. To do this, we need a summary from each type, and we’ll request -that summary by calling a `summarize` method on an instance. Listing 10-12 -shows the definition of a public `Summary` trait that expresses this behavior. +instance. To do this, we need a summary from each type, and we’ll request that +summary by calling a `summarize` method on an instance. Listing 10-12 shows the +definition of a public `Summary` trait that expresses this behavior. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -700,11 +697,11 @@ pub trait Summary { } ``` -Listing 10-12: A `Summary` trait that consists of the behavior provided by a -`summarize` method +Listing 10-12: A `Summary` trait that consists of the +behavior provided by a `summarize` method Here, we declare a trait using the `trait` keyword and then the trait’s name, -which is `Summary` in this case. We’ve also declared the trait as `pub` so that +which is `Summary` in this case. We also declare the trait as `pub` so that crates depending on this crate can make use of this trait too, as we’ll see in a few examples. Inside the curly brackets, we declare the method signatures that describe the behaviors of the types that implement this trait, which in @@ -717,7 +714,7 @@ that any type that has the `Summary` trait will have the method `summarize` defined with this signature exactly. A trait can have multiple methods in its body: the method signatures are listed -one per line and each line ends in a semicolon. +one per line, and each line ends in a semicolon. ### Implementing a Trait on a Type @@ -726,7 +723,7 @@ we can implement it on the types in our media aggregator. Listing 10-13 shows an implementation of the `Summary` trait on the `NewsArticle` struct that uses the headline, the author, and the location to create the return value of `summarize`. For the `Tweet` struct, we define `summarize` as the username -followed by the entire text of the tweet, assuming that tweet content is +followed by the entire text of the tweet, assuming that the tweet content is already limited to 280 characters. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -759,8 +756,8 @@ impl Summary for Tweet { } ``` -Listing 10-13: Implementing the `Summary` trait on the `NewsArticle` and -`Tweet` types +Listing 10-13: Implementing the `Summary` trait on the +`NewsArticle` and `Tweet` types Implementing a trait on a type is similar to implementing regular methods. The difference is that after `impl`, we put the trait name we want to implement, @@ -770,8 +767,6 @@ that the trait definition has defined. Instead of adding a semicolon after each signature, we use curly brackets and fill in the method body with the specific behavior that we want the methods of the trait to have for the particular type. - - Now that the library has implemented the `Summary` trait on `NewsArticle` and `Tweet`, users of the crate can call the trait methods on instances of `NewsArticle` and `Tweet` in the same way we call regular methods. The only @@ -801,23 +796,23 @@ know, people`. Other crates that depend on the `aggregator` crate can also bring the `Summary` trait into scope to implement `Summary` on their own types. One restriction to -note is that we can implement a trait on a type only if at least one of the -trait or the type is local to our crate. For example, we can implement standard +note is that we can implement a trait on a type only if either the trait or the +type, or both, are local to our crate. For example, we can implement standard library traits like `Display` on a custom type like `Tweet` as part of our -`aggregator` crate functionality, because the type `Tweet` is local to our +`aggregator` crate functionality because the type `Tweet` is local to our `aggregator` crate. We can also implement `Summary` on `Vec` in our -`aggregator` crate, because the trait `Summary` is local to our `aggregator` +`aggregator` crate because the trait `Summary` is local to our `aggregator` crate. But we can’t implement external traits on external types. For example, we can’t -implement the `Display` trait on `Vec` within our `aggregator` crate, -because `Display` and `Vec` are both defined in the standard library and -aren’t local to our `aggregator` crate. This restriction is part of a property -called *coherence*, and more specifically the *orphan rule*, so named because -the parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code -can’t break your code and vice versa. Without the rule, two crates could -implement the same trait for the same type, and Rust wouldn’t know which -implementation to use. +implement the `Display` trait on `Vec` within our `aggregator` crate because +`Display` and `Vec` are both defined in the standard library and aren’t +local to our `aggregator` crate. This restriction is part of a property called +*coherence*, and more specifically the *orphan rule*, so named because the +parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code can’t +break your code and vice versa. Without the rule, two crates could implement +the same trait for the same type, and Rust wouldn’t know which implementation +to use. ### Default Implementations @@ -826,7 +821,7 @@ in a trait instead of requiring implementations for all methods on every type. Then, as we implement the trait on a particular type, we can keep or override each method’s default behavior. -In Listing 10-14 we specify a default string for the `summarize` method of the +In Listing 10-14, we specify a default string for the `summarize` method of the `Summary` trait instead of only defining the method signature, as we did in Listing 10-12. @@ -840,8 +835,8 @@ pub trait Summary { } ``` -Listing 10-14: Defining a `Summary` trait with a default implementation of -the `summarize` method +Listing 10-14: Defining a `Summary` trait with a default +implementation of the `summarize` method To use a default implementation to summarize instances of `NewsArticle`, we specify an empty `impl` block with `impl Summary for NewsArticle {}`. @@ -852,17 +847,17 @@ directly, we’ve provided a default implementation and specified that the `summarize` method on an instance of `NewsArticle`, like this: ``` -let article = NewsArticle { - headline: String::from("Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!"), - location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"), - author: String::from("Iceburgh"), - content: String::from( - "The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \ - hockey team in the NHL.", - ), -}; + let article = NewsArticle { + headline: String::from("Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!"), + location: String::from("Pittsburgh, PA, USA"), + author: String::from("Iceburgh"), + content: String::from( + "The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \ + hockey team in the NHL.", + ), + }; -println!("New article available! {}", article.summarize()); + println!("New article available! {}", article.summarize()); ``` This code prints `New article available! (Read more...)`. @@ -905,19 +900,20 @@ After we define `summarize_author`, we can call `summarize` on instances of the `Tweet` struct, and the default implementation of `summarize` will call the definition of `summarize_author` that we’ve provided. Because we’ve implemented `summarize_author`, the `Summary` trait has given us the behavior of the -`summarize` method without requiring us to write any more code. +`summarize` method without requiring us to write any more code. Here’s what +that looks like: ``` -let tweet = Tweet { - username: String::from("horse_ebooks"), - content: String::from( - "of course, as you probably already know, people", - ), - reply: false, - retweet: false, -}; + let tweet = Tweet { + username: String::from("horse_ebooks"), + content: String::from( + "of course, as you probably already know, people", + ), + reply: false, + retweet: false, + }; -println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize()); + println!("1 new tweet: {}", tweet.summarize()); ``` This code prints `1 new tweet: (Read more from @horse_ebooks...)`. @@ -928,7 +924,7 @@ overriding implementation of that same method. ### Traits as Parameters Now that you know how to define and implement traits, we can explore how to use -traits to define functions that accept many different types. We'll use the +traits to define functions that accept many different types. We’ll use the `Summary` trait we implemented on the `NewsArticle` and `Tweet` types in Listing 10-13 to define a `notify` function that calls the `summarize` method on its `item` parameter, which is of some type that implements the `Summary` @@ -948,6 +944,9 @@ and pass in any instance of `NewsArticle` or `Tweet`. Code that calls the function with any other type, such as a `String` or an `i32`, won’t compile because those types don’t implement `Summary`. + + + #### Trait Bound Syntax The `impl Trait` syntax works for straightforward cases but is actually syntax @@ -965,11 +964,8 @@ parameter after a colon and inside angle brackets. The `impl Trait` syntax is convenient and makes for more concise code in simple cases, while the fuller trait bound syntax can express more complexity in other -cases. - - -For example, we can have two parameters that implement `Summary`. Doing so with -the `impl Trait` syntax looks like this: +cases. For example, we can have two parameters that implement `Summary`. Doing +so with the `impl Trait` syntax looks like this: ``` pub fn notify(item1: &impl Summary, item2: &impl Summary) { @@ -1015,7 +1011,7 @@ bounds, so functions with multiple generic type parameters can contain lots of trait bound information between the function’s name and its parameter list, making the function signature hard to read. For this reason, Rust has alternate syntax for specifying trait bounds inside a `where` clause after the function -signature. So instead of writing this: +signature. So, instead of writing this: ``` fn some_function(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 { @@ -1025,8 +1021,9 @@ we can use a `where` clause, like this: ``` fn some_function(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 - where T: Display + Clone, - U: Clone + Debug +where + T: Display + Clone, + U: Clone + Debug, { ``` @@ -1034,7 +1031,7 @@ This function’s signature is less cluttered: the function name, parameter list and return type are close together, similar to a function without lots of trait bounds. -### Returning Types that Implement Traits +### Returning Types That Implement Traits We can also use the `impl Trait` syntax in the return position to return a value of some type that implements a trait, as shown here: @@ -1101,139 +1098,17 @@ how to write a function with this behavior in the “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” section of Chapter 17. -### Fixing the `largest` Function with Trait Bounds - -Now that you know how to specify the behavior you want using the generic type -parameter’s bounds, let’s return to Listing 10-5 to fix the definition of the -`largest` function that uses a generic type parameter! Last time we tried to -run that code, we received this error: - -``` -error[E0369]: binary operation `>` cannot be applied to type `T` - --> src/main.rs:5:17 - | -5 | if item > largest { - | ---- ^ ------- T - | | - | T - | -help: consider restricting type parameter `T` - | -1 | fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ -``` - -In the body of `largest` we wanted to compare two values of type `T` using the -greater than (`>`) operator. Because that operator is defined as a default -method on the standard library trait `std::cmp::PartialOrd`, we need to specify -`PartialOrd` in the trait bounds for `T` so the `largest` function can work on -slices of any type that we can compare. We don’t need to bring `PartialOrd` -into scope because it’s in the prelude. Change the signature of `largest` to -look like this: - -``` -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { -``` - -This time when we compile the code, we get a different set of errors: - -``` -error[E0508]: cannot move out of type `[T]`, a non-copy slice - --> src/main.rs:2:23 - | -2 | let mut largest = list[0]; - | ^^^^^^^ - | | - | cannot move out of here - | move occurs because `list[_]` has type `T`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - | help: consider borrowing here: `&list[0]` - -error[E0507]: cannot move out of a shared reference - --> src/main.rs:4:18 - | -4 | for &item in list { - | ----- ^^^^ - | || - | |data moved here - | |move occurs because `item` has type `T`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait - | help: consider removing the `&`: `item` -``` - -The key line in this error is `cannot move out of type [T], a non-copy slice`. -With our non-generic versions of the `largest` function, we were only trying to -find the largest `i32` or `char`. As discussed in the “Stack-Only Data: Copy” -section in Chapter 4, types like `i32` and `char` that have a known size can be -stored on the stack, so they implement the `Copy` trait. But when we made the -`largest` function generic, it became possible for the `list` parameter to have -types in it that don’t implement the `Copy` trait. Consequently, we wouldn’t be -able to move the value out of `list[0]` and into the `largest` variable, -resulting in this error. - -To call this code with only those types that implement the `Copy` trait, we can -add `Copy` to the trait bounds of `T`! Listing 10-15 shows the complete code of -a generic `largest` function that will compile as long as the types of the -values in the slice that we pass into the function implement the `PartialOrd` -*and* `Copy` traits, like `i32` and `char` do. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { - let mut largest = list[0]; - - for &item in list { - if item > largest { - largest = item; - } - } - - largest -} - -fn main() { - let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65]; - - let result = largest(&number_list); - println!("The largest number is {}", result); - - let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q']; - - let result = largest(&char_list); - println!("The largest char is {}", result); -} -``` - -Listing 10-15: A working definition of the `largest` function that works on any -generic type that implements the `PartialOrd` and `Copy` traits - -If we don’t want to restrict the `largest` function to the types that implement -the `Copy` trait, we could specify that `T` has the trait bound `Clone` instead -of `Copy`. Then we could clone each value in the slice when we want the -`largest` function to have ownership. Using the `clone` function means we’re -potentially making more heap allocations in the case of types that own heap -data like `String`, and heap allocations can be slow if we’re working with -large amounts of data. - -We could also implement `largest` by having the function return a reference to -a `T` value in the slice. If we change the return type to `&T` instead of `T`, -thereby changing the body of the function to return a reference, we wouldn’t -need the `Clone` or `Copy` trait bounds and we could avoid heap allocations. -Try implementing these alternate solutions on your own! If you get stuck with -errors having to do with lifetimes, keep reading: the “Validating References -with Lifetimes” section coming up will explain, but lifetimes aren’t required -to solve these challenges. - ### Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods By using a trait bound with an `impl` block that uses generic type parameters, we can implement methods conditionally for types that implement the specified -traits. For example, the type `Pair` in Listing 10-16 always implements the -`new` function to return a new instance of `Pair` (recall from the ”Defining -Methods” section of Chapter 5 that `Self` is a type alias for the type of the -`impl` block, which in this case is `Pair`). But in the next `impl` block, -`Pair` only implements the `cmp_display` method if its inner type `T` -implements the `PartialOrd` trait that enables comparison *and* the `Display` -trait that enables printing. +traits. For example, the type `Pair` in Listing 10-15 always implements the +`new` function to return a new instance of `Pair` (recall from the +“Defining Methods” section of Chapter 5 that `Self` +is a type alias for the type of the `impl` block, which in this case is +`Pair`). But in the next `impl` block, `Pair` only implements the +`cmp_display` method if its inner type `T` implements the `PartialOrd` trait +that enables comparison *and* the `Display` trait that enables printing. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1262,12 +1137,12 @@ impl Pair { } ``` -Listing 10-16: Conditionally implementing methods on a generic type depending -on trait bounds +Listing 10-15: Conditionally implementing methods on a +generic type depending on trait bounds We can also conditionally implement a trait for any type that implements another trait. Implementations of a trait on any type that satisfies the trait -bounds are called *blanket implementations* and are extensively used in the +bounds are called *blanket implementations* and are used extensively in the Rust standard library. For example, the standard library implements the `ToString` trait on any type that implements the `Display` trait. The `impl` block in the standard library looks similar to this code: @@ -1295,13 +1170,12 @@ reduce duplication but also specify to the compiler that we want the generic type to have particular behavior. The compiler can then use the trait bound information to check that all the concrete types used with our code provide the correct behavior. In dynamically typed languages, we would get an error at -runtime if we called a method on a type which didn’t define the method. But Rust -moves these errors to compile time so we’re forced to fix the problems before -our code is even able to run. Additionally, we don’t have to write code that -checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile time. -Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility of -generics. - +runtime if we called a method on a type which didn’t define the method. But +Rust moves these errors to compile time so we’re forced to fix the problems +before our code is even able to run. Additionally, we don’t have to write code +that checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile +time. Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility +of generics. ## Validating References with Lifetimes @@ -1309,30 +1183,30 @@ Lifetimes are another kind of generic that we’ve already been using. Rather than ensuring that a type has the behavior we want, lifetimes ensure that references are valid as long as we need them to be. -One detail we didn’t discuss in the “References and Borrowing” section in -Chapter 4 is that every reference in Rust has a *lifetime*, which is the scope -for which that reference is valid. Most of the time, lifetimes are implicit and -inferred, just like most of the time, types are inferred. We only must annotate -types when multiple types are possible. In a similar way, we must annotate -lifetimes when the lifetimes of references could be related in a few different -ways. Rust requires us to annotate the relationships using generic lifetime -parameters to ensure the actual references used at runtime will definitely be -valid. - -Annotating lifetimes is not even a concept most other programming languages -have, so this is going to feel unfamiliar. Although we won’t cover lifetimes in -their entirety in this chapter, we’ll discuss common ways you might encounter +One detail we didn’t discuss in the “References and +Borrowing” section in Chapter 4 is +that every reference in Rust has a *lifetime*, which is the scope for which +that reference is valid. Most of the time, lifetimes are implicit and inferred, +just like most of the time, types are inferred. We must annotate types only +when multiple types are possible. In a similar way, we must annotate lifetimes +when the lifetimes of references could be related in a few different ways. Rust +requires us to annotate the relationships using generic lifetime parameters to +ensure the actual references used at runtime will definitely be valid. + +Annotating lifetimes is not a concept most other programming languages have, so +this is going to feel unfamiliar. Although we won’t cover lifetimes in their +entirety in this chapter, we’ll discuss common ways you might encounter lifetime syntax so you can get comfortable with the concept. ### Preventing Dangling References with Lifetimes The main aim of lifetimes is to prevent *dangling references*, which cause a program to reference data other than the data it’s intended to reference. -Consider the program in Listing 10-17, which has an outer scope and an inner +Consider the program in Listing 10-16, which has an outer scope and an inner scope. ``` -{ +fn main() { let r; { @@ -1340,55 +1214,63 @@ scope. r = &x; } - println!("r: {}", r); + println!("r: {r}"); } ``` -Listing 10-17: An attempt to use a reference whose value has gone out of scope +Listing 10-16: An attempt to use a reference whose value +has gone out of scope -> Note: The examples in Listings 10-17, 10-18, and 10-24 declare variables -> without giving them an initial value, so the variable name exists in the -> outer scope. At first glance, this might appear to be in conflict with Rust’s -> having no null values. However, if we try to use a variable before giving it -> a value, we’ll get a compile-time error, which shows that Rust indeed does -> not allow null values. +> Note: The examples in Listing 10-16, 10-17, and 10-23 declare variables +> without giving them an initial value, so the variable name exists in the outer +> scope. At first glance, this might appear to be in conflict with Rust’s having +> no null values. However, if we try to use a variable before giving it a value, +> we’ll get a compile-time error, which shows that Rust indeed does not allow +> null values. The outer scope declares a variable named `r` with no initial value, and the -inner scope declares a variable named `x` with the initial value of 5. Inside +inner scope declares a variable named `x` with the initial value of `5`. Inside the inner scope, we attempt to set the value of `r` as a reference to `x`. Then the inner scope ends, and we attempt to print the value in `r`. This code won’t -compile because the value `r` is referring to has gone out of scope before we -try to use it. Here is the error message: +compile because the value that `r` is referring to has gone out of scope before +we try to use it. Here is the error message: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0597]: `x` does not live long enough - --> src/main.rs:7:17 - | -7 | r = &x; - | ^^ borrowed value does not live long enough -8 | } - | - `x` dropped here while still borrowed -9 | -10 | println!("r: {}", r); - | - borrow later used here -``` - -The variable `x` doesn’t “live long enough.” The reason is that `x` will be out -of scope when the inner scope ends on line 7. But `r` is still valid for the -outer scope; because its scope is larger, we say that it “lives longer.” If -Rust allowed this code to work, `r` would be referencing memory that was -deallocated when `x` went out of scope, and anything we tried to do with `r` -wouldn’t work correctly. So how does Rust determine that this code is invalid? -It uses a borrow checker. + --> src/main.rs:6:13 + | +5 | let x = 5; + | - binding `x` declared here +6 | r = &x; + | ^^ borrowed value does not live long enough +7 | } + | - `x` dropped here while still borrowed +8 | +9 | println!("r: {}", r); + | - borrow later used here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error +``` + +The error message says that the variable `x` “does not live long enough.” The +reason is that `x` will be out of scope when the inner scope ends on line 7. +But `r` is still valid for the outer scope; because its scope is larger, we say +that it “lives longer.” If Rust allowed this code to work, `r` would be +referencing memory that was deallocated when `x` went out of scope, and +anything we tried to do with `r` wouldn’t work correctly. So how does Rust +determine that this code is invalid? It uses a borrow checker. ### The Borrow Checker The Rust compiler has a *borrow checker* that compares scopes to determine -whether all borrows are valid. Listing 10-18 shows the same code as Listing -10-17 but with annotations showing the lifetimes of the variables. +whether all borrows are valid. Listing 10-17 shows the same code as Listing +10-16 but with annotations showing the lifetimes of the variables. ``` -{ +fn main() { let r; // ---------+-- 'a // | { // | @@ -1396,12 +1278,12 @@ whether all borrows are valid. Listing 10-18 shows the same code as Listing r = &x; // | | } // -+ | // | - println!("r: {}", r); // | + println!("r: {r}"); // | } // ---------+ ``` -Listing 10-18: Annotations of the lifetimes of `r` and `x`, named `'a` and -`'b`, respectively +Listing 10-17: Annotations of the lifetimes of `r` and +`x`, named `'a` and `'b`, respectively Here, we’ve annotated the lifetime of `r` with `'a` and the lifetime of `x` with `'b`. As you can see, the inner `'b` block is much smaller than the outer @@ -1410,28 +1292,28 @@ lifetimes and sees that `r` has a lifetime of `'a` but that it refers to memory with a lifetime of `'b`. The program is rejected because `'b` is shorter than `'a`: the subject of the reference doesn’t live as long as the reference. -Listing 10-19 fixes the code so it doesn’t have a dangling reference and +Listing 10-18 fixes the code so it doesn’t have a dangling reference and it compiles without any errors. ``` -{ +fn main() { let x = 5; // ----------+-- 'b // | let r = &x; // --+-- 'a | // | | - println!("r: {}", r); // | | + println!("r: {r}"); // | | // --+ | } // ----------+ ``` -Listing 10-19: A valid reference because the data has a longer lifetime than -the reference +Listing 10-18: A valid reference because the data has a +longer lifetime than the reference Here, `x` has the lifetime `'b`, which in this case is larger than `'a`. This means `r` can reference `x` because Rust knows that the reference in `r` will always be valid while `x` is valid. -Now that you know where the lifetimes of references are and how Rust analyzes +Now that you know what the lifetimes of references are and how Rust analyzes lifetimes to ensure references will always be valid, let’s explore generic lifetimes of parameters and return values in the context of functions. @@ -1439,7 +1321,7 @@ lifetimes of parameters and return values in the context of functions. We’ll write a function that returns the longer of two string slices. This function will take two string slices and return a single string slice. After -we’ve implemented the `longest` function, the code in Listing 10-20 should +we’ve implemented the `longest` function, the code in Listing 10-19 should print `The longest string is abcd`. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1450,20 +1332,21 @@ fn main() { let string2 = "xyz"; let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } ``` -Listing 10-20: A `main` function that calls the `longest` function to find the -longer of two string slices +Listing 10-19: A `main` function that calls the `longest` +function to find the longer of two string slices Note that we want the function to take string slices, which are references, rather than strings, because we don’t want the `longest` function to take -ownership of its parameters. Refer to the “String Slices as Parameters” section -in Chapter 4 for more discussion about why the parameters we use in Listing -10-20 are the ones we want. +ownership of its parameters. Refer to the “String Slices as +Parameters” section in Chapter 4 +for more discussion about why the parameters we use in Listing 10-19 are the +ones we want. -If we try to implement the `longest` function as shown in Listing 10-21, it +If we try to implement the `longest` function as shown in Listing 10-20, it won’t compile. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1478,12 +1361,15 @@ fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { } ``` -Listing 10-21: An implementation of the `longest` function that returns the -longer of two string slices but does not yet compile +Listing 10-20: An implementation of the `longest` +function that returns the longer of two string slices but does not yet +compile Instead, we get the following error that talks about lifetimes: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier --> src/main.rs:9:33 | @@ -1494,7 +1380,10 @@ error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | 9 | fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { - | ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ + | ++++ ++ ++ ++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The help text reveals that the return type needs a generic lifetime parameter @@ -1507,7 +1396,7 @@ When we’re defining this function, we don’t know the concrete values that wi be passed into this function, so we don’t know whether the `if` case or the `else` case will execute. We also don’t know the concrete lifetimes of the references that will be passed in, so we can’t look at the scopes as we did in -Listings 10-18 and 10-19 to determine whether the reference we return will +Listings 10-17 and 10-18 to determine whether the reference we return will always be valid. The borrow checker can’t determine this either, because it doesn’t know how the lifetimes of `x` and `y` relate to the lifetime of the return value. To fix this error, we’ll add generic lifetime parameters that @@ -1538,25 +1427,22 @@ reference to an `i32` that also has the lifetime `'a`. &'a mut i32 // a mutable reference with an explicit lifetime ``` -One lifetime annotation by itself doesn’t have much meaning, because the +One lifetime annotation by itself doesn’t have much meaning because the annotations are meant to tell Rust how generic lifetime parameters of multiple -references relate to each other. For example, let’s say we have a function with -the parameter `first` that is a reference to an `i32` with lifetime `'a`. The -function also has another parameter named `second` that is another reference to -an `i32` that also has the lifetime `'a`. The lifetime annotations indicate -that the references `first` and `second` must both live as long as that generic -lifetime. +references relate to each other. Let’s examine how the lifetime annotations +relate to each other in the context of the `longest` function. ### Lifetime Annotations in Function Signatures -Now let’s examine lifetime annotations in the context of the `longest` -function. As with generic type parameters, we need to declare generic lifetime -parameters inside angle brackets between the function name and the parameter -list. We want the signature to express the following constraint: the returned +To use lifetime annotations in function signatures, we need to declare the +generic *lifetime* parameters inside angle brackets between the function name +and the parameter list, just as we did with generic *type* parameters. + +We want the signature to express the following constraint: the returned reference will be valid as long as both the parameters are valid. This is the relationship between lifetimes of the parameters and the return value. We’ll name the lifetime `'a` and then add it to each reference, as shown in Listing -10-22. +10-21. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1570,20 +1456,21 @@ fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str { } ``` -Listing 10-22: The `longest` function definition specifying that all the -references in the signature must have the same lifetime `'a` +Listing 10-21: The `longest` function definition +specifying that all the references in the signature must have the same lifetime +`'a` This code should compile and produce the result we want when we use it with the -`main` function in Listing 10-20. +`main` function in Listing 10-19. The function signature now tells Rust that for some lifetime `'a`, the function takes two parameters, both of which are string slices that live at least as long as lifetime `'a`. The function signature also tells Rust that the string slice returned from the function will live at least as long as lifetime `'a`. In practice, it means that the lifetime of the reference returned by the -`longest` function is the same as the smaller of the lifetimes of the -references passed in. These relationships are what we want Rust to use when -analyzing this code. +`longest` function is the same as the smaller of the lifetimes of the values +referred to by the function arguments. These relationships are what we want +Rust to use when analyzing this code. Remember, when we specify the lifetime parameters in this function signature, we’re not changing the lifetimes of any values passed in or returned. Rather, @@ -1612,7 +1499,7 @@ the returned reference will also be valid for the length of the smaller of the lifetimes of `x` and `y`. Let’s look at how the lifetime annotations restrict the `longest` function by -passing in references that have different concrete lifetimes. Listing 10-23 is +passing in references that have different concrete lifetimes. Listing 10-22 is a straightforward example. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1624,17 +1511,17 @@ fn main() { { let string2 = String::from("xyz"); let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } } ``` -Listing 10-23: Using the `longest` function with references to `String` values -that have different concrete lifetimes +Listing 10-22: Using the `longest` function with +references to `String` values that have different concrete lifetimes In this example, `string1` is valid until the end of the outer scope, `string2` is valid until the end of the inner scope, and `result` references something -that is valid until the end of the inner scope. Run this code, and you’ll see +that is valid until the end of the inner scope. Run this code and you’ll see that the borrow checker approves; it will compile and print `The longest string is long string is long`. @@ -1643,7 +1530,7 @@ Next, let’s try an example that shows that the lifetime of the reference in declaration of the `result` variable outside the inner scope but leave the assignment of the value to the `result` variable inside the scope with `string2`. Then we’ll move the `println!` that uses `result` to outside the -inner scope, after the inner scope has ended. The code in Listing 10-24 will +inner scope, after the inner scope has ended. The code in Listing 10-23 will not compile. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1656,24 +1543,32 @@ fn main() { let string2 = String::from("xyz"); result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); } - println!("The longest string is {}", result); + println!("The longest string is {result}"); } ``` -Listing 10-24: Attempting to use `result` after `string2` has gone out of scope +Listing 10-23: Attempting to use `result` after `string2` +has gone out of scope When we try to compile this code, we get this error: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0597]: `string2` does not live long enough --> src/main.rs:6:44 | +5 | let string2 = String::from("xyz"); + | ------- binding `string2` declared here 6 | result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str()); | ^^^^^^^ borrowed value does not live long enough 7 | } | - `string2` dropped here while still borrowed -8 | println!("The longest string is {}", result); - | ------ borrow later used here +8 | println!("The longest string is {result}"); + | ------ borrow later used here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0597`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The error shows that for `result` to be valid for the `println!` statement, @@ -1682,13 +1577,13 @@ this because we annotated the lifetimes of the function parameters and return values using the same lifetime parameter `'a`. As humans, we can look at this code and see that `string1` is longer than -`string2` and therefore `result` will contain a reference to `string1`. +`string2`, and therefore, `result` will contain a reference to `string1`. Because `string1` has not gone out of scope yet, a reference to `string1` will still be valid for the `println!` statement. However, the compiler can’t see that the reference is valid in this case. We’ve told Rust that the lifetime of the reference returned by the `longest` function is the same as the smaller of the lifetimes of the references passed in. Therefore, the borrow checker -disallows the code in Listing 10-24 as possibly having an invalid reference. +disallows the code in Listing 10-23 as possibly having an invalid reference. Try designing more experiments that vary the values and lifetimes of the references passed in to the `longest` function and how the returned reference @@ -1738,6 +1633,8 @@ lifetime is not related to the lifetime of the parameters at all. Here is the error message we get: ``` +$ cargo run + Compiling chapter10 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/chapter10) error[E0515]: cannot return value referencing local variable `result` --> src/main.rs:11:5 | @@ -1746,6 +1643,9 @@ error[E0515]: cannot return value referencing local variable `result` | | | returns a value referencing data owned by the current function | `result` is borrowed here + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0515`. +error: could not compile `chapter10` (bin "chapter10") due to 1 previous error ``` The problem is that `result` goes out of scope and gets cleaned up at the end @@ -1763,9 +1663,9 @@ would create dangling pointers or otherwise violate memory safety. ### Lifetime Annotations in Struct Definitions -So far, the structs we've define all hold owned types. We can define structs to -hold references, but in that case we would need to add a lifetime annotation on -every reference in the struct’s definition. Listing 10-25 has a struct named +So far, the structs we’ve defined all hold owned types. We can define structs +to hold references, but in that case we would need to add a lifetime annotation +on every reference in the struct’s definition. Listing 10-24 has a struct named `ImportantExcerpt` that holds a string slice. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1784,7 +1684,8 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 10-25: A struct that holds a reference, requiring a lifetime annotation +Listing 10-24: A struct that holds a reference, requiring +a lifetime annotation This struct has the single field `part` that holds a string slice, which is a reference. As with generic data types, we declare the name of the generic @@ -1803,9 +1704,9 @@ the `ImportantExcerpt` goes out of scope, so the reference in the ### Lifetime Elision You’ve learned that every reference has a lifetime and that you need to specify -lifetime parameters for functions or structs that use references. However, in -Chapter 4 we had a function in Listing 4-9, shown again in Listing 10-26, that -compiled without lifetime annotations. +lifetime parameters for functions or structs that use references. However, we +had a function in Listing 4-9, shown again in Listing 10-25, that compiled +without lifetime annotations. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1823,8 +1724,9 @@ fn first_word(s: &str) -> &str { } ``` -Listing 10-26: A function we defined in Listing 4-9 that compiled without -lifetime annotations, even though the parameter and return type are references +Listing 10-25: A function we defined in Listing 4-9 that +compiled without lifetime annotations, even though the parameter and return +type are references The reason this function compiles without lifetime annotations is historical: in early versions (pre-1.0) of Rust, this code wouldn’t have compiled because @@ -1868,8 +1770,8 @@ which it can’t figure out lifetimes, the compiler will stop with an error. These rules apply to `fn` definitions as well as `impl` blocks. The first rule is that the compiler assigns a lifetime parameter to each -paramter that’s a reference. In other words, a function with one parameter gets -one lifetime parameter: `fn foo<'a>(x: &'a i32)`; a function with two +parameter that’s a reference. In other words, a function with one parameter +gets one lifetime parameter: `fn foo<'a>(x: &'a i32)`; a function with two parameters gets two separate lifetime parameters: `fn foo<'a, 'b>(x: &'a i32, y: &'b i32)`; and so on. @@ -1884,7 +1786,7 @@ methods much nicer to read and write because fewer symbols are necessary. Let’s pretend we’re the compiler. We’ll apply these rules to figure out the lifetimes of the references in the signature of the `first_word` function in -Listing 10-26. The signature starts without any lifetimes associated with the +Listing 10-25. The signature starts without any lifetimes associated with the references: ``` @@ -1912,7 +1814,7 @@ compiler can continue its analysis without needing the programmer to annotate the lifetimes in this function signature. Let’s look at another example, this time using the `longest` function that had -no lifetime parameters when we started working with it in Listing 10-21: +no lifetime parameters when we started working with it in Listing 10-20: ``` fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { @@ -1930,7 +1832,7 @@ input lifetime. The third rule doesn’t apply either, because `longest` is a function rather than a method, so none of the parameters are `self`. After working through all three rules, we still haven’t figured out what the return type’s lifetime is. This is why we got an error trying to compile the code in -Listing 10-21: the compiler worked through the lifetime elision rules but still +Listing 10-20: the compiler worked through the lifetime elision rules but still couldn’t figure out all the lifetimes of the references in the signature. Because the third rule really only applies in method signatures, we’ll look at @@ -1945,16 +1847,16 @@ use the lifetime parameters depends on whether they’re related to the struct fields or the method parameters and return values. Lifetime names for struct fields always need to be declared after the `impl` -keyword and then used after the struct’s name, because those lifetimes are part +keyword and then used after the struct’s name because those lifetimes are part of the struct’s type. In method signatures inside the `impl` block, references might be tied to the lifetime of references in the struct’s fields, or they might be independent. In addition, the lifetime elision rules often make it so that lifetime annotations aren’t necessary in method signatures. Let’s look at some examples using the -struct named `ImportantExcerpt` that we defined in Listing 10-25. +struct named `ImportantExcerpt` that we defined in Listing 10-24. -First, we’ll use a method named `level` whose only parameter is a reference to +First we’ll use a method named `level` whose only parameter is a reference to `self` and whose return value is an `i32`, which is not a reference to anything: ``` @@ -1974,7 +1876,7 @@ Here is an example where the third lifetime elision rule applies: ``` impl<'a> ImportantExcerpt<'a> { fn announce_and_return_part(&self, announcement: &str) -> &str { - println!("Attention please: {}", announcement); + println!("Attention please: {announcement}"); self.part } } @@ -1995,21 +1897,16 @@ string literals have the `'static` lifetime, which we can annotate as follows: let s: &'static str = "I have a static lifetime."; ``` -The text of this string is stored directly in the program’s binary, which -is always available. Therefore, the lifetime of all string literals is -`'static`. +The text of this string is stored directly in the program’s binary, which is +always available. Therefore, the lifetime of all string literals is `'static`. You might see suggestions to use the `'static` lifetime in error messages. But before specifying `'static` as the lifetime for a reference, think about whether the reference you have actually lives the entire lifetime of your program or not, and whether you want it to. Most of the time, an error message -suggesting the `'static` lifetime results from attempting to create a - - -dangling reference or a mismatch of the available lifetimes. In such cases, the -solution is fixing those problems, not specifying the `'static` lifetime. +suggesting the `'static` lifetime results from attempting to create a dangling +reference or a mismatch of the available lifetimes. In such cases, the solution +is to fix those problems, not to specify the `'static` lifetime. ## Generic Type Parameters, Trait Bounds, and Lifetimes Together @@ -2027,7 +1924,7 @@ fn longest_with_an_announcement<'a, T>( where T: Display, { - println!("Announcement! {}", ann); + println!("Announcement! {ann}"); if x.len() > y.len() { x } else { @@ -2036,7 +1933,7 @@ where } ``` -This is the `longest` function from Listing 10-22 that returns the longer of +This is the `longest` function from Listing 10-21 that returns the longer of two string slices. But now it has an extra parameter named `ann` of the generic type `T`, which can be filled in by any type that implements the `Display` trait as specified by the `where` clause. This extra parameter will be printed @@ -2060,6 +1957,5 @@ Believe it or not, there is much more to learn on the topics we discussed in this chapter: Chapter 17 discusses trait objects, which are another way to use traits. There are also more complex scenarios involving lifetime annotations that you will only need in very advanced scenarios; for those, you should read -the Rust Reference at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/trait-bounds.html*. -But next, you’ll learn how to write tests in Rust so you can make sure your -code is working the way it should. +the Rust Reference at *../reference/index.html*. But next, you’ll learn how to write tests in +Rust so you can make sure your code is working the way it should. diff --git a/nostarch/chapter11.md b/nostarch/chapter11.md index edc7173161..d44a501497 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter11.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter11.md @@ -33,11 +33,12 @@ We can write tests that assert, for example, that when we pass `3` to the we make changes to our code to make sure any existing correct behavior has not changed. -Testing is a complex skill: although we can’t cover every detail about how to -write good tests in one chapter, we’ll discuss the mechanics of Rust’s testing -facilities. We’ll talk about the annotations and macros available to you when -writing your tests, the default behavior and options provided for running your -tests, and how to organize tests into unit tests and integration tests. +Testing is a complex skill: although we can’t cover in one chapter every detail +about how to write good tests, in this chapter we will discuss the mechanics of +Rust’s testing facilities. We’ll talk about the annotations and macros +available to you when writing your tests, the default behavior and options +provided for running your tests, and how to organize tests into unit tests and +integration tests. ## How to Write Tests @@ -45,9 +46,9 @@ Tests are Rust functions that verify that the non-test code is functioning in the expected manner. The bodies of test functions typically perform these three actions: -1. Set up any needed data or state. -2. Run the code you want to test. -3. Assert the results are what you expect. +* Set up any needed data or state. +* Run the code you want to test. +* Assert that the results are what you expect. Let’s look at the features Rust provides specifically for writing tests that take these actions, which include the `test` attribute, a few macros, and the @@ -60,8 +61,8 @@ attribute. Attributes are metadata about pieces of Rust code; one example is the `derive` attribute we used with structs in Chapter 5. To change a function into a test function, add `#[test]` on the line before `fn`. When you run your tests with the `cargo test` command, Rust builds a test runner binary that runs -the annotated functions and reports on whether each -test function passes or fails. +the annotated functions and reports on whether each test function passes or +fails. Whenever we make a new library project with Cargo, a test module with a test function in it is automatically generated for us. This module gives you a @@ -84,49 +85,66 @@ $ cd adder The contents of the *src/lib.rs* file in your `adder` library should look like Listing 11-1. + Filename: src/lib.rs + + ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { -[1] #[test] + use super::*; + + #[test] fn it_works() { - let result = 2 + 2; - [2] assert_eq!(result, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` -Listing 11-1: The test module and function generated automatically by `cargo -new` +Listing 11-1: The code generated automatically by cargo new -For now, let’s ignore the top two lines and focus on the function. Note the -`#[test]` annotation [1]: this attribute indicates this is a test function, so -the test runner knows to treat this function as a test. We might also have -non-test functions in the `tests` module to help set up common scenarios or -perform common operations, so we always need to indicate which functions are -tests. +For now, let’s focus solely on the `it_works` function. Note the `#[test]` +annotation: this attribute indicates this is a test function, so the test +runner knows to treat this function as a test. We might also have non-test +functions in the `tests` module to help set up common scenarios or perform +common operations, so we always need to indicate which functions are tests. -The example function body uses the `assert_eq!` macro [2] to assert that -`result`, which contains the result of adding 2 and 2, equals 4. This assertion -serves as an example of the format for a typical test. Let’s run it to see that -this test passes. +The example function body uses the `assert_eq!` macro to assert that `result`, +which contains the result of adding 2 and 2, equals 4. This assertion serves as +an example of the format for a typical test. Let’s run it to see that this test +passes. The `cargo test` command runs all tests in our project, as shown in Listing 11-2. + ``` $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.57s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) -[1] running 1 test -[2] test tests::it_works ... ok +running 1 test +test tests::it_works ... ok -[3] test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -[4] Doc-tests adder + Doc-tests adder running 0 tests @@ -136,48 +154,50 @@ test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; fini Listing 11-2: The output from running the automatically generated test -Cargo compiled and ran the test. We see the line `running 1 test` [1]. The next -line shows the name of the generated test function, called `it_works`, and that -the result of running that test is `ok` [2]. The overall summary `test result: -ok.` [3] means that all the tests passed, and the portion that reads `1 passed; -0 failed` totals the number of tests that passed or failed. - - - +Cargo compiled and ran the test. We see the line `running 1 test`. The next +line shows the name of the generated test function, called `tests::it_works`, +and that the result of running that test is `ok`. The overall summary `test result: ok.` means that all the tests passed, and the portion that reads `1 passed; 0 failed` totals the number of tests that passed or failed. -It's possible to mark a test as ignored so it doesn't run in a particular -instance; we'll cover that in the “Ignoring Some Tests Unless Specifically -Requested” section later in this chapter. Because we haven't done that here, -the summary shows `0 ignored`. We can also pass an argument to the `cargo test` -command to run only tests whose name matches a string; this is called filtering -and we'll cover that in the “Running a Subset of Tests by Name” section. We -also haven’t filtered the tests being run, so the end of the summary shows `0 -filtered out`. +It’s possible to mark a test as ignored so it doesn’t run in a particular +instance; we’ll cover that in the “Ignoring Some Tests Unless Specifically +Requested” section later in this chapter. Because we +haven’t done that here, the summary shows `0 ignored`. The `0 measured` statistic is for benchmark tests that measure performance. Benchmark tests are, as of this writing, only available in nightly Rust. See -the documentation about benchmark tests at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/unstable-book/library-features/test.html* to learn -more. +the documentation about benchmark tests at *../unstable-book/library-features/test.html* to learn more. -The next part of the test output starting at `Doc-tests adder` [4] is for the +We can pass an argument to the `cargo test` command to run only tests whose +name matches a string; this is called *filtering* and we’ll cover that in the +“Running a Subset of Tests by Name” section. Here we +haven’t filtered the tests being run, so the end of the summary shows `0 filtered out`. + +The next part of the test output starting at `Doc-tests adder` is for the results of any documentation tests. We don’t have any documentation tests yet, but Rust can compile any code examples that appear in our API documentation. This feature helps keep your docs and your code in sync! We’ll discuss how to -write documentation tests in the “Documentation Comments as Tests” section of -Chapter 14. For now, we’ll ignore the `Doc-tests` output. +write documentation tests in the “Documentation Comments as +Tests” section of Chapter 14. For now, we’ll +ignore the `Doc-tests` output. -Let’s start to customize the test to our own needs. First change the name of +Let’s start to customize the test to our own needs. First, change the name of the `it_works` function to a different name, such as `exploration`, like so: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn exploration() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` @@ -186,27 +206,47 @@ Then run `cargo test` again. The output now shows `exploration` instead of `it_works`: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::exploration ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` -Now we'll add another test, but this time we’ll make a test that fails! Tests +Now we’ll add another test, but this time we’ll make a test that fails! Tests fail when something in the test function panics. Each test is run in a new thread, and when the main thread sees that a test thread has died, the test is marked as failed. In Chapter 9, we talked about how the simplest way to panic is to call the `panic!` macro. Enter the new test as a function named `another`, so your *src/lib.rs* file looks like Listing 11-3. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn exploration() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } #[test] @@ -216,48 +256,57 @@ mod tests { } ``` -Listing 11-3: Adding a second test that will fail because we call the `panic!` -macro +Listing 11-3: Adding a second test that will fail because we call the panic! macro Run the tests again using `cargo test`. The output should look like Listing 11-4, which shows that our `exploration` test passed and `another` failed. + ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.72s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 2 tests +test tests::another ... FAILED test tests::exploration ... ok -[1] test tests::another ... FAILED -[2] failures: +failures: ---- tests::another stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Make this test fail', src/lib.rs:10:9 +thread 'tests::another' panicked at src/lib.rs:17:9: +Make this test fail note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace -[3] failures: + +failures: tests::another -[4] test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Listing 11-4: Test results when one test passes and one test fails -Instead of `ok`, the line `test tests::another` shows `FAILED` [1]. Two new -sections appear between the individual results and the summary: the first [2] + + +Instead of `ok`, the line `test tests::another` shows `FAILED`. Two new +sections appear between the individual results and the summary: the first displays the detailed reason for each test failure. In this case, we get the details that `another` failed because it `panicked at 'Make this test fail'` on -line 10 in the *src/lib.rs* file. The next section [3] lists just the names of -all the failing tests, which is useful when there are lots of tests and lots of +line 17 in the *src/lib.rs* file. The next section lists just the names of all +the failing tests, which is useful when there are lots of tests and lots of detailed failing test output. We can use the name of a failing test to run just that test to more easily debug it; we’ll talk more about ways to run tests in the “Controlling How Tests Are Run” section. -The summary line displays at the end [4]: overall, our test result is `FAILED`. -We had one test pass and one test fail. - - - +The summary line displays at the end: overall, our test result is `FAILED`. We +had one test pass and one test fail. Now that you’ve seen what the test results look like in different scenarios, let’s look at some macros other than `panic!` that are useful in tests. @@ -275,6 +324,7 @@ In Chapter 5, Listing 5-15, we used a `Rectangle` struct and a `can_hold` method, which are repeated here in Listing 11-5. Let’s put this code in the *src/lib.rs* file, then write some tests for it using the `assert!` macro. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -291,8 +341,7 @@ impl Rectangle { } ``` -Listing 11-5: Using the `Rectangle` struct and its `can_hold` method from -Chapter 5 +Listing 11-5: The Rectangle struct and its can_hold method from Chapter 5 The `can_hold` method returns a Boolean, which means it’s a perfect use case for the `assert!` macro. In Listing 11-6, we write a test that exercises the @@ -300,16 +349,17 @@ for the `assert!` macro. In Listing 11-6, we write a test that exercises the a height of 7 and asserting that it can hold another `Rectangle` instance that has a width of 5 and a height of 1. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` #[cfg(test)] mod tests { -[1] use super::*; + use super::*; #[test] -[2] fn larger_can_hold_smaller() { - [3] let larger = Rectangle { + fn larger_can_hold_smaller() { + let larger = Rectangle { width: 8, height: 7, }; @@ -318,33 +368,44 @@ mod tests { height: 1, }; - [4] assert!(larger.can_hold(&smaller)); + assert!(larger.can_hold(&smaller)); } } ``` -Listing 11-6: A test for `can_hold` that checks whether a larger rectangle can -indeed hold a smaller rectangle +Listing 11-6: A test for can_hold that checks whether a larger rectangle can indeed hold a smaller rectangle -Note that we’ve added a new line inside the `tests` module: `use super::*;` -[1]. The `tests` module is a regular module that follows the usual visibility -rules we covered in Chapter 7 in the “Paths for Referring to an Item in the -Module Tree” section. Because the `tests` module is an inner module, we need to -bring the code under test in the outer module into the scope of the inner -module. We use a glob here so anything we define in the outer module is -available to this `tests` module. +Note the `use super::*;` line inside the `tests` module. The `tests` module is +a regular module that follows the usual visibility rules we covered in Chapter +7 in the “Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module +Tree” +section. Because the `tests` module is an inner module, we need to bring the +code under test in the outer module into the scope of the inner module. We use +a glob here, so anything we define in the outer module is available to this +`tests` module. -We’ve named our test `larger_can_hold_smaller` [2], and we’ve created the two -`Rectangle` instances that we need [3]. Then we called the `assert!` macro and -passed it the result of calling `larger.can_hold(&smaller)` [4]. This -expression is supposed to return `true`, so our test should pass. Let’s find -out! +We’ve named our test `larger_can_hold_smaller`, and we’ve created the two +`Rectangle` instances that we need. Then we called the `assert!` macro and +passed it the result of calling `larger.can_hold(&smaller)`. This expression is +supposed to return `true`, so our test should pass. Let’s find out! ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + running 1 test test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests rectangle + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` It does pass! Let’s add another test, this time asserting that a smaller @@ -383,11 +444,23 @@ we need to negate that result before we pass it to the `assert!` macro. As a result, our test will pass if `can_hold` returns `false`: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + running 2 tests test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... ok test tests::smaller_cannot_hold_larger ... ok test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests rectangle + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Two tests that pass! Now let’s see what happens to our test results when we @@ -407,14 +480,20 @@ impl Rectangle { Running the tests now produces the following: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling rectangle v0.1.0 (file:///projects/rectangle) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/rectangle-6584c4561e48942e) + running 2 tests -test tests::smaller_cannot_hold_larger ... ok test tests::larger_can_hold_smaller ... FAILED +test tests::smaller_cannot_hold_larger ... ok failures: ---- tests::larger_can_hold_smaller stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: larger.can_hold(&smaller)', src/lib.rs:28:9 +thread 'tests::larger_can_hold_smaller' panicked at src/lib.rs:28:9: +assertion failed: larger.can_hold(&smaller) note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -422,18 +501,20 @@ failures: tests::larger_can_hold_smaller test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` -Our tests caught the bug! Because `larger.width` is 8 and `smaller.width` is -5, the comparison of the widths in `can_hold` now returns `false`: 8 is not +Our tests caught the bug! Because `larger.width` is `8` and `smaller.width` is +`5`, the comparison of the widths in `can_hold` now returns `false`: 8 is not less than 5. ### Testing Equality with the `assert_eq!` and `assert_ne!` Macros A common way to verify functionality is to test for equality between the result of the code under test and the value you expect the code to return. You could -do this using the `assert!` macro and passing it an expression using the `==` -operator. However, this is such a common test that the standard library +do this by using the `assert!` macro and passing it an expression using the +`==` operator. However, this is such a common test that the standard library provides a pair of macros—`assert_eq!` and `assert_ne!`—to perform this test more conveniently. These macros compare two arguments for equality or inequality, respectively. They’ll also print the two values if the assertion @@ -444,10 +525,11 @@ expression, without printing the values that led to the `false` value. In Listing 11-7, we write a function named `add_two` that adds `2` to its parameter, then we test this function using the `assert_eq!` macro. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -457,31 +539,45 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` -Listing 11-7: Testing the function `add_two` using the `assert_eq!` macro +Listing 11-7: Testing the function add_two using the assert_eq! macro Let’s check that it passes! ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::it_adds_two ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` -We pass `4` as the argument to `assert_eq!`, which is equal to the result of -calling `add_two(2)`. The line for this test is `test tests::it_adds_two ... -ok`, and the `ok` text indicates that our test passed! +We create a variable named `result` that holds the result of calling +`add_two(2)`. Then we pass `result` and `4` as the arguments to `assert_eq!`. +The output line for this test is `test tests::it_adds_two ... ok`, and the `ok` +text indicates that our test passed! Let’s introduce a bug into our code to see what `assert_eq!` looks like when it fails. Change the implementation of the `add_two` function to instead add `3`: ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 3 } ``` @@ -489,36 +585,45 @@ pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { Run the tests again: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::it_adds_two ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::it_adds_two stdout ---- -[1] thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` -[2] left: `4`, -[3] right: `5`', src/lib.rs:11:9 +thread 'tests::it_adds_two' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 5 + right: 4 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + failures: tests::it_adds_two test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Our test caught the bug! The `it_adds_two` test failed, and the message tells -us that the assertion that fails was `` assertion failed: `(left == right)` `` -[1] and what the `left` [2] and `right` [3] values are. This message helps us -start debugging: the `left` argument was `4` but the `right` argument, where we -had `add_two(2)`, was `5`. You can imagine that this would be especially -helpful when we have a lot of tests going on. +us ``assertion `left == right` failed`` and what the `left` and `right` values +are. This message helps us start debugging: the `left` argument, where we had +the result of calling `add_two(2)`, was `5` but the `right` argument was `4`. +You can imagine that this would be especially helpful when we have a lot of +tests going on. Note that in some languages and test frameworks, the parameters to equality assertion functions are called `expected` and `actual`, and the order in which we specify the arguments matters. However, in Rust, they’re called `left` and `right`, and the order in which we specify the value we expect and the value the code produces doesn’t matter. We could write the assertion in this test as -`assert_eq!(add_two(2), 4)`, which would result in the same failure message +`assert_eq!(4, result)`, which would produce the same failure message that displays `` assertion failed: `(left == right)` ``. The `assert_ne!` macro will pass if the two values we give it are not equal and @@ -539,8 +644,8 @@ those types. You’ll also need to implement `Debug` to print the values when th assertion fails. Because both traits are derivable traits, as mentioned in Listing 5-12 in Chapter 5, this is usually as straightforward as adding the `#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]` annotation to your struct or enum definition. See -Appendix C, “Derivable Traits,” for more details about these and other -derivable traits. +Appendix C, “Derivable Traits,” for more +details about these and other derivable traits. ### Adding Custom Failure Messages @@ -548,10 +653,12 @@ You can also add a custom message to be printed with the failure message as optional arguments to the `assert!`, `assert_eq!`, and `assert_ne!` macros. Any arguments specified after the required arguments are passed along to the `format!` macro (discussed in Chapter 8 in the “Concatenation with the `+` -Operator or the `format!` Macro” section), so you can pass a format string that -contains `{}` placeholders and values to go in those placeholders. Custom -messages are useful for documenting what an assertion means; when a test fails, -you’ll have a better idea of what the problem is with the code. +Operator or the `format!` +Macro” +section), so you can pass a format string that contains `{}` placeholders and +values to go in those placeholders. Custom messages are useful for documenting +what an assertion means; when a test fails, you’ll have a better idea of what +the problem is with the code. For example, let’s say we have a function that greets people by name and we want to test that the name we pass into the function appears in the output: @@ -560,7 +667,7 @@ Filename: src/lib.rs ``` pub fn greeting(name: &str) -> String { - format!("Hello {}!", name) + format!("Hello {name}!") } #[cfg(test)] @@ -594,18 +701,28 @@ pub fn greeting(name: &str) -> String { Running this test produces the following: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling greeter v0.1.0 (file:///projects/greeter) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.91s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) + running 1 test test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::greeting_contains_name stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: result.contains(\"Carol\")', src/lib.rs:12:9 +thread 'tests::greeting_contains_name' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +assertion failed: result.contains("Carol") note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace failures: tests::greeting_contains_name + +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` This result just indicates that the assertion failed and which line the @@ -615,23 +732,41 @@ string with a placeholder filled in with the actual value we got from the `greeting` function: ``` -#[test] -fn greeting_contains_name() { - let result = greeting("Carol"); - assert!( - result.contains("Carol"), - "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{}`", - result - ); -} + #[test] + fn greeting_contains_name() { + let result = greeting("Carol"); + assert!( + result.contains("Carol"), + "Greeting did not contain name, value was `{result}`" + ); + } ``` Now when we run the test, we’ll get a more informative error message: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling greeter v0.1.0 (file:///projects/greeter) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.93s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/greeter-170b942eb5bf5e3a) + +running 1 test +test tests::greeting_contains_name ... FAILED + +failures: + ---- tests::greeting_contains_name stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Greeting did not contain name, value was `Hello!`', src/lib.rs:12:9 +thread 'tests::greeting_contains_name' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:9: +Greeting did not contain name, value was `Hello!` note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + + +failures: + tests::greeting_contains_name + +test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` We can see the value we actually got in the test output, which would help us @@ -653,6 +788,7 @@ inside the function doesn’t panic. Listing 11-8 shows a test that checks that the error conditions of `Guess::new` happen when we expect them to. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -663,7 +799,7 @@ pub struct Guess { impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 || value > 100 { - panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value); + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } Guess { value } @@ -682,17 +818,29 @@ mod tests { } ``` -Listing 11-8: Testing that a condition will cause a `panic!` +Listing 11-8: Testing that a condition will cause a panic! We place the `#[should_panic]` attribute after the `#[test]` attribute and before the test function it applies to. Let’s look at the result when this test passes: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests guessing_game + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Looks good! Now let’s introduce a bug in our code by removing the condition @@ -703,7 +851,7 @@ that the `new` function will panic if the value is greater than 100: impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 { - panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value); + panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {value}."); } Guess { value } @@ -714,6 +862,11 @@ impl Guess { When we run the test in Listing 11-8, it will fail: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... FAILED @@ -726,6 +879,8 @@ failures: tests::greater_than_100 test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` We don’t get a very helpful message in this case, but when we look at the test @@ -741,6 +896,7 @@ consider the modified code for `Guess` in Listing 11-9 where the `new` function panics with different messages depending on whether the value is too small or too large. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -750,13 +906,11 @@ impl Guess { pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess { if value < 1 { panic!( - "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {value}." ); } else if value > 100 { panic!( - "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {}.", - value + "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {value}." ); } @@ -769,20 +923,19 @@ mod tests { use super::*; #[test] - #[should_panic(expected = "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100")] + #[should_panic(expected = "less than or equal to 100")] fn greater_than_100() { Guess::new(200); } } ``` -Listing 11-9: Testing for a `panic!` with a particular panic message +Listing 11-9: Testing for a panic! with a panic message containing a specified substring This test will pass because the value we put in the `should_panic` attribute’s `expected` parameter is a substring of the message that the `Guess::new` function panics with. We could have specified the entire panic message that we -expect, which in this case would be `Guess value must be less than or equal to -100, got 200.` What you choose to specify depends on how much of the panic +expect, which in this case would be `Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got 200`. What you choose to specify depends on how much of the panic message is unique or dynamic and how precise you want your test to be. In this case, a substring of the panic message is enough to ensure that the code in the test function executes the `else if value > 100` case. @@ -792,58 +945,66 @@ fails, let’s again introduce a bug into our code by swapping the bodies of the `if value < 1` and the `else if value > 100` blocks: ``` -if value < 1 { - panic!("Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {}.", value); -} else if value > 100 { - panic!("Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {}.", value); -} + if value < 1 { + panic!( + "Guess value must be less than or equal to 100, got {value}." + ); + } else if value > 100 { + panic!( + "Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got {value}." + ); + } ``` This time when we run the `should_panic` test, it will fail: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.66s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/guessing_game-57d70c3acb738f4d) + running 1 test test tests::greater_than_100 - should panic ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::greater_than_100 stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200.', src/lib.rs:13:13 +thread 'tests::greater_than_100' panicked at src/lib.rs:12:13: +Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200. note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace note: panic did not contain expected string panic message: `"Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200."`, - expected substring: `"Guess value must be less than or equal to 100"` + expected substring: `"less than or equal to 100"` failures: tests::greater_than_100 test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` The failure message indicates that this test did indeed panic as we expected, -but the panic message did not include the expected string `'Guess value must be -less than or equal to 100'`. The panic message that we did get in this case was -`Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200.` Now we can start -figuring out where our bug is! +but the panic message did not include the expected string `less than or equal to 100`. The panic message that we did get in this case was `Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200.` Now we can start figuring out where +our bug is! ### Using `Result` in Tests Our tests so far all panic when they fail. We can also write tests that use -`Result`! Here’s the test from Listing 11-1, rewritten to use `Result` and return an `Err` instead of panicking: +`Result`! Here’s the test from Listing 11-1, rewritten to use `Result` and return an `Err` instead of panicking: ``` -#[cfg(test)] -mod tests { #[test] fn it_works() -> Result<(), String> { - if 2 + 2 == 4 { + let result = add(2, 2); + + if result == 4 { Ok(()) } else { Err(String::from("two plus two does not equal four")) } } -} ``` The `it_works` function now has the `Result<(), String>` return type. In the @@ -855,26 +1016,24 @@ Writing tests so they return a `Result` enables you to use the question mark operator in the body of tests, which can be a convenient way to write tests that should fail if any operation within them returns an `Err` variant. -You can’t use the `#[should_panic]` annotation on tests that use `Result`. To assert that an operation returns an `Err` variant, *don’t* use the +You can’t use the `#[should_panic]` annotation on tests that use `Result`. To assert that an operation returns an `Err` variant, *don’t* use the question mark operator on the `Result` value. Instead, use `assert!(value.is_err())`. Now that you know several ways to write tests, let’s look at what is happening -when we run our tests and explore the different options we can use with `cargo -test`. +when we run our tests and explore the different options we can use with `cargo test`. ## Controlling How Tests Are Run -Just as `cargo run` compiles your code and then runs the resulting binary, -`cargo test` compiles your code in test mode and runs the resulting test +Just as `cargo run` compiles your code and then runs the resultant binary, +`cargo test` compiles your code in test mode and runs the resultant test binary. The default behavior of the binary produced by `cargo test` is to run all the tests in parallel and capture output generated during test runs, preventing the output from being displayed and making it easier to read the output related to the test results. You can, however, specify command line options to change this default behavior. -Some command line options go to `cargo test`, and some go to the resulting test +Some command line options go to `cargo test`, and some go to the resultant test binary. To separate these two types of arguments, you list the arguments that go to `cargo test` followed by the separator `--` and then the ones that go to the test binary. Running `cargo test --help` displays the options you can use @@ -924,11 +1083,12 @@ printed to standard output with the rest of the failure message. As an example, Listing 11-10 has a silly function that prints the value of its parameter and returns 10, as well as a test that passes and a test that fails. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` fn prints_and_returns_10(a: i32) -> i32 { - println!("I got the value {}", a); + println!("I got the value {a}"); 10 } @@ -939,49 +1099,57 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn this_test_will_pass() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(4); - assert_eq!(10, value); + assert_eq!(value, 10); } #[test] fn this_test_will_fail() { let value = prints_and_returns_10(8); - assert_eq!(5, value); + assert_eq!(value, 5); } } ``` -Listing 11-10: Tests for a function that calls `println!` +Listing 11-10: Tests for a function that calls println! When we run these tests with `cargo test`, we’ll see the following output: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling silly-function v0.1.0 (file:///projects/silly-function) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.58s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) + running 2 tests -test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok test tests::this_test_will_fail ... FAILED +test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok failures: ---- tests::this_test_will_fail stdout ---- -[1] I got the value 8 -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `5`, - right: `10`', src/lib.rs:19:9 +I got the value 8 +thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 10 + right: 5 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + failures: tests::this_test_will_fail test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Note that nowhere in this output do we see `I got the value 4`, which is printed when the test that passes runs. That output has been captured. The -output from the test that failed, `I got the value 8` [1], appears in the -section of the test summary output, which also shows the cause of the test -failure. +output from the test that failed, `I got the value 8`, appears in the section +of the test summary output, which also shows the cause of the test failure. -If we want to see printed values for passing tests as well, we can tell Rust -to also show the output of successful tests with `--show-output`. +If we want to see printed values for passing tests as well, we can tell Rust to +also show the output of successful tests with `--show-output`: ``` $ cargo test -- --show-output @@ -991,9 +1159,14 @@ When we run the tests in Listing 11-10 again with the `--show-output` flag, we see the following output: ``` +$ cargo test -- --show-output + Compiling silly-function v0.1.0 (file:///projects/silly-function) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/silly_function-160869f38cff9166) + running 2 tests -test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok test tests::this_test_will_fail ... FAILED +test tests::this_test_will_pass ... ok successes: @@ -1008,15 +1181,19 @@ failures: ---- tests::this_test_will_fail stdout ---- I got the value 8 -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `5`, - right: `10`', src/lib.rs:19:9 +thread 'tests::this_test_will_fail' panicked at src/lib.rs:19:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: 5 + right: 10 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace + failures: tests::this_test_will_fail test result: FAILED. 1 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` ### Running a Subset of Tests by Name @@ -1029,10 +1206,11 @@ or names of the test(s) you want to run as an argument. To demonstrate how to run a subset of tests, we’ll first create three tests for our `add_two` function, as shown in Listing 11-11, and choose which ones to run. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { a + 2 } @@ -1042,17 +1220,20 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn add_two_and_two() { - assert_eq!(4, add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } #[test] fn add_three_and_two() { - assert_eq!(5, add_two(3)); + let result = add_two(3); + assert_eq!(result, 5); } #[test] fn one_hundred() { - assert_eq!(102, add_two(100)); + let result = add_two(100); + assert_eq!(result, 102); } } ``` @@ -1063,12 +1244,24 @@ If we run the tests without passing any arguments, as we saw earlier, all the tests will run in parallel: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.62s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 3 tests test tests::add_three_and_two ... ok test tests::add_two_and_two ... ok test tests::one_hundred ... ok test result: ok. 3 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` #### Running Single Tests @@ -1078,17 +1271,18 @@ We can pass the name of any test function to `cargo test` to run only that test: ``` $ cargo test one_hundred Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.69s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.69s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test tests::one_hundred ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 2 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Only the test with the name `one_hundred` ran; the other two tests didn’t match -that name. The test output lets us know we had more tests that didn't run by +that name. The test output lets us know we had more tests that didn’t run by displaying `2 filtered out` at the end. We can’t specify the names of multiple tests in this way; only the first value @@ -1103,14 +1297,15 @@ run those two by running `cargo test add`: ``` $ cargo test add Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests test tests::add_three_and_two ... ok test tests::add_two_and_two ... ok test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 1 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` This command ran all tests with `add` in the name and filtered out the test @@ -1129,32 +1324,45 @@ here: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -#[test] -fn it_works() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); -} +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests { + use super::*; -#[test] -#[ignore] -fn expensive_test() { - // code that takes an hour to run + #[test] + fn it_works() { + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); + } + + #[test] + #[ignore] + fn expensive_test() { + // code that takes an hour to run + } } ``` -After `#[test]` we add the `#[ignore]` line to the test we want to exclude. Now -when we run our tests, `it_works` runs, but `expensive_test` doesn’t: +After `#[test]`, we add the `#[ignore]` line to the test we want to exclude. +Now when we run our tests, `it_works` runs, but `expensive_test` doesn’t: ``` $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.60s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 2 tests -test expensive_test ... ignored -test it_works ... ok +test tests::expensive_test ... ignored +test tests::it_works ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 1 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` The `expensive_test` function is listed as `ignored`. If we want to run only @@ -1162,20 +1370,28 @@ the ignored tests, we can use `cargo test -- --ignored`: ``` $ cargo test -- --ignored - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) running 1 test test expensive_test ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 1 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests adder + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` By controlling which tests run, you can make sure your `cargo test` results -will be fast. When you’re at a point where it makes sense to check the results -of the `ignored` tests and you have time to wait for the results, you can run -`cargo test -- --ignored` instead. If you want to run all tests whether they’re -ignored or not, you can run `cargo test -- --include-ignored`. +will be returned quickly. When you’re at a point where it makes sense to check +the results of the `ignored` tests and you have time to wait for the results, +you can run `cargo test -- --ignored` instead. If you want to run all tests +whether they’re ignored or not, you can run `cargo test -- --include-ignored`. ## Test Organization @@ -1202,14 +1418,13 @@ in each file to contain the test functions and to annotate the module with #### The Tests Module and `#[cfg(test)]` -The `#[cfg(test)]` annotation on the tests module tells Rust to compile and run -the test code only when you run `cargo test`, not when you run `cargo build`. -This saves compile time when you only want to build the library and saves space -in the resulting compiled artifact because the tests are not included. You’ll -see that because integration tests go in a different directory, they don’t need -the `#[cfg(test)]` annotation. However, because unit tests go in the same files -as the code, you’ll use `#[cfg(test)]` to specify that they shouldn’t be -included in the compiled result. +The `#[cfg(test)]` annotation on the `tests` module tells Rust to compile and +run the test code only when you run `cargo test`, not when you run `cargo build`. This saves compile time when you only want to build the library and +saves space in the resultant compiled artifact because the tests are not +included. You’ll see that because integration tests go in a different +directory, they don’t need the `#[cfg(test)]` annotation. However, because unit +tests go in the same files as the code, you’ll use `#[cfg(test)]` to specify +that they shouldn’t be included in the compiled result. Recall that when we generated the new `adder` project in the first section of this chapter, Cargo generated this code for us: @@ -1217,23 +1432,29 @@ this chapter, Cargo generated this code for us: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` +pub fn add(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right +} + #[cfg(test)] mod tests { + use super::*; + #[test] fn it_works() { - assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4); + let result = add(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` -This code is the automatically generated test module. The attribute `cfg` -stands for *configuration* and tells Rust that the following item should only -be included given a certain configuration option. In this case, the -configuration option is `test`, which is provided by Rust for compiling and -running tests. By using the `cfg` attribute, Cargo compiles our test code only -if we actively run the tests with `cargo test`. This includes any helper -functions that might be within this module, in addition to the functions -annotated with `#[test]`. +On the automatically generated `tests` module, the attribute `cfg` stands for +*configuration* and tells Rust that the following item should only be included +given a certain configuration option. In this case, the configuration option is +`test`, which is provided by Rust for compiling and running tests. By using the +`cfg` attribute, Cargo compiles our test code only if we actively run the tests +with `cargo test`. This includes any helper functions that might be within this +module, in addition to the functions annotated with `#[test]`. #### Testing Private Functions @@ -1243,15 +1464,16 @@ impossible to test private functions. Regardless of which testing ideology you adhere to, Rust’s privacy rules do allow you to test private functions. Consider the code in Listing 11-12 with the private function `internal_adder`. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn add_two(a: i32) -> i32 { +pub fn add_two(a: usize) -> usize { internal_adder(a, 2) } -fn internal_adder(a: i32, b: i32) -> i32 { - a + b +fn internal_adder(left: usize, right: usize) -> usize { + left + right } #[cfg(test)] @@ -1260,7 +1482,8 @@ mod tests { #[test] fn internal() { - assert_eq!(4, internal_adder(2, 2)); + let result = internal_adder(2, 2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } } ``` @@ -1269,11 +1492,12 @@ Listing 11-12: Testing a private function Note that the `internal_adder` function is not marked as `pub`. Tests are just Rust code, and the `tests` module is just another module. As we discussed in -the “Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree” section, items in child -modules can use the items in their ancestor modules. In this test, we bring all -of the `test` module’s parent’s items into scope with `use super::*`, and then -the test can call `internal_adder`. If you don’t think private functions should -be tested, there’s nothing in Rust that will compel you to do so. +the “Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree” +section, items in child modules can use the items in their ancestor modules. In +this test, we bring all of the `tests` module’s parent’s items into scope with +`use super::*`, and then the test can call `internal_adder`. If you don’t think +private functions should be tested, there’s nothing in Rust that will compel +you to do so. ### Integration Tests @@ -1293,64 +1517,82 @@ can then make as many test files as we want, and Cargo will compile each of the files as an individual crate. Let’s create an integration test. With the code in Listing 11-12 still in the -*src/lib.rs* file, make a *tests* directory, create a new file named -*tests/integration_test.rs*, and enter the code in Listing 11-13. +*src/lib.rs* file, make a *tests* directory, and create a new file named +*tests/integration_test.rs*. Your directory structure should look like this: + +``` +adder +├── Cargo.lock +├── Cargo.toml +├── src +│   └── lib.rs +└── tests + └── integration_test.rs +``` + +Enter the code in Listing 11-13 into the *tests/integration_test.rs* file. + Filename: tests/integration_test.rs ``` -use adder; +use adder::add_two; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } ``` -Listing 11-13: An integration test of a function in the `adder` crate +Listing 11-13: An integration test of a function in the adder crate -Each file in the `tests` directory is a separate crate, so we need to bring our -library into each test crate’s scope. For that reason we add `use adder` at the -top of the code, which we didn’t need in the unit tests. +Each file in the *tests* directory is a separate crate, so we need to bring our +library into each test crate’s scope. For that reason we add `use adder::add_two;` at the top of the code, which we didn’t need in the unit tests. We don’t need to annotate any code in *tests/integration_test.rs* with -`#[cfg(test)]`. Cargo treats the `tests` directory specially and compiles files +`#[cfg(test)]`. Cargo treats the *tests* directory specially and compiles files in this directory only when we run `cargo test`. Run `cargo test` now: ``` $ cargo test Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.31s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/adder-1082c4b063a8fbe6) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.31s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-1082c4b063a8fbe6) -[1] running 1 test +running 1 test test tests::internal ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s - [2] Running tests/integration_test.rs (target/debug/deps/integration_test-1082c4b063a8fbe6) + Running tests/integration_test.rs (target/debug/deps/integration_test-1082c4b063a8fbe6) running 1 test -[3] test it_adds_two ... ok +test it_adds_two ... ok -[4] test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s Doc-tests adder running 0 tests test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` The three sections of output include the unit tests, the integration test, and -the doc tests. The first section for the unit tests [1] is the same as we’ve -been seeing: one line for each unit test (one named `internal` that we added in -Listing 11-12) and then a summary line for the unit tests. +the doc tests. Note that if any test in a section fails, the following sections +will not be run. For example, if a unit test fails, there won’t be any output +for integration and doc tests because those tests will only be run if all unit +tests are passing. -The integration tests section starts with the line `Running -tests/integration_test.rs` [2]. Next, there is a line for each test function in -that integration test [3] and a summary line for the results of the integration -test [4] just before the `Doc-tests adder` section starts. +The first section for the unit tests is the same as we’ve been seeing: one line +for each unit test (one named `internal` that we added in Listing 11-12) and +then a summary line for the unit tests. + +The integration tests section starts with the line `Running tests/integration_test.rs`. Next, there is a line for each test function in +that integration test and a summary line for the results of the integration +test just before the `Doc-tests adder` section starts. Each integration test file has its own section, so if we add more files in the *tests* directory, there will be more integration test sections. @@ -1362,13 +1604,15 @@ followed by the name of the file: ``` $ cargo test --test integration_test - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.64s + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.64s Running tests/integration_test.rs (target/debug/deps/integration_test-82e7799c1bc62298) running 1 test test it_adds_two ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` This command runs only the tests in the *tests/integration_test.rs* file. @@ -1386,11 +1630,11 @@ regarding how to separate code into modules and files. The different behavior of *tests* directory files is most noticeable when you have a set of helper functions to use in multiple integration test files and -you try to follow the steps in the “Separating Modules into Different Files” -section of Chapter 7 to extract them into a common module. For example, if we -create *tests/common.rs* and place a function named `setup` in it, we can add -some code to `setup` that we want to call from multiple test functions in -multiple test files: +you try to follow the steps in the “Separating Modules into Different +Files” section of Chapter 7 to +extract them into a common module. For example, if we create *tests/common.rs* +and place a function named `setup` in it, we can add some code to `setup` that +we want to call from multiple test functions in multiple test files: Filename: tests/common.rs @@ -1405,6 +1649,11 @@ When we run the tests again, we’ll see a new section in the test output for th did we call the `setup` function from anywhere: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/adder) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.89s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-92948b65e88960b4) + running 1 test test tests::internal ... ok @@ -1428,20 +1677,34 @@ test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; fini running 0 tests test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Having `common` appear in the test results with `running 0 tests` displayed for it is not what we wanted. We just wanted to share some code with the other -integration test files. - -To avoid having `common` appear in the test output, instead of creating -*tests/common.rs*, we’ll create *tests/common/mod.rs*. This is an alternate -naming convention that Rust also understands. Naming the file this way tells -Rust not to treat the `common` module as an integration test file. When we move -the `setup` function code into *tests/common/mod.rs* and delete the -*tests/common.rs* file, the section in the test output will no longer appear. -Files in subdirectories of the *tests* directory don’t get compiled as separate -crates or have sections in the test output. +integration test files. To avoid having `common` appear in the test output, +instead of creating *tests/common.rs*, we’ll create *tests/common/mod.rs*. The +project directory now looks like this: + +``` +├── Cargo.lock +├── Cargo.toml +├── src +│   └── lib.rs +└── tests + ├── common + │   └── mod.rs + └── integration_test.rs +``` + +This is the older naming convention that Rust also understands that we +mentioned in the “Alternate File Paths” section of +Chapter 7. Naming the file this way tells Rust not to treat the `common` module +as an integration test file. When we move the `setup` function code into +*tests/common/mod.rs* and delete the *tests/common.rs* file, the section in the +test output will no longer appear. Files in subdirectories of the *tests* +directory don’t get compiled as separate crates or have sections in the test +output. After we’ve created *tests/common/mod.rs*, we can use it from any of the integration test files as a module. Here’s an example of calling the `setup` @@ -1450,19 +1713,21 @@ function from the `it_adds_two` test in *tests/integration_test.rs*: Filename: tests/integration_test.rs ``` -use adder; +use adder::add_two; mod common; #[test] fn it_adds_two() { common::setup(); - assert_eq!(4, adder::add_two(2)); + + let result = add_two(2); + assert_eq!(result, 4); } ``` Note that the `mod common;` declaration is the same as the module declaration -we demonstrated in Listing 7-21. Then in the test function, we can call the +we demonstrated in Listing 7-21. Then, in the test function, we can call the `common::setup()` function. #### Integration Tests for Binary Crates @@ -1476,10 +1741,9 @@ crates can use; binary crates are meant to be run on their own. This is one of the reasons Rust projects that provide a binary have a straightforward *src/main.rs* file that calls logic that lives in the *src/lib.rs* file. Using that structure, integration tests *can* test the -library crate with `use` to make the important functionality available. -If the important functionality works, the small amount of code in the -*src/main.rs* file will work as well, and that small amount of code doesn’t -need to be tested. +library crate with `use` to make the important functionality available. If the +important functionality works, the small amount of code in the *src/main.rs* +file will work as well, and that small amount of code doesn’t need to be tested. ## Summary diff --git a/nostarch/chapter12.md b/nostarch/chapter12.md index e3062b2927..3ce134974b 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter12.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter12.md @@ -18,16 +18,16 @@ an ideal language for creating command line tools, so for our project, we’ll make our own version of the classic command line search tool `grep` (**g**lobally search a **r**egular **e**xpression and **p**rint). In the simplest use case, `grep` searches a specified file for a specified string. To -do so, `grep` takes as its arguments a filename and a string. Then it reads the -file, finds lines in that file that contain the string argument, and prints +do so, `grep` takes as its arguments a file path and a string. Then it reads +the file, finds lines in that file that contain the string argument, and prints those lines. Along the way, we’ll show how to make our command line tool use the terminal features that many other command line tools use. We’ll read the value of an environment variable to allow the user to configure the behavior of our tool. We’ll also print error messages to the standard error console stream (`stderr`) -instead of standard output (`stdout`), so, for example, the user can redirect -successful output to a file while still seeing error messages onscreen. +instead of standard output (`stdout`) so that, for example, the user can +redirect successful output to a file while still seeing error messages onscreen. One Rust community member, Andrew Gallant, has already created a fully featured, very fast version of `grep`, called `ripgrep`. By comparison, our @@ -37,14 +37,15 @@ background knowledge you need to understand a real-world project such as Our `grep` project will combine a number of concepts you’ve learned so far: -* Organizing code (using what you learned about modules in Chapter 7) -* Using vectors and strings (collections, Chapter 8) +* Organizing code (Chapter 7) +* Using vectors and strings (Chapter 8) * Handling errors (Chapter 9) * Using traits and lifetimes where appropriate (Chapter 10) * Writing tests (Chapter 11) We’ll also briefly introduce closures, iterators, and trait objects, which -Chapters 13 and 17 will cover in detail. +Chapter 13 and Chapter 17 will +cover in detail. ## Accepting Command Line Arguments @@ -59,32 +60,33 @@ $ cd minigrep ``` The first task is to make `minigrep` accept its two command line arguments: the -filename and a string to search for. That is, we want to be able to run our -program with `cargo run`, a string to search for, and a path to a file to -search in, like so: +file path and a string to search for. That is, we want to be able to run our +program with `cargo run`, two hyphens to indicate the following arguments are +for our program rather than for `cargo`, a string to search for, and a path to +a file to search in, like so: ``` -$ cargo run searchstring example-filename.txt +$ cargo run -- searchstring example-filename.txt ``` Right now, the program generated by `cargo new` cannot process arguments we -give it. Some existing libraries on *https://crates.io/* can help with writing -a program that accepts command line arguments, but because you’re just learning -this concept, let’s implement this capability ourselves. +give it. Some existing libraries on crates.io at *https://crates.io/* can help +with writing a program that accepts command line arguments, but because you’re +just learning this concept, let’s implement this capability ourselves. ### Reading the Argument Values To enable `minigrep` to read the values of command line arguments we pass to it, we’ll need the `std::env::args` function provided in Rust’s standard library. This function returns an iterator of the command line arguments passed -to `minigrep`. We’ll cover iterators fully in Chapter 13. For now, you only -need to know two details about iterators: iterators produce a series of values, -and we can call the `collect` method on an iterator to turn it into a -collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements the iterator -produces. +to `minigrep`. We’ll cover iterators fully in Chapter 13. For now, you only need to know two details about iterators: iterators +produce a series of values, and we can call the `collect` method on an iterator +to turn it into a collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements +the iterator produces. The code in Listing 12-1 allows your `minigrep` program to read any command -line arguments passed to it and then collect the values into a vector. +line arguments passed to it, and then collect the values into a vector. + Filename: src/main.rs @@ -93,61 +95,71 @@ use std::env; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - println!("{:?}", args); + dbg!(args); } ``` -Listing 12-1: Collecting the command line arguments into a vector and printing -them +Listing 12-1: Collecting the command line arguments into a vector and printing them -First, we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we +First we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we can use its `args` function. Notice that the `std::env::args` function is -nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in Chapter 7, in cases where -the desired function is nested in more than one module, it’s conventional to -bring the parent module into scope rather than the function. By doing so, we -can easily use other functions from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than -adding `use std::env::args` and then calling the function with just `args`, -because `args` might easily be mistaken for a function that’s defined in the -current module. - -> ### The `args` Function and Invalid Unicode -> -> Note that `std::env::args` will panic if any argument contains invalid -> Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid -> Unicode, use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator -> that produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to -> use `std::env::args` here for simplicity, because `OsString` values differ -> per platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. +nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in Chapter +7, in cases where the desired function is +nested in more than one module, we’ve chosen to bring the parent module into +scope rather than the function. By doing so, we can easily use other functions +from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than adding `use std::env::args` and +then calling the function with just `args`, because `args` might easily be +mistaken for a function that’s defined in the current module. + + > + > ### The `args` Function and Invalid Unicode + > + > Note that `std::env::args` will panic if any argument contains invalid + > Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid + > Unicode, use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator + > that produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to + > use `std::env::args` here for simplicity because `OsString` values differ per + > platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. On the first line of `main`, we call `env::args`, and we immediately use `collect` to turn the iterator into a vector containing all the values produced by the iterator. We can use the `collect` function to create many kinds of collections, so we explicitly annotate the type of `args` to specify that we -want a vector of strings. Although we very rarely need to annotate types in +want a vector of strings. Although you very rarely need to annotate types in Rust, `collect` is one function you do often need to annotate because Rust isn’t able to infer the kind of collection you want. -Finally, we print the vector using the debug formatter, `:?`. Let’s try running -the code first with no arguments and then with two arguments: +Finally, we print the vector using the debug macro. Let’s try running the code +first with no arguments and then with two arguments: ``` $ cargo run ---snip-- -["target/debug/minigrep"] + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.61s + Running `target/debug/minigrep` +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ + "target/debug/minigrep", +] ``` ``` -$ cargo run needle haystack ---snip-- -["target/debug/minigrep", "needle", "haystack"] +$ cargo run -- needle haystack + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.57s + Running `target/debug/minigrep needle haystack` +[src/main.rs:5:5] args = [ + "target/debug/minigrep", + "needle", + "haystack", +] ``` Notice that the first value in the vector is `"target/debug/minigrep"`, which is the name of our binary. This matches the behavior of the arguments list in C, letting programs use the name by which they were invoked in their execution. It’s often convenient to have access to the program name in case you want to -print it in messages or change behavior of the program based on what command -line alias was used to invoke the program. But for the purposes of this +print it in messages or change the behavior of the program based on what +command line alias was used to invoke the program. But for the purposes of this chapter, we’ll ignore it and save only the two arguments we need. ### Saving the Argument Values in Variables @@ -157,6 +169,7 @@ arguments. Now we need to save the values of the two arguments in variables so we can use the values throughout the rest of the program. We do that in Listing 12-2. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -166,31 +179,30 @@ fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); let query = &args[1]; - let filename = &args[2]; + let file_path = &args[2]; - println!("Searching for {}", query); - println!("In file {}", filename); + println!("Searching for {query}"); + println!("In file {file_path}"); } ``` -Listing 12-2: Creating variables to hold the query argument and filename -argument +Listing 12-2: Creating variables to hold the query argument and file path argument As we saw when we printed the vector, the program’s name takes up the first -value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index `1`. The +value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index 1. The first argument `minigrep` takes is the string we’re searching for, so we put a reference to the first argument in the variable `query`. The second argument -will be the filename, so we put a reference to the second argument in the -variable `filename`. +will be the file path, so we put a reference to the second argument in the +variable `file_path`. We temporarily print the values of these variables to prove that the code is working as we intend. Let’s run this program again with the arguments `test` and `sample.txt`: ``` -$ cargo run test sample.txt +$ cargo run -- test sample.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep test sample.txt` Searching for test In file sample.txt @@ -204,13 +216,14 @@ capabilities instead. ## Reading a File -Now we’ll add functionality to read the file specified in the `filename` -argument. First, we need a sample file to test it with: we’ll use a file with a +Now we’ll add functionality to read the file specified in the `file_path` +argument. First we need a sample file to test it with: we’ll use a file with a small amount of text over multiple lines with some repeated words. Listing 12-3 has an Emily Dickinson poem that will work well! Create a file called *poem.txt* at the root level of your project, and enter the poem “I’m Nobody! Who are you?” + Filename: poem.txt ``` @@ -225,48 +238,50 @@ To tell your name the livelong day To an admiring bog! ``` -Listing 12-3: A poem by Emily Dickinson makes a good test case +Listing 12-3: A poem by Emily Dickinson makes a good test case. With the text in place, edit *src/main.rs* and add code to read the file, as shown in Listing 12-4. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` use std::env; -[1] use std::fs; +use std::fs; fn main() { // --snip-- - println!("In file {}", filename); + println!("In file {file_path}"); - [2] let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - [3] println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } ``` Listing 12-4: Reading the contents of the file specified by the second argument -First, we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` -statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files [1]. +First we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` +statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files. -In `main`, the new statement `fs::read_to_string` takes the `filename`, opens -that file, and returns a `Result` of the file’s contents [2]. +In `main`, the new statement `fs::read_to_string` takes the `file_path`, opens +that file, and returns a value of type `std::io::Result` that contains +the file’s contents. After that, we again add a temporary `println!` statement that prints the value of `contents` after the file is read, so we can check that the program is -working so far [3]. +working so far. Let’s run this code with any string as the first command line argument (because we haven’t implemented the searching part yet) and the *poem.txt* file as the second argument: ``` -$ cargo run the poem.txt +$ cargo run -- the poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` Searching for the In file poem.txt @@ -280,6 +295,7 @@ How dreary to be somebody! How public, like a frog To tell your name the livelong day To an admiring bog! + ``` Great! The code read and then printed the contents of the file. But the code @@ -288,9 +304,9 @@ responsibilities: generally, functions are clearer and easier to maintain if each function is responsible for only one idea. The other problem is that we’re not handling errors as well as we could. The program is still small, so these flaws aren’t a big problem, but as the program grows, it will be harder to fix -them cleanly. It’s good practice to begin refactoring early on when developing -a program, because it’s much easier to refactor smaller amounts of code. We’ll -do that next. +them cleanly. It’s a good practice to begin refactoring early on when +developing a program because it’s much easier to refactor smaller amounts of +code. We’ll do that next. ## Refactoring to Improve Modularity and Error Handling @@ -303,7 +319,7 @@ reason about, harder to test, and harder to change without breaking one of its parts. It’s best to separate functionality so each function is responsible for one task. -This issue also ties into the second problem: although `query` and `filename` +This issue also ties into the second problem: although `query` and `file_path` are configuration variables to our program, variables like `contents` are used to perform the program’s logic. The longer `main` becomes, the more variables we’ll need to bring into scope; the more variables we have in scope, the harder @@ -311,19 +327,18 @@ it will be to keep track of the purpose of each. It’s best to group the configuration variables into one structure to make their purpose clear. The third problem is that we’ve used `expect` to print an error message when -reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Something went wrong -reading the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for example, -the file could be missing, or we might not have permission to open it. Right -now, regardless of the situation, we’d print the same error message for +reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Should have been able to read the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for +example, the file could be missing, or we might not have permission to open it. +Right now, regardless of the situation, we’d print the same error message for everything, which wouldn’t give the user any information! -Fourth, we use `expect` repeatedly to handle different errors, and if the user -runs our program without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out -of bounds` error from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would -be best if all the error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers -had only one place to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to -change. Having all the error-handling code in one place will also ensure that -we’re printing messages that will be meaningful to our end users. +Fourth, we use `expect` to handle an error, and if the user runs our program +without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out of bounds` error +from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would be best if all the +error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers had only one place +to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to change. Having all the +error-handling code in one place will also ensure that we’re printing messages +that will be meaningful to our end users. Let’s address these four problems by refactoring our project. @@ -335,8 +350,8 @@ community has developed guidelines for splitting the separate concerns of a binary program when `main` starts getting large. This process has the following steps: -* Split your program into a *main.rs* and a *lib.rs* and move your program’s - logic to *lib.rs*. +* Split your program into a *main.rs* file and a *lib.rs* file and move your + program’s logic to *lib.rs*. * As long as your command line parsing logic is small, it can remain in *main.rs*. * When the command line parsing logic starts getting complicated, extract it @@ -351,7 +366,7 @@ should be limited to the following: * Handling the error if `run` returns an error This pattern is about separating concerns: *main.rs* handles running the -program, and *lib.rs* handles all the logic of the task at hand. Because you +program and *lib.rs* handles all the logic of the task at hand. Because you can’t test the `main` function directly, this structure lets you test all of your program’s logic by moving it into functions in *lib.rs*. The code that remains in *main.rs* will be small enough to verify its correctness by reading @@ -364,34 +379,35 @@ We’ll extract the functionality for parsing arguments into a function that *src/lib.rs*. Listing 12-5 shows the new start of `main` that calls a new function `parse_config`, which we’ll define in *src/main.rs* for the moment. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let (query, filename) = parse_config(&args); + let (query, file_path) = parse_config(&args); // --snip-- } fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> (&str, &str) { let query = &args[1]; - let filename = &args[2]; + let file_path = &args[2]; - (query, filename) + (query, file_path) } ``` -Listing 12-5: Extracting a `parse_config` function from `main` +Listing 12-5: Extracting a parse_config function from main We’re still collecting the command line arguments into a vector, but instead of assigning the argument value at index 1 to the variable `query` and the -argument value at index 2 to the variable `filename` within the `main` +argument value at index 2 to the variable `file_path` within the `main` function, we pass the whole vector to the `parse_config` function. The `parse_config` function then holds the logic that determines which argument goes in which variable and passes the values back to `main`. We still create -the `query` and `filename` variables in `main`, but `main` no longer has the +the `query` and `file_path` variables in `main`, but `main` no longer has the responsibility of determining how the command line arguments and variables correspond. @@ -418,42 +434,42 @@ other and what their purpose is. Listing 12-6 shows the improvements to the `parse_config` function. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - [1] let config = parse_config(&args); + let config = parse_config(&args); - println!("Searching for {}", config.query[2]); - println!("In file {}", config.filename[3]); + println!("Searching for {}", config.query); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename[4]) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); // --snip-- } -[5] struct Config { +struct Config { query: String, - filename: String, + file_path: String, } -[6] fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> Config { - [7] let query = args[1].clone(); - [8] let filename = args[2].clone(); +fn parse_config(args: &[String]) -> Config { + let query = args[1].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Config { query, filename } + Config { query, file_path } } ``` -Listing 12-6: Refactoring `parse_config` to return an instance of a `Config` -struct +Listing 12-6: Refactoring parse_config to return an instance of a Config struct We’ve added a struct named `Config` defined to have fields named `query` and -`filename` [5]. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns a -`Config` value [6]. In the body of `parse_config`, where we used to return +`file_path`. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns a +`Config` value. In the body of `parse_config`, where we used to return string slices that reference `String` values in `args`, we now define `Config` to contain owned `String` values. The `args` variable in `main` is the owner of the argument values and is only letting the `parse_config` function borrow @@ -461,33 +477,33 @@ them, which means we’d violate Rust’s borrowing rules if `Config` tried to t ownership of the values in `args`. There are a number of ways we could manage the `String` data; the easiest, -though somewhat inefficient, route is to call the `clone` method on the values -[7][8]. This will make a full copy of the data for the `Config` instance to -own, which takes more time and memory than storing a reference to the string -data. However, cloning the data also makes our code very straightforward -because we don’t have to manage the lifetimes of the references; in this -circumstance, giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile -trade-off. - -> ### The Trade-Offs of Using `clone` -> -> There’s a tendency among many Rustaceans to avoid using `clone` to fix -> ownership problems because of its runtime cost. In -> Chapter 13, you’ll learn how to use more efficient -> methods in this type of situation. But for now, it’s okay to copy a few -> strings to continue making progress because you’ll make these copies only -> once and your filename and query string are very small. It’s better to have -> a working program that’s a bit inefficient than to try to hyperoptimize code -> on your first pass. As you become more experienced with Rust, it’ll be -> easier to start with the most efficient solution, but for now, it’s -> perfectly acceptable to call `clone`. +though somewhat inefficient, route is to call the `clone` method on the values. +This will make a full copy of the data for the `Config` instance to own, which +takes more time and memory than storing a reference to the string data. +However, cloning the data also makes our code very straightforward because we +don’t have to manage the lifetimes of the references; in this circumstance, +giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile trade-off. + + > + > ### The Trade-Offs of Using `clone` + > + > There’s a tendency among many Rustaceans to avoid using `clone` to fix + > ownership problems because of its runtime cost. In + > Chapter 13, you’ll learn how to use more efficient + > methods in this type of situation. But for now, it’s okay to copy a few + > strings to continue making progress because you’ll make these copies only + > once and your file path and query string are very small. It’s better to have + > a working program that’s a bit inefficient than to try to hyperoptimize code + > on your first pass. As you become more experienced with Rust, it’ll be + > easier to start with the most efficient solution, but for now, it’s + > perfectly acceptable to call `clone`. We’ve updated `main` so it places the instance of `Config` returned by -`parse_config` into a variable named `config` [1], and we updated the code that -previously used the separate `query` and `filename` variables so it now uses -the fields on the `Config` struct instead [2][3][4]. +`parse_config` into a variable named `config`, and we updated the code that +previously used the separate `query` and `file_path` variables so it now uses +the fields on the `Config` struct instead. -Now our code more clearly conveys that `query` and `filename` are related and +Now our code more clearly conveys that `query` and `file_path` are related and that their purpose is to configure how the program will work. Any code that uses these values knows to find them in the `config` instance in the fields named for their purpose. @@ -496,9 +512,9 @@ named for their purpose. So far, we’ve extracted the logic responsible for parsing the command line arguments from `main` and placed it in the `parse_config` function. Doing so -helped us to see that the `query` and `filename` values were related and that +helped us see that the `query` and `file_path` values were related, and that relationship should be conveyed in our code. We then added a `Config` struct to -name the related purpose of `query` and `filename` and to be able to return the +name the related purpose of `query` and `file_path` and to be able to return the values’ names as struct field names from the `parse_config` function. So now that the purpose of the `parse_config` function is to create a `Config` @@ -510,35 +526,36 @@ changing `parse_config` into a `new` function associated with `Config`, we’ll be able to create instances of `Config` by calling `Config::new`. Listing 12-7 shows the changes we need to make. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - [1] let config = Config::new(&args); + let config = Config::new(&args); // --snip-- } // --snip-- -[2] impl Config { - [3] fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { +impl Config { + fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Config { query, filename } + Config { query, file_path } } } ``` -Listing 12-7: Changing `parse_config` into `Config::new` +Listing 12-7: Changing parse_config into Config::new We’ve updated `main` where we were calling `parse_config` to instead call -`Config::new` [1]. We’ve changed the name of `parse_config` to `new` [3] and -moved it within an `impl` block [2], which associates the `new` function with -`Config`. Try compiling this code again to make sure it works. +`Config::new`. We’ve changed the name of `parse_config` to `new` and moved it +within an `impl` block, which associates the `new` function with `Config`. Try +compiling this code again to make sure it works. ### Fixing the Error Handling @@ -550,9 +567,10 @@ without any arguments; it will look like this: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1', src/main.rs:27:21 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:27:21: +index out of bounds: the len is 1 but the index is 1 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` @@ -563,29 +581,30 @@ they should do instead. Let’s fix that now. #### Improving the Error Message In Listing 12-8, we add a check in the `new` function that will verify that the -slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and 2. If the slice isn’t long -enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. +slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and index 2. If the slice isn’t +long enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` -// --snip-- -fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { - if args.len() < 3 { - panic!("not enough arguments"); - } // --snip-- + fn new(args: &[String]) -> Config { + if args.len() < 3 { + panic!("not enough arguments"); + } + // --snip-- ``` Listing 12-8: Adding a check for the number of arguments -This code is similar to the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing 9-13, -where we called `panic!` when the `value` argument was out of the range of -valid values. Instead of checking for a range of values here, we’re checking -that the length of `args` is at least 3 and the rest of the function can -operate under the assumption that this condition has been met. If `args` has -fewer than three items, this condition will be true, and we call the `panic!` -macro to end the program immediately. +This code is similar to the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing +9-13, where we called `panic!` when the +`value` argument was out of the range of valid values. Instead of checking for +a range of values here, we’re checking that the length of `args` is at least +`3` and the rest of the function can operate under the assumption that this +condition has been met. If `args` has fewer than three items, this condition +will be `true`, and we call the `panic!` macro to end the program immediately. With these extra few lines of code in `new`, let’s run the program without any arguments again to see what the error looks like now: @@ -593,110 +612,122 @@ arguments again to see what the error looks like now: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep` -thread 'main' panicked at 'not enough arguments', src/main.rs:26:13 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:26:13: +not enough arguments note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` This output is better: we now have a reasonable error message. However, we also -have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps using -the technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best to use here: a call to -`panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, as -discussed in Chapter 9. Instead, we’ll use the other technique you learned -about in Chapter 9—returning a `Result` that indicates either success or an -error. +have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps the +technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best one to use here: a call to +`panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, +as discussed in Chapter 9. Instead, +we’ll use the other technique you learned about in Chapter 9—returning a +`Result` that indicates either success or an error. + + -#### Returning a `Result` from `new` Instead of Calling `panic!` + + +#### Returning a `Result` Instead of Calling `panic!` We can instead return a `Result` value that will contain a `Config` instance in -the successful case and will describe the problem in the error case. When -`Config::new` is communicating to `main`, we can use the `Result` type to -signal there was a problem. Then we can change `main` to convert an `Err` -variant into a more practical error for our users without the surrounding text -about `thread 'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. +the successful case and will describe the problem in the error case. We’re also +going to change the function name from `new` to `build` because many +programmers expect `new` functions to never fail. When `Config::build` is +communicating to `main`, we can use the `Result` type to signal there was a +problem. Then we can change `main` to convert an `Err` variant into a more +practical error for our users without the surrounding text about `thread 'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. + +Listing 12-9 shows the changes we need to make to the return value of the +function we’re now calling `Config::build` and the body of the function needed +to return a `Result`. Note that this won’t compile until we update `main` as +well, which we’ll do in the next listing. -Listing 12-9 shows the changes we need to make to the return value of -`Config::new` and the body of the function needed to return a `Result`. Note -that this won’t compile until we update `main` as well, which we’ll do in the -next listing. Filename: src/main.rs ``` impl Config { - fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - Ok(Config { query, filename }) + Ok(Config { query, file_path }) } } ``` -Listing 12-9: Returning a `Result` from `Config::new` +Listing 12-9: Returning a Result from Config::build + +Our `build` function returns a `Result` with a `Config` instance in the success +case and a string literal in the error case. Our error values will always be +string literals that have the `'static` lifetime. -Our `new` function now returns a `Result` with a `Config` instance in the -success case and a `&'static str` in the error case. Our error values will -always be string literals that have the `'static` lifetime. +We’ve made two changes in the body of the function: instead of calling `panic!` +when the user doesn’t pass enough arguments, we now return an `Err` value, and +we’ve wrapped the `Config` return value in an `Ok`. These changes make the +function conform to its new type signature. -We’ve made two changes in the body of the `new` function: instead of calling -`panic!` when the user doesn’t pass enough arguments, we now return an `Err` -value, and we’ve wrapped the `Config` return value in an `Ok`. These changes -make the function conform to its new type signature. +Returning an `Err` value from `Config::build` allows the `main` function to +handle the `Result` value returned from the `build` function and exit the +process more cleanly in the error case. -Returning an `Err` value from `Config::new` allows the `main` function to -handle the `Result` value returned from the `new` function and exit the process -more cleanly in the error case. + -#### Calling `Config::new` and Handling Errors + + +#### Calling `Config::build` and Handling Errors To handle the error case and print a user-friendly message, we need to update -`main` to handle the `Result` being returned by `Config::new`, as shown in +`main` to handle the `Result` being returned by `Config::build`, as shown in Listing 12-10. We’ll also take the responsibility of exiting the command line tool with a nonzero error code away from `panic!` and instead implement it by hand. A nonzero exit status is a convention to signal to the process that called our program that the program exited with an error state. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[1] use std::process; +use std::process; fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - [2] let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else([3]|err[4]| { - [5] println!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); - [6] process::exit(1); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + println!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); + process::exit(1); }); // --snip-- ``` -Listing 12-10: Exiting with an error code if creating a new `Config` fails +Listing 12-10: Exiting with an error code if building a Config fails In this listing, we’ve used a method we haven’t covered in detail yet: -`unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library -[2]. Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error +`unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library. +Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error handling. If the `Result` is an `Ok` value, this method’s behavior is similar -to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the value -is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the *closure*, which is an -anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else` [3]. -We’ll cover closures in more detail in Chapter 13. For now, you just need to -know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of the `Err`, which in -this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` that we added in -Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that appears between the -vertical pipes [4]. The code in the closure can then use the `err` value when -it runs. +to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value that `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the +value is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the *closure*, which is +an anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else`. +We’ll cover closures in more detail in Chapter 13. For +now, you just need to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of +the `Err`, which in this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` +that we added in Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that +appears between the vertical pipes. The code in the closure can then use the +`err` value when it runs. We’ve added a new `use` line to bring `process` from the standard library into -scope [1]. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only -two lines: we print the `err` value [5] and then call `process::exit` [6]. The +scope. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only two +lines: we print the `err` value and then call `process::exit`. The `process::exit` function will stop the program immediately and return the number that was passed as the exit status code. This is similar to the `panic!`-based handling we used in Listing 12-8, but we no longer get all the @@ -705,7 +736,7 @@ extra output. Let’s try it: ``` $ cargo run Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.48s Running `target/debug/minigrep` Problem parsing arguments: not enough arguments ``` @@ -716,16 +747,17 @@ Great! This output is much friendlier for our users. Now that we’ve finished refactoring the configuration parsing, let’s turn to the program’s logic. As we stated in “Separation of Concerns for Binary -Projects”, we’ll extract a function named `run` that will hold all the logic -currently in the `main` function that isn’t involved with setting up -configuration or handling errors. When we’re done, `main` will be concise and -easy to verify by inspection, and we’ll be able to write tests for all the -other logic. +Projects”, we’ll +extract a function named `run` that will hold all the logic currently in the +`main` function that isn’t involved with setting up configuration or handling +errors. When we’re done, `main` will be concise and easy to verify by +inspection, and we’ll be able to write tests for all the other logic. Listing 12-11 shows the extracted `run` function. For now, we’re just making the small, incremental improvement of extracting the function. We’re still defining the function in *src/main.rs*. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -733,23 +765,22 @@ fn main() { // --snip-- println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); run(config); } fn run(config: Config) { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename) - .expect("Something went wrong reading the file"); + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path) + .expect("Should have been able to read the file"); - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); } // --snip-- ``` -Listing 12-11: Extracting a `run` function containing the rest of the program -logic +Listing 12-11: Extracting a run function containing the rest of the program logic The `run` function now contains all the remaining logic from `main`, starting from reading the file. The `run` function takes the `Config` instance as an @@ -758,49 +789,52 @@ argument. #### Returning Errors from the `run` Function With the remaining program logic separated into the `run` function, we can -improve the error handling, as we did with `Config::new` in Listing 12-9. +improve the error handling, as we did with `Config::build` in Listing 12-9. Instead of allowing the program to panic by calling `expect`, the `run` function will return a `Result` when something goes wrong. This will let us further consolidate the logic around handling errors into `main` in a user-friendly way. Listing 12-12 shows the changes we need to make to the signature and body of `run`. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[1] use std::error::Error; +use std::error::Error; // --snip-- -[2] fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?[3]; +fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; - println!("With text:\n{}", contents); + println!("With text:\n{contents}"); - [4] Ok(()) + Ok(()) } ``` -Listing 12-12: Changing the `run` function to return `Result` +Listing 12-12: Changing the run function to return Result We’ve made three significant changes here. First, we changed the return type of -the `run` function to `Result<(), Box>` [2]. This function previously +the `run` function to `Result<(), Box>`. This function previously returned the unit type, `()`, and we keep that as the value returned in the `Ok` case. For the error type, we used the *trait object* `Box` (and we’ve -brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top [1]). -We’ll cover trait objects in Chapter 17. For now, just know that `Box` means the function will return a type that implements the `Error` -trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type the return value will -be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that may be of different -types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short for “dynamic.” - -Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator [3], as -we talked about in Chapter 9. Rather than `panic!` on an error, `?` will return -the error value from the current function for the caller to handle. - -Third, the `run` function now returns an `Ok` value in the success case [4]. +brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top). +We’ll cover trait objects in Chapter 17. For now, just +know that `Box` means the function will return a type that +implements the `Error` trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type +the return value will be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that +may be of different types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short +for *dynamic*. + +Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator, as we +talked about in Chapter 9. Rather than +`panic!` on an error, `?` will return the error value from the current function +for the caller to handle. + +Third, the `run` function now returns an `Ok` value in the success case. We’ve declared the `run` function’s success type as `()` in the signature, which means we need to wrap the unit type value in the `Ok` value. This `Ok(())` syntax might look a bit strange at first, but using `()` like this is @@ -810,14 +844,37 @@ only; it doesn’t return a value we need. When you run this code, it will compile but will display a warning: ``` +$ cargo run -- the poem.txt + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) warning: unused `Result` that must be used --> src/main.rs:19:5 | 19 | run(config); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ | - = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default = note: this `Result` may be an `Err` variant, which should be handled + = note: `#[warn(unused_must_use)]` on by default +help: use `let _ = ...` to ignore the resulting value + | +19 | let _ = run(config); + | +++++++ + +warning: `minigrep` (bin "minigrep") generated 1 warning + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.71s + Running `target/debug/minigrep the poem.txt` +Searching for the +In file poem.txt +With text: +I'm nobody! Who are you? +Are you nobody, too? +Then there's a pair of us - don't tell! +They'd banish us, you know. + +How dreary to be somebody! +How public, like a frog +To tell your name the livelong day +To an admiring bog! + ``` Rust tells us that our code ignored the `Result` value and the `Result` value @@ -828,7 +885,7 @@ have some error-handling code here! Let’s rectify that problem now. #### Handling Errors Returned from `run` in `main` We’ll check for errors and handle them using a technique similar to one we used -with `Config::new` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: +with `Config::build` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -837,22 +894,21 @@ fn main() { // --snip-- println!("Searching for {}", config.query); - println!("In file {}", config.filename); + println!("In file {}", config.file_path); if let Err(e) = run(config) { - println!("Application error: {}", e); - + println!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } ``` We use `if let` rather than `unwrap_or_else` to check whether `run` returns an -`Err` value and call `process::exit(1)` if it does. The `run` function doesn’t -return a value that we want to `unwrap` in the same way that `Config::new` -returns the `Config` instance. Because `run` returns `()` in the success case, -we only care about detecting an error, so we don’t need `unwrap_or_else` to -return the unwrapped value, which would only be `()`. +`Err` value and to call `process::exit(1)` if it does. The `run` function +doesn’t return a value that we want to `unwrap` in the same way that +`Config::build` returns the `Config` instance. Because `run` returns `()` in +the success case, we only care about detecting an error, so we don’t need +`unwrap_or_else` to return the unwrapped value, which would only be `()`. The bodies of the `if let` and the `unwrap_or_else` functions are the same in both cases: we print the error and exit. @@ -860,21 +916,22 @@ both cases: we print the error and exit. ### Splitting Code into a Library Crate Our `minigrep` project is looking good so far! Now we’ll split the -*src/main.rs* file and put some code into the *src/lib.rs* file. That way we +*src/main.rs* file and put some code into the *src/lib.rs* file. That way, we can test the code and have a *src/main.rs* file with fewer responsibilities. -Let’s move all the code that isn’t the `main` function from *src/main.rs* to +Let’s move all the code that isn’t in the `main` function from *src/main.rs* to *src/lib.rs*: * The `run` function definition * The relevant `use` statements * The definition of `Config` -* The `Config::new` function definition +* The `Config::build` function definition The contents of *src/lib.rs* should have the signatures shown in Listing 12-13 (we’ve omitted the bodies of the functions for brevity). Note that this won’t compile until we modify *src/main.rs* in Listing 12-14. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -883,11 +940,11 @@ use std::fs; pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, } impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { // --snip-- } } @@ -897,15 +954,16 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { } ``` -Listing 12-13: Moving `Config` and `run` into *src/lib.rs* +Listing 12-13: Moving Config and run into src/lib.rs We’ve made liberal use of the `pub` keyword: on `Config`, on its fields and its -`new` method, and on the `run` function. We now have a library crate that has a -public API we can test! +`build` method, and on the `run` function. We now have a library crate that has +a public API we can test! Now we need to bring the code we moved to *src/lib.rs* into the scope of the binary crate in *src/main.rs*, as shown in Listing 12-14. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` @@ -922,13 +980,12 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 12-14: Using the `minigrep` library crate in *src/main.rs* +Listing 12-14: Using the minigrep library crate in src/main.rs We add a `use minigrep::Config` line to bring the `Config` type from the library crate into the binary crate’s scope, and we prefix the `run` function with our crate name. Now all the functionality should be connected and should -work. Run the program with `cargo run` and make sure everything works -correctly. +work. Run the program with `cargo run` and make sure everything works correctly. Whew! That was a lot of work, but we’ve set ourselves up for success in the future. Now it’s much easier to handle errors, and we’ve made the code more @@ -946,21 +1003,21 @@ for the core functionality of our code. We can call functions directly with various arguments and check return values without having to call our binary from the command line. -In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program -using the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: +In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program using +the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: 1. Write a test that fails and run it to make sure it fails for the reason you expect. -2. Write or modify just enough code to make the new test pass. -3. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests - continue to pass. -4. Repeat from step 1! +1. Write or modify just enough code to make the new test pass. +1. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests continue + to pass. +1. Repeat from step 1! Though it’s just one of many ways to write software, TDD can help drive code design. Writing the test before you write the code that makes the test pass helps to maintain high test coverage throughout the process. -We’ll test drive the implementation of the functionality that will actually do +We’ll test-drive the implementation of the functionality that will actually do the searching for the query string in the file contents and produce a list of lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called `search`. @@ -969,11 +1026,12 @@ lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called Because we don’t need them anymore, let’s remove the `println!` statements from *src/lib.rs* and *src/main.rs* that we used to check the program’s behavior. -Then, in *src/lib.rs*, add a `tests` module with a test function, as we did in -Chapter 11. The test function specifies the behavior we want the `search` -function to have: it will take a query and the text to search, and it will -return only the lines from the text that contain the query. Listing 12-15 shows -this test, which won’t compile yet. +Then, in *src/lib.rs*, we’ll add a `tests` module with a test function, as we +did in Chapter 11. The test function specifies +the behavior we want the `search` function to have: it will take a query and +the text to search, and it will return only the lines from the text that +contain the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -995,10 +1053,10 @@ Pick three."; } ``` -Listing 12-15: Creating a failing test for the `search` function we wish we had +Listing 12-15: Creating a failing test for the search function we wish we had This test searches for the string `"duct"`. The text we’re searching is three -lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (Note that the backslash after the +lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (note that the backslash after the opening double quote tells Rust not to put a newline character at the beginning of the contents of this string literal). We assert that the value returned from the `search` function contains only the line we expect. @@ -1008,8 +1066,8 @@ even compile: the `search` function doesn’t exist yet! In accordance with TDD principles, we’ll add just enough code to get the test to compile and run by adding a definition of the `search` function that always returns an empty vector, as shown in Listing 12-16. Then the test should compile and fail -because an empty vector doesn’t match a vector containing the line `"safe, -fast, productive."` +because an empty vector doesn’t match a vector containing the line `"safe, fast, productive."` + Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1019,15 +1077,15 @@ pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { } ``` -Listing 12-16: Defining just enough of the `search` function so our test will -compile +Listing 12-16: Defining just enough of the search function so our test will compile Notice that we need to define an explicit lifetime `'a` in the signature of `search` and use that lifetime with the `contents` argument and the return -value. Recall in Chapter 10 that the lifetime parameters specify which argument -lifetime is connected to the lifetime of the return value. In this case, we -indicate that the returned vector should contain string slices that reference -slices of the argument `contents` (rather than the argument `query`). +value. Recall in Chapter 10 that the lifetime +parameters specify which argument lifetime is connected to the lifetime of the +return value. In this case, we indicate that the returned vector should contain +string slices that reference slices of the argument `contents` (rather than the +argument `query`). In other words, we tell Rust that the data returned by the `search` function will live as long as the data passed into the `search` function in the @@ -1040,6 +1098,8 @@ If we forget the lifetime annotations and try to compile this function, we’ll get this error: ``` +$ cargo build + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier --> src/lib.rs:28:51 | @@ -1051,6 +1111,9 @@ help: consider introducing a named lifetime parameter | 28 | pub fn search<'a>(query: &'a str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { | ++++ ++ ++ ++ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. +error: could not compile `minigrep` (lib) due to 1 previous error ``` Rust can’t possibly know which of the two arguments we need, so we need to tell @@ -1061,16 +1124,17 @@ syntax. Other programming languages don’t require you to connect arguments to return values in the signature, but this practice will get easier over time. You might -want to compare this example with the “Validating References with Lifetimes” -section in Chapter 10. +want to compare this example with the examples in the “Validating References +with Lifetimes” section +in Chapter 10. Now let’s run the test: ``` $ cargo test Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s - Running unittests (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.97s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) running 1 test test tests::one_result ... FAILED @@ -1078,9 +1142,10 @@ test tests::one_result ... FAILED failures: ---- tests::one_result stdout ---- -thread 'main' panicked at 'assertion failed: `(left == right)` - left: `["safe, fast, productive."]`, - right: `[]`', src/lib.rs:44:9 +thread 'tests::one_result' panicked at src/lib.rs:44:9: +assertion `left == right` failed + left: ["safe, fast, productive."] + right: [] note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace @@ -1089,7 +1154,7 @@ failures: test result: FAILED. 0 passed; 1 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s -error: test failed, to rerun pass '--lib' +error: test failed, to rerun pass `--lib` ``` Great, the test fails, exactly as we expected. Let’s get the test to pass! @@ -1099,19 +1164,20 @@ Great, the test fails, exactly as we expected. Let’s get the test to pass! Currently, our test is failing because we always return an empty vector. To fix that and implement `search`, our program needs to follow these steps: -* Iterate through each line of the contents. -* Check whether the line contains our query string. -* If it does, add it to the list of values we’re returning. -* If it doesn’t, do nothing. -* Return the list of results that match. +1. Iterate through each line of the contents. +1. Check whether the line contains our query string. +1. If it does, add it to the list of values we’re returning. +1. If it doesn’t, do nothing. +1. Return the list of results that match. Let’s work through each step, starting with iterating through lines. #### Iterating Through Lines with the `lines` Method Rust has a helpful method to handle line-by-line iteration of strings, -conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note this -won’t compile yet. +conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note that +this won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1123,19 +1189,20 @@ pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { } ``` -Listing 12-17: Iterating through each line in `contents` +Listing 12-17: Iterating through each line in contents The `lines` method returns an iterator. We’ll talk about iterators in depth in -Chapter 13, but recall that you saw this way of using an iterator in Listing -3-5, where we used a `for` loop with an iterator to run some code on each item -in a collection. +Chapter 13, but recall that you saw this way +of using an iterator in Listing 3-5, where we used a +`for` loop with an iterator to run some code on each item in a collection. #### Searching Each Line for the Query Next, we’ll check whether the current line contains our query string. Fortunately, strings have a helpful method named `contains` that does this for us! Add a call to the `contains` method in the `search` function, as shown in -Listing 12-18. Note this still won’t compile yet. +Listing 12-18. Note that this still won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1149,16 +1216,12 @@ pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { } ``` -Listing 12-18: Adding functionality to see whether the line contains the string -in `query` +Listing 12-18: Adding functionality to see whether the line contains the string in query -At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get it to compile, we need -to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function +At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get the code to compile, we +need to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function signature. - - - #### Storing Matching Lines To finish this function, we need a way to store the matching lines that we want @@ -1166,6 +1229,7 @@ to return. For that, we can make a mutable vector before the `for` loop and call the `push` method to store a `line` in the vector. After the `for` loop, we return the vector, as shown in Listing 12-19. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1189,11 +1253,27 @@ and our test should pass. Let’s run the test: ``` $ cargo test ---snip-- + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.22s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + running 1 test test tests::one_result ... ok test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests minigrep + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Our test passed, so we know it works! @@ -1202,8 +1282,8 @@ At this point, we could consider opportunities for refactoring the implementation of the search function while keeping the tests passing to maintain the same functionality. The code in the search function isn’t too bad, but it doesn’t take advantage of some useful features of iterators. We’ll -return to this example in Chapter 13, where we’ll explore iterators in detail, -and look at how to improve it. +return to this example in Chapter 13, where +we’ll explore iterators in detail, and look at how to improve it. #### Using the `search` Function in the `run` Function @@ -1216,10 +1296,10 @@ Filename: src/lib.rs ``` pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; for line in search(&config.query, &contents) { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) @@ -1229,21 +1309,22 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { We’re still using a `for` loop to return each line from `search` and print it. Now the entire program should work! Let’s try it out, first with a word that -should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem, “frog”: +should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem: *frog*. ``` -$ cargo run frog poem.txt +$ cargo run -- frog poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.38s Running `target/debug/minigrep frog poem.txt` How public, like a frog ``` -Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like “body”: +Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like *body*: ``` -$ cargo run body poem.txt - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s +$ cargo run -- body poem.txt + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep body poem.txt` I'm nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody, too? @@ -1251,11 +1332,12 @@ How dreary to be somebody! ``` And finally, let’s make sure that we don’t get any lines when we search for a -word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as “monomorphization”: +word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as *monomorphization*: ``` -$ cargo run monomorphization poem.txt - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s +$ cargo run -- monomorphization poem.txt + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep monomorphization poem.txt` ``` @@ -1285,6 +1367,7 @@ the new `search_case_insensitive` function and rename our old test from `one_result` to `case_sensitive` to clarify the differences between the two tests, as shown in Listing 12-20. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1321,11 +1404,10 @@ Trust me."; } ``` -Listing 12-20: Adding a new failing test for the case-insensitive function -we’re about to add +Listing 12-20: Adding a new failing test for the case-insensitive function we’re about to add Note that we’ve edited the old test’s `contents` too. We’ve added a new line -with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital D that shouldn’t match the query +with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital *D* that shouldn’t match the query `"duct"` when we’re searching in a case-sensitive manner. Changing the old test in this way helps ensure that we don’t accidentally break the case-sensitive search functionality that we’ve already implemented. This test should pass now @@ -1333,9 +1415,9 @@ and should continue to pass as we work on the case-insensitive search. The new test for the case-*insensitive* search uses `"rUsT"` as its query. In the `search_case_insensitive` function we’re about to add, the query `"rUsT"` -should match the line containing `"Rust:"` with a capital R and match the line -`"Trust me."` even though both have different casing from the query. This is -our failing test, and it will fail to compile because we haven’t yet defined +should match the line containing `"Rust:"` with a capital *R* and match the +line `"Trust me."` even though both have different casing from the query. This +is our failing test, and it will fail to compile because we haven’t yet defined the `search_case_insensitive` function. Feel free to add a skeleton implementation that always returns an empty vector, similar to the way we did for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. @@ -1344,9 +1426,10 @@ for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. The `search_case_insensitive` function, shown in Listing 12-21, will be almost the same as the `search` function. The only difference is that we’ll lowercase -the `query` and each `line` so whatever the case of the input arguments, +the `query` and each `line` so that whatever the case of the input arguments, they’ll be the same case when we check whether the line contains the query. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1354,11 +1437,11 @@ pub fn search_case_insensitive<'a>( query: &str, contents: &'a str, ) -> Vec<&'a str> { - [1] let query = query.to_lowercase(); + let query = query.to_lowercase(); let mut results = Vec::new(); for line in contents.lines() { - if line.to_lowercase()[2].contains(&query[3]) { + if line.to_lowercase().contains(&query) { results.push(line); } } @@ -1367,11 +1450,10 @@ pub fn search_case_insensitive<'a>( } ``` -Listing 12-21: Defining the `search_case_insensitive` function to lowercase the -query and the line before comparing them +Listing 12-21: Defining the search_case_insensitive function to lowercase the query and the line before comparing them -First, we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a shadowed variable with -the same name [1]. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so no +First we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a shadowed variable with +the same name. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so that no matter whether the user’s query is `"rust"`, `"RUST"`, `"Rust"`, or `"rUsT"`, we’ll treat the query as if it were `"rust"` and be insensitive to the case. While `to_lowercase` will handle basic Unicode, it won’t be 100% accurate. If @@ -1379,60 +1461,73 @@ we were writing a real application, we’d want to do a bit more work here, but this section is about environment variables, not Unicode, so we’ll leave it at that here. -Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice, because calling +Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice because calling `to_lowercase` creates new data rather than referencing existing data. Say the query is `"rUsT"`, as an example: that string slice doesn’t contain a lowercase `u` or `t` for us to use, so we have to allocate a new `String` containing `"rust"`. When we pass `query` as an argument to the `contains` method now, we -need to add an ampersand [3] because the signature of `contains` is defined to -take a string slice. +need to add an ampersand because the signature of `contains` is defined to take +a string slice. Next, we add a call to `to_lowercase` on each `line` to lowercase all -characters [2]. Now that we’ve converted `line` and `query` to lowercase, we’ll +characters. Now that we’ve converted `line` and `query` to lowercase, we’ll find matches no matter what the case of the query is. Let’s see if this implementation passes the tests: ``` +$ cargo test + Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) + Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.33s + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + running 2 tests test tests::case_insensitive ... ok test tests::case_sensitive ... ok test result: ok. 2 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/minigrep-9cd200e5fac0fc94) + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + + Doc-tests minigrep + +running 0 tests + +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s + ``` Great! They passed. Now, let’s call the new `search_case_insensitive` function -from the `run` function. First, we’ll add a configuration option to the -`Config` struct to switch between case-sensitive and case-insensitive search. -Adding this field will cause compiler errors because we aren’t initializing -this field anywhere yet: - - +from the `run` function. First we’ll add a configuration option to the `Config` +struct to switch between case-sensitive and case-insensitive search. Adding +this field will cause compiler errors because we aren’t initializing this field +anywhere yet: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` pub struct Config { pub query: String, - pub filename: String, + pub file_path: String, pub ignore_case: bool, } ``` -We added the `ignore_case` field that holds a Boolean. Next, we need the -`run` function to check the `ignore_case` field’s value and use that to -decide whether to call the `search` function or the `search_case_insensitive` +We added the `ignore_case` field that holds a Boolean. Next, we need the `run` +function to check the `ignore_case` field’s value and use that to decide +whether to call the `search` function or the `search_case_insensitive` function, as shown in Listing 12-22. This still won’t compile yet. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { - let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.filename)?; + let contents = fs::read_to_string(config.file_path)?; let results = if config.ignore_case { search_case_insensitive(&config.query, &contents) @@ -1441,15 +1536,14 @@ pub fn run(config: Config) -> Result<(), Box> { }; for line in results { - println!("{}", line); + println!("{line}"); } Ok(()) } ``` -Listing 12-22: Calling either `search` or `search_case_insensitive` based on -the value in `config.ignore_case` +Listing 12-22: Calling either search or search_case_insensitive based on the value in config.ignore_case Finally, we need to check for the environment variable. The functions for working with environment variables are in the `env` module in the standard @@ -1458,6 +1552,7 @@ we’ll use the `var` function from the `env` module to check to see if any valu has been set for an environment variable named `IGNORE_CASE`, as shown in Listing 12-23. + Filename: src/lib.rs ``` @@ -1465,29 +1560,28 @@ use std::env; // --snip-- impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build(args: &[String]) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, + file_path, ignore_case, }) } } ``` -Listing 12-23: Checking for any value in an environment variable named -`IGNORE_CASE` +Listing 12-23: Checking for any value in an environment variable named IGNORE_CASE -Here, we create a new variable `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the +Here, we create a new variable, `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the `env::var` function and pass it the name of the `IGNORE_CASE` environment variable. The `env::var` function returns a `Result` that will be the successful `Ok` variant that contains the value of the environment variable if @@ -1497,7 +1591,7 @@ if the environment variable is not set. We’re using the `is_ok` method on the `Result` to check whether the environment variable is set, which means the program should do a case-insensitive search. If the `IGNORE_CASE` environment variable isn’t set to anything, `is_ok` will -return false and the program will perform a case-sensitive search. We don’t +return `false` and the program will perform a case-sensitive search. We don’t care about the *value* of the environment variable, just whether it’s set or unset, so we’re checking `is_ok` rather than using `unwrap`, `expect`, or any of the other methods we’ve seen on `Result`. @@ -1506,46 +1600,47 @@ We pass the value in the `ignore_case` variable to the `Config` instance so the `run` function can read that value and decide whether to call `search_case_insensitive` or `search`, as we implemented in Listing 12-22. -Let’s give it a try! First, we’ll run our program without the environment +Let’s give it a try! First we’ll run our program without the environment variable set and with the query `to`, which should match any line that contains -the word “to” in all lowercase: +the word *to* in all lowercase: ``` -$ cargo run to poem.txt +$ cargo run -- to poem.txt Compiling minigrep v0.1.0 (file:///projects/minigrep) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s Running `target/debug/minigrep to poem.txt` Are you nobody, too? How dreary to be somebody! ``` -Looks like that still works! Now, let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` -set to `1` but with the same query `to`. +Looks like that still works! Now let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` set +to `1` but with the same query *to*: ``` -$ IGNORE_CASE=1 cargo run to poem.txt +$ IGNORE_CASE=1 cargo run -- to poem.txt ``` If you’re using PowerShell, you will need to set the environment variable and run the program as separate commands: - - - ``` -PS> $Env:IGNORE_CASE=1; cargo run to poem.txt +PS> $Env:IGNORE_CASE=1; cargo run -- to poem.txt ``` -This will make `IGNORE_CASE` persist for the remainder of your shell -session. It can be unset with the `Remove-Item` cmdlet: +This will make `IGNORE_CASE` persist for the remainder of your shell session. +It can be unset with the `Remove-Item` cmdlet: ``` PS> Remove-Item Env:IGNORE_CASE ``` -We should get lines that contain “to” that might have uppercase letters: +We should get lines that contain *to* that might have uppercase letters: + + ``` Are you nobody, too? @@ -1554,7 +1649,7 @@ To tell your name the livelong day To an admiring bog! ``` -Excellent, we also got lines containing “To”! Our `minigrep` program can now do +Excellent, we also got lines containing *To*! Our `minigrep` program can now do case-insensitive searching controlled by an environment variable. Now you know how to manage options set using either command line arguments or environment variables. @@ -1579,12 +1674,12 @@ error messages. This distinction enables users to choose to direct the successful output of a program to a file but still print error messages to the screen. -The `println!` macro is only capable of printing to standard output, so we -have to use something else to print to standard error. +The `println!` macro is only capable of printing to standard output, so we have +to use something else to print to standard error. ### Checking Where Errors Are Written -First, let’s observe how the content printed by `minigrep` is currently being +First let’s observe how the content printed by `minigrep` is currently being written to standard output, including any error messages we want to write to standard error instead. We’ll do that by redirecting the standard output stream to a file while intentionally causing an error. We won’t redirect the standard @@ -1593,10 +1688,10 @@ the screen. Command line programs are expected to send error messages to the standard error stream so we can still see error messages on the screen even if we redirect the -standard output stream to a file. Our program is not currently well-behaved: +standard output stream to a file. Our program is not currently well behaved: we’re about to see that it saves the error message output to a file instead! -To demonstrate this behavior, we’ll run the program with `>` and the filename, +To demonstrate this behavior, we’ll run the program with `>` and the file path, *output.txt*, that we want to redirect the standard output stream to. We won’t pass any arguments, which should cause an error: @@ -1626,27 +1721,26 @@ the `eprintln!` macro that prints to the standard error stream, so let’s chang the two places we were calling `println!` to print errors to use `eprintln!` instead. + Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); if let Err(e) = minigrep::run(config) { - eprintln!("Application error: {}", e); - + eprintln!("Application error: {e}"); process::exit(1); } } ``` -Listing 12-24: Writing error messages to standard error instead of standard -output using `eprintln!` +Listing 12-24: Writing error messages to standard error instead of standard output using eprintln! Let’s now run the program again in the same way, without any arguments and redirecting standard output with `>`: @@ -1663,7 +1757,7 @@ Let’s run the program again with arguments that don’t cause an error but sti redirect standard output to a file, like so: ``` -$ cargo run to poem.txt > output.txt +$ cargo run -- to poem.txt > output.txt ``` We won’t see any output to the terminal, and *output.txt* will contain our diff --git a/nostarch/chapter13.md b/nostarch/chapter13.md index 54e6544b0d..52c1f5f977 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter13.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter13.md @@ -22,42 +22,43 @@ More specifically, we’ll cover: * *Closures*, a function-like construct you can store in a variable * *Iterators*, a way of processing a series of elements -* How to use these two features to improve the I/O project in Chapter 12 -* The performance of these two features (Spoiler alert: they’re faster than you - might think!) +* How to use closures and iterators to improve the I/O project in Chapter 12 +* The performance of closures and iterators (spoiler alert: they’re faster than +you might think!) -Other Rust features, such as pattern matching and enums, which we’ve covered in -other chapters, are influenced by the functional style as well. Mastering +We’ve already covered some other Rust features, such as pattern matching and +enums, that are also influenced by the functional style. Because mastering closures and iterators is an important part of writing idiomatic, fast Rust -code, so we’ll devote this entire chapter to them. +code, we’ll devote this entire chapter to them. -## Closures: Anonymous Functions that Can Capture Their Environment +## Closures: Anonymous Functions That Capture Their Environment Rust’s closures are anonymous functions you can save in a variable or pass as arguments to other functions. You can create the closure in one place and then -call the closure to evaluate it in a different context. Unlike functions, -closures can capture values from the scope in which they’re defined. We’ll -demonstrate how these closure features allow for code reuse and behavior +call the closure elsewhere to evaluate it in a different context. Unlike +functions, closures can capture values from the scope in which they’re defined. +We’ll demonstrate how these closure features allow for code reuse and behavior customization. ### Capturing the Environment with Closures -The first aspect of closures we’re going to examine is that closures can -capture values from the environment they’re defined in for later use. Here’s -the scenario: A t-shirt company gives away a free shirt to someone on their -mailing list every so often. People on the mailing list can optionally add -their favorite color to their profile. If the person chosen to get the free -shirt has their favorite color in their profile, they get that color shirt. If -the person hasn’t specified a favorite color, they get the color that the -company currently has the most of. +We’ll first examine how we can use closures to capture values from the +environment they’re defined in for later use. Here’s the scenario: every so +often, our T-shirt company gives away an exclusive, limited-edition shirt to +someone on our mailing list as a promotion. People on the mailing list can +optionally add their favorite color to their profile. If the person chosen for +a free shirt has their favorite color set, they get that color shirt. If the +person hasn’t specified a favorite color, they get whatever color the company +currently has the most of. There are many ways to implement this. For this example, we’re going to use an -enum called `ShirtColor` that has the variants `Red` and `Blue`. The -company’s inventory is represented by an `Inventory` struct that has a field -named `shirts` that contains a `Vec` representing the shirts -currently in stock. The method `shirt_giveaway` defined on `Inventory` gets the -optional shirt color preference of the person getting the free shirt, and -returns the shirt color the person will get. This is shown in Listing 13-1: +enum called `ShirtColor` that has the variants `Red` and `Blue` (limiting the +number of colors available for simplicity). We represent the company’s +inventory with an `Inventory` struct that has a field named `shirts` that +contains a `Vec` representing the shirt colors currently in stock. +The method `giveaway` defined on `Inventory` gets the optional shirt color +preference of the free-shirt winner, and returns the shirt color the person +will get. This setup is shown in Listing 13-1. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -73,8 +74,11 @@ struct Inventory { } impl Inventory { - fn giveaway(&self, user_preference: Option) -> ShirtColor { - user_preference.unwrap_or_else(|| self.most_stocked()) + fn giveaway( + &self, + user_preference: Option, + ) -> ShirtColor { + 1 user_preference.unwrap_or_else(|| self.most_stocked()) } fn most_stocked(&self) -> ShirtColor { @@ -97,18 +101,22 @@ impl Inventory { fn main() { let store = Inventory { - shirts: vec![ShirtColor::Blue, ShirtColor::Red, ShirtColor::Blue], + 2 shirts: vec![ + ShirtColor::Blue, + ShirtColor::Red, + ShirtColor::Blue, + ], }; let user_pref1 = Some(ShirtColor::Red); - let giveaway1 = store.giveaway(user_pref1); + 3 let giveaway1 = store.giveaway(user_pref1); println!( "The user with preference {:?} gets {:?}", user_pref1, giveaway1 ); let user_pref2 = None; - let giveaway2 = store.giveaway(user_pref2); + 4 let giveaway2 = store.giveaway(user_pref2); println!( "The user with preference {:?} gets {:?}", user_pref2, giveaway2 @@ -116,51 +124,57 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 13-1: Shirt company giveaway +Listing 13-1: Shirt company giveaway situation -The `store` defined in `main` has two blue shirts and one red shirt in stock. -Then it calls the `giveaway` method for a user with a preference for a red -shirt and a user without any preference. Running this code prints: +The `store` defined in `main` has two blue shirts and one red shirt remaining +to distribute for this limited-edition promotion [2]. We call the `giveaway` +method for a user with a preference for a red shirt [3] and a user without any +preference [4]. + +Again, this code could be implemented in many ways, and here, to focus on +closures, we’ve stuck to concepts you’ve already learned, except for the body +of the `giveaway` method that uses a closure. In the `giveaway` method, we get +the user preference as a parameter of type `Option` and call the +`unwrap_or_else` method on `user_preference` [1]. The `unwrap_or_else` method +on `Option` is defined by the standard library. It takes one argument: a +closure without any arguments that returns a value `T` (the same type stored in +the `Some` variant of the `Option`, in this case `ShirtColor`). If the +`Option` is the `Some` variant, `unwrap_or_else` returns the value from +within the `Some`. If the `Option` is the `None` variant, `unwrap_or_else` +calls the closure and returns the value returned by the closure. + +We specify the closure expression `|| self.most_stocked()` as the argument to +`unwrap_or_else`. This is a closure that takes no parameters itself (if the +closure had parameters, they would appear between the two vertical pipes). The +body of the closure calls `self.most_stocked()`. We’re defining the closure +here, and the implementation of `unwrap_or_else` will evaluate the closure +later if the result is needed. + +Running this code prints the following: ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling shirt-company v0.1.0 (file:///projects/shirt-company) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s - Running `target/debug/shirt-company` The user with preference Some(Red) gets Red The user with preference None gets Blue ``` -Again, this code could be implemented in many ways, but this way uses concepts -you’ve already learned, except for the body of the `giveaway` method that uses -a closure. The `giveaway` method takes the user preference `Option` -and calls `unwrap_or_else` on it. The `unwrap_or_else` method on -`Option` is defined by the standard library. -It takes one argument: a closure without any arguments that returns a value `T` -(the same type stored in the `Some` variant of the `Option`, in this case, a -`ShirtColor`). If the `Option` is the `Some` variant, `unwrap_or_else` -returns the value from within the `Some`. If the `Option` is the `None` -variant, `unwrap_or_else` calls the closure and returns the value returned by -the closure. - -This is interesting because we’ve passed a closure that calls +One interesting aspect here is that we’ve passed a closure that calls `self.most_stocked()` on the current `Inventory` instance. The standard library didn’t need to know anything about the `Inventory` or `ShirtColor` types we -defined, or the logic we want to use in this scenario. The closure captured an -immutable reference to the `self` `Inventory` instance and passed it with the -code we specified to the `unwrap_or_else` method. Functions are not able to -capture their environment in this way. +defined, or the logic we want to use in this scenario. The closure captures an +immutable reference to the `self` `Inventory` instance and passes it with the +code we specify to the `unwrap_or_else` method. Functions, on the other hand, +are not able to capture their environment in this way. ### Closure Type Inference and Annotation There are more differences between functions and closures. Closures don’t usually require you to annotate the types of the parameters or the return value -like `fn` functions do. Type annotations are required on functions because -they’re part of an explicit interface exposed to your users. Defining this +like `fn` functions do. Type annotations are required on functions because the +types are part of an explicit interface exposed to your users. Defining this interface rigidly is important for ensuring that everyone agrees on what types -of values a function uses and returns. But closures aren’t used in an exposed -interface like this: they’re stored in variables and used without naming them -and exposing them to users of our library. +of values a function uses and returns. Closures, on the other hand, aren’t used +in an exposed interface like this: they’re stored in variables and used without +naming them and exposing them to users of our library. Closures are typically short and relevant only within a narrow context rather than in any arbitrary scenario. Within these limited contexts, the compiler can @@ -171,7 +185,9 @@ needs closure type annotations too). As with variables, we can add type annotations if we want to increase explicitness and clarity at the cost of being more verbose than is strictly necessary. Annotating the types for a closure would look like the definition -shown in Listing 13-2. +shown in Listing 13-2. In this example, we’re defining a closure and storing it +in a variable rather than defining the closure in the spot we pass it as an +argument, as we did in Listing 13-1. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -187,11 +203,11 @@ Listing 13-2: Adding optional type annotations of the parameter and return value types in the closure With type annotations added, the syntax of closures looks more similar to the -syntax of functions. The following is a vertical comparison of the syntax for -the definition of a function that adds 1 to its parameter and a closure that -has the same behavior. We’ve added some spaces to line up the relevant parts. -This illustrates how closure syntax is similar to function syntax except for -the use of pipes and the amount of syntax that is optional: +syntax of functions. Here, we define a function that adds 1 to its parameter +and a closure that has the same behavior, for comparison. We’ve added some +spaces to line up the relevant parts. This illustrates how closure syntax is +similar to function syntax except for the use of pipes and the amount of syntax +that is optional: ``` fn add_one_v1 (x: u32) -> u32 { x + 1 } @@ -200,21 +216,24 @@ let add_one_v3 = |x| { x + 1 }; let add_one_v4 = |x| x + 1 ; ``` -The first line shows a function definition, and the second line shows a fully -annotated closure definition. The third line removes the type annotations from -the closure definition, and the fourth line removes the brackets, which are -optional because the closure body has only one expression. These are all valid -definitions that will produce the same behavior when they’re called. Calling -the closures is required for `add_one_v3` and `add_one_v4` to be able to -compile because the types will be inferred from their usage. +The first line shows a function definition and the second line shows a fully +annotated closure definition. In the third line, we remove the type annotations +from the closure definition. In the fourth line, we remove the curly brackets, +which are optional because the closure body has only one expression. These are +all valid definitions that will produce the same behavior when they’re called. +The `add_one_v3` and `add_one_v4` lines require the closures to be evaluated to +be able to compile because the types will be inferred from their usage. This is +similar to `let v = Vec::new();` needing either type annotations or values of +some type to be inserted into the `Vec` for Rust to be able to infer the type. -Closure definitions will have one concrete type inferred for each of their -parameters and for their return value. For instance, Listing 13-3 shows the -definition of a short closure that just returns the value it receives as a +For closure definitions, the compiler will infer one concrete type for each of +their parameters and for their return value. For instance, Listing 13-3 shows +the definition of a short closure that just returns the value it receives as a parameter. This closure isn’t very useful except for the purposes of this -example. Note that we haven’t added any type annotations to the definition: if -we then try to call the closure twice, using a `String` as an argument the -first time and a `u32` the second time, we’ll get an error. +example. Note that we haven’t added any type annotations to the definition. +Because there are no type annotations, we can call the closure with any type, +which we’ve done here with `String` the first time. If we then try to call +`example_closure` with an integer, we’ll get an error. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -235,7 +254,8 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types --> src/main.rs:5:29 | 5 | let n = example_closure(5); - | ^- help: try using a conversion method: `.to_string()` + | ^- help: try using a conversion method: +`.to_string()` | | | expected struct `String`, found integer ``` @@ -243,7 +263,7 @@ error[E0308]: mismatched types The first time we call `example_closure` with the `String` value, the compiler infers the type of `x` and the return type of the closure to be `String`. Those types are then locked into the closure in `example_closure`, and we get a type -error if we try to use a different type with the same closure. +error when we next try to use a different type with the same closure. ### Capturing References or Moving Ownership @@ -253,11 +273,9 @@ immutably, borrowing mutably, and taking ownership. The closure will decide which of these to use based on what the body of the function does with the captured values. -Listing 13-4 defines a closure that captures an immutable borrow to the vector -named `list` because it only needs an immutable borrow to print the value. This -example also illustrates that a variable can bind to a closure definition, and -the closure can later be called by using the variable name and parentheses as -if the variable name were a function name: +In Listing 13-4, we define a closure that captures an immutable reference to +the vector named `list` because it only needs an immutable reference to print +the value. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -266,20 +284,25 @@ fn main() { let list = vec![1, 2, 3]; println!("Before defining closure: {:?}", list); - let only_borrows = || println!("From closure: {:?}", list); + 1 let only_borrows = || println!("From closure: {:?}", list); println!("Before calling closure: {:?}", list); - only_borrows(); + 2 only_borrows(); println!("After calling closure: {:?}", list); } ``` -Listing 13-4: Defining and calling a closure that captures an immutable borrow +Listing 13-4: Defining and calling a closure that captures an immutable +reference + +This example also illustrates that a variable can bind to a closure definition +[1], and we can later call the closure by using the variable name and +parentheses as if the variable name were a function name [2]. -The `list` is still accessible by the code before the closure definition, after +Because we can have multiple immutable references to `list` at the same time, +`list` is still accessible from the code before the closure definition, after the closure definition but before the closure is called, and after the closure -is called because we can have multiple immutable borrows of `list` at the same -time. This code compiles, runs, and prints: +is called. This code compiles, runs, and prints: ``` Before defining closure: [1, 2, 3] @@ -288,8 +311,8 @@ From closure: [1, 2, 3] After calling closure: [1, 2, 3] ``` -Next, Listing 13-5 changes the closure definition to need a mutable borrow -because the closure body adds an element to the `list` vector: +Next, in Listing 13-5, we change the closure body so that it adds an element to +the `list` vector. The closure now captures a mutable reference. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -305,7 +328,7 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 13-5: Defining and calling a closure that captures a mutable borrow +Listing 13-5: Defining and calling a closure that captures a mutable reference This code compiles, runs, and prints: @@ -316,48 +339,89 @@ After calling closure: [1, 2, 3, 7] Note that there’s no longer a `println!` between the definition and the call of the `borrows_mutably` closure: when `borrows_mutably` is defined, it captures a -mutable reference to `list`. After the closure is called, because we don’t use -the closure again after that point, the mutable borrow ends. Between the -closure definition and the closure call, an immutable borrow to print isn’t -allowed because no other borrows are allowed when there’s a mutable borrow. Try -adding a `println!` there to see what error message you get! +mutable reference to `list`. We don’t use the closure again after the closure +is called, so the mutable borrow ends. Between the closure definition and the +closure call, an immutable borrow to print isn’t allowed because no other +borrows are allowed when there’s a mutable borrow. Try adding a `println!` +there to see what error message you get! If you want to force the closure to take ownership of the values it uses in the environment even though the body of the closure doesn’t strictly need -ownership, you can use the `move` keyword before the parameter list. This -technique is mostly useful when passing a closure to a new thread to move the -data so it’s owned by the new thread. We’ll have more examples of `move` -closures in Chapter 16 when we talk about concurrency. - -### Moving Captured Values Out of the Closure and the `Fn` Traits - -Once a closure has captured a reference or moved a value into the closure, the -code in the body of the function also affects what happens to the references or -values as a result of calling the function. A closure body can move a captured -value out of the closure, can mutate the captured value, can neither move nor -mutate the captured value, or can capture nothing from the environment. The way -a closure captures and handles values from the environment affects which traits -the closure implements. The traits are how functions and structs can specify -what kinds of closures they can use. - -Closures will automatically implement one, two, or all three of these `Fn` -traits, in an additive fashion: - -1. `FnOnce` applies to closures that can be called at least once. All closures - implement this trait, because all closures can be called. If a closure moves - captured values out of its body, then that closure only implements `FnOnce` - and not any of the other `Fn` traits, because it can only be called once. -2. `FnMut` applies to closures that don’t move captured values out of their - body, but that might mutate the captured values. These closures can be - called more than once. -3. `Fn` applies to closures that don’t move captured values out of their body - and that don’t mutate captured values. These closures can be called more - than once without mutating their environment, which is important in cases - such as calling a closure multiple times concurrently. Closures that don’t - capture anything from their environment implement `Fn`. +ownership, you can use the `move` keyword before the parameter list. + +This technique is mostly useful when passing a closure to a new thread to move +the data so that it’s owned by the new thread. We’ll discuss threads and why +you would want to use them in detail in Chapter 16 when we talk about +concurrency, but for now, let’s briefly explore spawning a new thread using a +closure that needs the `move` keyword. Listing 13-6 shows Listing 13-4 modified +to print the vector in a new thread rather than in the main thread. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::thread; + +fn main() { + let list = vec![1, 2, 3]; + println!("Before defining closure: {:?}", list); + + 1 thread::spawn(move || { + 2 println!("From thread: {:?}", list) + }).join().unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 13-6: Using `move` to force the closure for the thread to take +ownership of `list` + +We spawn a new thread, giving the thread a closure to run as an argument. The +closure body prints out the list. In Listing 13-4, the closure only captured +`list` using an immutable reference because that’s the least amount of access +to `list` needed to print it. In this example, even though the closure body +still only needs an immutable reference [2], we need to specify that `list` +should be moved into the closure by putting the `move` keyword [1] at the +beginning of the closure definition. The new thread might finish before the +rest of the main thread finishes, or the main thread might finish first. If the +main thread maintains ownership of `list` but ends before the new thread and +drops `list`, the immutable reference in the thread would be invalid. +Therefore, the compiler requires that `list` be moved into the closure given to +the new thread so the reference will be valid. Try removing the `move` keyword +or using `list` in the main thread after the closure is defined to see what +compiler errors you get! + +### Moving Captured Values Out of Closures and the Fn Traits + +Once a closure has captured a reference or captured ownership of a value from +the environment where the closure is defined (thus affecting what, if anything, +is moved *into* the closure), the code in the body of the closure defines what +happens to the references or values when the closure is evaluated later (thus +affecting what, if anything, is moved *out of* the closure). + +A closure body can do any of the following: move a captured value out of the +closure, mutate the captured value, neither move nor mutate the value, or +capture nothing from the environment to begin with. + +The way a closure captures and handles values from the environment affects +which traits the closure implements, and traits are how functions and structs +can specify what kinds of closures they can use. Closures will automatically +implement one, two, or all three of these `Fn` traits, in an additive fashion, +depending on how the closure’s body handles the values: + +* `FnOnce` applies to closures that can be called once. All closures implement +at least this trait because all closures can be called. A closure that moves +captured values out of its body will only implement `FnOnce` and none of the +other `Fn` traits because it can only be called once. +* `FnMut` applies to closures that don’t move captured values out of their +body, but that might mutate the captured values. These closures can be called +more than once. +* `Fn` applies to closures that don’t move captured values out of their body +and that don’t mutate captured values, as well as closures that capture nothing +from their environment. These closures can be called more than once without +mutating their environment, which is important in cases such as calling a +closure multiple times concurrently. Let’s look at the definition of the `unwrap_or_else` method on `Option` that -we used in Listing 13-6: +we used in Listing 13-1: ``` impl Option { @@ -378,33 +442,34 @@ Recall that `T` is the generic type representing the type of the value in the `unwrap_or_else` function: code that calls `unwrap_or_else` on an `Option`, for example, will get a `String`. -Next, notice that the `unwrap_or_else` function has an additional generic type -parameter, `F`. The `F` type is the type of the parameter named `f`, which is +Next, notice that the `unwrap_or_else` function has the additional generic type +parameter `F`. The `F` type is the type of the parameter named `f`, which is the closure we provide when calling `unwrap_or_else`. The trait bound specified on the generic type `F` is `FnOnce() -> T`, which -means `F` must be able to be called at least once, take no arguments, and -return a `T`. Using `FnOnce` in the trait bound expresses the constraint that -`unwrap_or_else` is only going to call `f` at most one time. In the body of +means `F` must be able to be called once, take no arguments, and return a `T`. +Using `FnOnce` in the trait bound expresses the constraint that +`unwrap_or_else` is only going to call `f` one time, at most. In the body of `unwrap_or_else`, we can see that if the `Option` is `Some`, `f` won’t be called. If the `Option` is `None`, `f` will be called once. Because all -closures implement `FnOnce`, `unwrap_or_else` accepts the most different kinds -of closures and is as flexible as it can be. +closures implement `FnOnce`, `unwrap_or_else` accepts the largest variety of +closures and is as flexible as it can be. > Note: Functions can implement all three of the `Fn` traits too. If what we -> want to do doesn’t require capturing a value from the environment, we can use -> the name of a function rather than a closure where we need something that -> implements one of the `Fn` traits. For example, on an `Option>` value, -> we could call `unwrap_or_else(Vec::new)` to get a new, empty vector if the -> value is `None`. - -Now let’s look at the standard library method `sort_by_key` defined on slices, -to see how that differs. It takes a closure that implements `FnMut`. The -closure gets one argument, a reference to the current item in the slice being -considered, and returns a value of type `K` that can be ordered. This function -is useful when you want to sort a slice by a particular attribute of each item. -In Listing 13-7, we have a list of `Rectangle` instances and we use -`sort_by_key` to order them by their `width` attribute from low to high: +want to do doesn’t require capturing a value from the environment, we can use +the name of a function rather than a closure where we need something that +implements one of the `Fn` traits. For example, on an `Option>` value, +we could call `unwrap_or_else(Vec::new)` to get a new, empty vector if the +value is `None`. + +Now let’s look at the standard library method `sort_by_key`, defined on slices, +to see how that differs from `unwrap_or_else` and why `sort_by_key` uses +`FnMut` instead of `FnOnce` for the trait bound. The closure gets one argument +in the form of a reference to the current item in the slice being considered, +and returns a value of type `K` that can be ordered. This function is useful +when you want to sort a slice by a particular attribute of each item. In +Listing 13-7, we have a list of `Rectangle` instances and we use `sort_by_key` +to order them by their `width` attribute from low to high. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -417,18 +482,9 @@ struct Rectangle { fn main() { let mut list = [ - Rectangle { - width: 10, - height: 1, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 3, - height: 5, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 7, - height: 12, - }, + Rectangle { width: 10, height: 1 }, + Rectangle { width: 3, height: 5 }, + Rectangle { width: 7, height: 12 }, ]; list.sort_by_key(|r| r.width); @@ -436,8 +492,7 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 13-7: Using `sort_by_key` and a closure to sort a list of `Rectangle` -instances by their `width` value +Listing 13-7: Using `sort_by_key` to order rectangles by width This code prints: @@ -460,36 +515,23 @@ This code prints: The reason `sort_by_key` is defined to take an `FnMut` closure is that it calls the closure multiple times: once for each item in the slice. The closure `|r| -r.width` doesn’t capture, mutate, or move out anything from its environment, so +r.width` doesn’t capture, mutate, or move anything out from its environment, so it meets the trait bound requirements. -In contrast, Listing 13-8 shows an example of a closure that only implements -`FnOnce` because it moves a value out of the environment. The compiler won’t -let us use this closure with `sort_by_key`: +In contrast, Listing 13-8 shows an example of a closure that implements just +the `FnOnce` trait, because it moves a value out of the environment. The +compiler won’t let us use this closure with `sort_by_key`. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -#[derive(Debug)] -struct Rectangle { - width: u32, - height: u32, -} +--snip-- fn main() { let mut list = [ - Rectangle { - width: 10, - height: 1, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 3, - height: 5, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 7, - height: 12, - }, + Rectangle { width: 10, height: 1 }, + Rectangle { width: 3, height: 5 }, + Rectangle { width: 7, height: 12 }, ]; let mut sort_operations = vec![]; @@ -507,8 +549,8 @@ Listing 13-8: Attempting to use an `FnOnce` closure with `sort_by_key` This is a contrived, convoluted way (that doesn’t work) to try and count the number of times `sort_by_key` gets called when sorting `list`. This code -attempts to do this counting by pushing `value`, a `String` from the closure’s -environment, into the `sort_operations` vector. The closure captures `value` +attempts to do this counting by pushing `value`—a `String` from the closure’s +environment—into the `sort_operations` vector. The closure captures `value` and then moves `value` out of the closure by transferring ownership of `value` to the `sort_operations` vector. This closure can be called once; trying to call it a second time wouldn’t work because `value` would no longer be in the @@ -518,70 +560,57 @@ that `value` can’t be moved out of the closure because the closure must implement `FnMut`: ``` -error[E0507]: cannot move out of `value`, a captured variable in an `FnMut` closure - --> src/main.rs:27:30 +error[E0507]: cannot move out of `value`, a captured variable in an `FnMut` +closure + --> src/main.rs:18:30 | -24 | let value = String::from("by key called"); +15 | let value = String::from("by key called"); | ----- captured outer variable -25 | -26 | list.sort_by_key(|r| { +16 | +17 | list.sort_by_key(|r| { | ______________________- -27 | | sort_operations.push(value); - | | ^^^^^ move occurs because `value` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait -28 | | r.width -29 | | }); +18 | | sort_operations.push(value); + | | ^^^^^ move occurs because `value` has +type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait +19 | | r.width +20 | | }); | |_____- captured by this `FnMut` closure ``` The error points to the line in the closure body that moves `value` out of the environment. To fix this, we need to change the closure body so that it doesn’t -move values out of the environment. If we’re interested in the number of times -`sort_by_key` is called, keeping a counter in the environment and incrementing -its value in the closure body is a more straightforward way to calculate that. -The closure in Listing 13-9 works with `sort_by_key` because it is only -capturing a mutable reference to the `num_sort_operations` counter and can -therefore be called more than once: +move values out of the environment. Keeping a counter in the environment and +incrementing its value in the closure body is a more straightforward way to +count the number of times `sort_by_key` is called. The closure in Listing 13-9 +works with `sort_by_key` because it is only capturing a mutable reference to +the `num_sort_operations` counter and can therefore be called more than once. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -#[derive(Debug)] -struct Rectangle { - width: u32, - height: u32, -} +--snip-- fn main() { - let mut list = [ - Rectangle { - width: 10, - height: 1, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 3, - height: 5, - }, - Rectangle { - width: 7, - height: 12, - }, - ]; + --snip-- let mut num_sort_operations = 0; list.sort_by_key(|r| { num_sort_operations += 1; r.width }); - println!("{:#?}, sorted in {num_sort_operations} operations", list); + println!( + "{:#?}, sorted in {num_sort_operations} operations", + list + ); } ``` -Listing 13-9: Using an `FnMut` closure with `sort_by_key` is allowed +Listing 13-9: Using an `FnMut` closure with `sort_by_key` is allowed. The `Fn` traits are important when defining or using functions or types that -make use of closures. The next section discusses iterators, and many iterator -methods take closure arguments. Keep these details of closures in mind as we -explore iterators! +make use of closures. In the next section, we’ll discuss iterators. Many +iterator methods take closure arguments, so keep these closure details in mind +as we continue! ## Processing a Series of Items with Iterators @@ -604,16 +633,16 @@ let v1_iter = v1.iter(); Listing 13-10: Creating an iterator -Once we’ve created an iterator, we can use it in a variety of ways. In Listing -3-5 in Chapter 3, we iterated over an array using a `for` loop to execute some -code on each of its items. Under the hood this implicitly created and then -consumed an iterator, but we glossed over how exactly that works until now. +The iterator is stored in the `v1_iter` variable. Once we’ve created an +iterator, we can use it in a variety of ways. In Listing 3-5, we iterated over +an array using a `for` loop to execute some code on each of its items. Under +the hood, this implicitly created and then consumed an iterator, but we glossed +over how exactly that works until now. -The example in Listing 13-11 separates the creation of the iterator from the -use of the iterator in the `for` loop. The iterator is stored in the `v1_iter` -variable, and no iteration takes place at that time. When the `for` loop is -called using the iterator in `v1_iter`, each element in the iterator is used in -one iteration of the loop, which prints out each value. +In the example in Listing 13-11, we separate the creation of the iterator from +the use of the iterator in the `for` loop. When the `for` loop is called using +the iterator in `v1_iter`, each element in the iterator is used in one +iteration of the loop, which prints out each value. ``` let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3]; @@ -621,7 +650,7 @@ let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3]; let v1_iter = v1.iter(); for val in v1_iter { - println!("Got: {}", val); + println!("Got: {val}"); } ``` @@ -633,12 +662,12 @@ you would likely write this same functionality by starting a variable at index incrementing the variable value in a loop until it reached the total number of items in the vector. -Iterators handle all that logic for you, cutting down on repetitive code you +Iterators handle all of that logic for you, cutting down on repetitive code you could potentially mess up. Iterators give you more flexibility to use the same logic with many different kinds of sequences, not just data structures you can index into, like vectors. Let’s examine how iterators do that. -### The `Iterator` Trait and the `next` Method +### The Iterator Trait and the next Method All iterators implement a trait named `Iterator` that is defined in the standard library. The definition of the trait looks like this: @@ -653,7 +682,7 @@ pub trait Iterator { } ``` -Notice this definition uses some new syntax: `type Item` and `Self::Item`, +Notice that this definition uses some new syntax: `type Item` and `Self::Item`, which are defining an *associated type* with this trait. We’ll talk about associated types in depth in Chapter 19. For now, all you need to know is that this code says implementing the `Iterator` trait requires that you also define @@ -662,8 +691,8 @@ method. In other words, the `Item` type will be the type returned from the iterator. The `Iterator` trait only requires implementors to define one method: the -`next` method, which returns one item of the iterator at a time wrapped in -`Some` and, when iteration is over, returns `None`. +`next` method, which returns one item of the iterator at a time, wrapped in +`Some`, and, when iteration is over, returns `None`. We can call the `next` method on iterators directly; Listing 13-12 demonstrates what values are returned from repeated calls to `next` on the iterator created @@ -701,7 +730,7 @@ ownership of `v1` and returns owned values, we can call `into_iter` instead of `iter`. Similarly, if we want to iterate over mutable references, we can call `iter_mut` instead of `iter`. -### Methods that Consume the Iterator +### Methods That Consume the Iterator The `Iterator` trait has a number of different methods with default implementations provided by the standard library; you can find out about these @@ -710,12 +739,12 @@ trait. Some of these methods call the `next` method in their definition, which is why you’re required to implement the `next` method when implementing the `Iterator` trait. -Methods that call `next` are called *consuming adaptors*, because calling them +Methods that call `next` are called *consuming adapters* because calling them uses up the iterator. One example is the `sum` method, which takes ownership of the iterator and iterates through the items by repeatedly calling `next`, thus consuming the iterator. As it iterates through, it adds each item to a running total and returns the total when iteration is complete. Listing 13-13 has a -test illustrating a use of the `sum` method: +test illustrating a use of the `sum` method. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -738,18 +767,17 @@ iterator We aren’t allowed to use `v1_iter` after the call to `sum` because `sum` takes ownership of the iterator we call it on. -### Methods that Produce Other Iterators +### Methods That Produce Other Iterators -Other methods defined on the `Iterator` trait, known as *iterator adaptors*, -allow you to change iterators into different kinds of iterators. You can chain -multiple calls to iterator adaptors to perform complex actions in a readable -way. But because all iterators are lazy, you have to call one of the consuming -adaptor methods to get results from calls to iterator adaptors. +*Iterator adapters* are methods defined on the `Iterator` trait that don’t +consume the iterator. Instead, they produce different iterators by changing +some aspect of the original iterator. -Listing 13-14 shows an example of calling the iterator adaptor method `map`, -which takes a closure to call on each item to produce a new iterator. The -closure here creates a new iterator in which each item from the vector has been -incremented by 1. However, this code produces a warning: +Listing 13-14 shows an example of calling the iterator adapter method `map`, +which takes a closure to call on each item as the items are iterated through. +The `map` method returns a new iterator that produces the modified items. The +closure here creates a new iterator in which each item from the vector will be +incremented by 1. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -759,9 +787,9 @@ let v1: Vec = vec![1, 2, 3]; v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1); ``` -Listing 13-14: Calling the iterator adaptor `map` to create a new iterator +Listing 13-14: Calling the iterator adapter `map` to create a new iterator -The warning we get is this: +However, this code produces a warning: ``` warning: unused `Map` that must be used @@ -775,16 +803,16 @@ warning: unused `Map` that must be used ``` The code in Listing 13-14 doesn’t do anything; the closure we’ve specified -never gets called. The warning reminds us why: iterator adaptors are lazy, and +never gets called. The warning reminds us why: iterator adapters are lazy, and we need to consume the iterator here. -To fix this and consume the iterator, we’ll use the `collect` method, which we -used in Chapter 12 with `env::args` in Listing 12-1. This method consumes the -iterator and collects the resulting values into a collection data type. +To fix this warning and consume the iterator, we’ll use the `collect` method, +which we used with `env::args` in Listing 12-1. This method consumes the +iterator and collects the resultant values into a collection data type. -In Listing 13-15, we collect the results of iterating over the iterator that’s -returned from the call to `map` into a vector. This vector will end up -containing each item from the original vector incremented by 1. +In Listing 13-15, we collect into a vector the results of iterating over the +iterator that’s returned from the call to `map`. This vector will end up +containing each item from the original vector, incremented by 1. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -796,7 +824,7 @@ let v2: Vec<_> = v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1).collect(); assert_eq!(v2, vec![2, 3, 4]); ``` -Listing 13-15: Calling the `map` method to create a new iterator and then +Listing 13-15: Calling the `map` method to create a new iterator, and then calling the `collect` method to consume the new iterator and create a vector Because `map` takes a closure, we can specify any operation we want to perform @@ -804,14 +832,20 @@ on each item. This is a great example of how closures let you customize some behavior while reusing the iteration behavior that the `Iterator` trait provides. -### Using Closures that Capture Their Environment +You can chain multiple calls to iterator adapters to perform complex actions in +a readable way. But because all iterators are lazy, you have to call one of the +consuming adapter methods to get results from calls to iterator adapters. + +### Using Closures That Capture Their Environment -Now that we’ve introduced iterators, we can demonstrate a common use of -closures that capture their environment by using the `filter` iterator adaptor. -The `filter` method on an iterator takes a closure that takes each item from -the iterator and returns a Boolean. If the closure returns `true`, the value -will be included in the iterator produced by `filter`. If the closure returns -`false`, the value won’t be included in the resulting iterator. +Many iterator adapters take closures as arguments, and commonly the closures +we’ll specify as arguments to iterator adapters will be closures that capture +their environment. + +For this example, we’ll use the `filter` method that takes a closure. The +closure gets an item from the iterator and returns a `bool`. If the closure +returns `true`, the value will be included in the iteration produced by +`filter`. If the closure returns `false`, the value won’t be included. In Listing 13-16, we use `filter` with a closure that captures the `shoe_size` variable from its environment to iterate over a collection of `Shoe` struct @@ -877,74 +911,76 @@ The `shoes_in_size` function takes ownership of a vector of shoes and a shoe size as parameters. It returns a vector containing only shoes of the specified size. -In the body of `shoes_in_size`, we call `into_iter` to create an iterator -that takes ownership of the vector. Then we call `filter` to adapt that -iterator into a new iterator that only contains elements for which the closure -returns `true`. +In the body of `shoes_in_size`, we call `into_iter` to create an iterator that +takes ownership of the vector. Then we call `filter` to adapt that iterator +into a new iterator that only contains elements for which the closure returns +`true`. The closure captures the `shoe_size` parameter from the environment and compares the value with each shoe’s size, keeping only shoes of the size specified. Finally, calling `collect` gathers the values returned by the adapted iterator into a vector that’s returned by the function. -The test shows that when we call `shoes_in_size`, we get back only shoes -that have the same size as the value we specified. +The test shows that when we call `shoes_in_size`, we get back only shoes that +have the same size as the value we specified. ## Improving Our I/O Project With this new knowledge about iterators, we can improve the I/O project in Chapter 12 by using iterators to make places in the code clearer and more concise. Let’s look at how iterators can improve our implementation of the -`Config::new` function and the `search` function. +`Config::build` function and the `search` function. -### Removing a `clone` Using an Iterator +### Removing a clone Using an Iterator In Listing 12-6, we added code that took a slice of `String` values and created an instance of the `Config` struct by indexing into the slice and cloning the values, allowing the `Config` struct to own those values. In Listing 13-17, -we’ve reproduced the implementation of the `Config::new` function as it was in -Listing 12-23: +we’ve reproduced the implementation of the `Config::build` function as it was +in Listing 12-23. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` impl Config { - pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result { + pub fn build( + args: &[String] + ) -> Result { if args.len() < 3 { return Err("not enough arguments"); } let query = args[1].clone(); - let filename = args[2].clone(); + let file_path = args[2].clone(); - let case_sensitive = env::var("CASE_INSENSITIVE").is_err(); + let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, - case_sensitive, + file_path, + ignore_case, }) } } ``` -Listing 13-17: Reproduction of the `Config::new` function from Listing 12-23 +Listing 13-17: Reproduction of the `Config::build` function from Listing 12-23 At the time, we said not to worry about the inefficient `clone` calls because we would remove them in the future. Well, that time is now! We needed `clone` here because we have a slice with `String` elements in the -parameter `args`, but the `new` function doesn’t own `args`. To return +parameter `args`, but the `build` function doesn’t own `args`. To return ownership of a `Config` instance, we had to clone the values from the `query` and `filename` fields of `Config` so the `Config` instance can own its values. -With our new knowledge about iterators, we can change the `new` function to +With our new knowledge about iterators, we can change the `build` function to take ownership of an iterator as its argument instead of borrowing a slice. We’ll use the iterator functionality instead of the code that checks the length of the slice and indexes into specific locations. This will clarify what the -`Config::new` function is doing because the iterator will access the values. +`Config::build` function is doing because the iterator will access the values. -Once `Config::new` takes ownership of the iterator and stops using indexing +Once `Config::build` takes ownership of the iterator and stops using indexing operations that borrow, we can move the `String` values from the iterator into `Config` rather than calling `clone` and making a new allocation. @@ -958,82 +994,82 @@ Filename: src/main.rs fn main() { let args: Vec = env::args().collect(); - let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); + let config = Config::build(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); process::exit(1); }); - // --snip-- + --snip-- } ``` -We’ll change the start of the `main` function that we had in Listing 12-24 to -the code in Listing 13-18. This won’t compile until we update `Config::new` as -well. +We’ll first change the start of the `main` function that we had in Listing +12-24 to the code in Listing 13-18, which this time uses an iterator. This +won’t compile until we update `Config::build` as well. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - let config = Config::new(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { - eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err); - process::exit(1); - }); + let config = + Config::build(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| { + eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {err}"); + process::exit(1); + }); - // --snip-- + --snip-- } ``` -Listing 13-18: Passing the return value of `env::args` to `Config::new` +Listing 13-18: Passing the return value of `env::args` to `Config::build` The `env::args` function returns an iterator! Rather than collecting the -iterator values into a vector and then passing a slice to `Config::new`, now +iterator values into a vector and then passing a slice to `Config::build`, now we’re passing ownership of the iterator returned from `env::args` to -`Config::new` directly. +`Config::build` directly. -Next, we need to update the definition of `Config::new`. In your I/O project’s -*src/lib.rs* file, let’s change the signature of `Config::new` to look like -Listing 13-19. This still won’t compile because we need to update the function -body. +Next, we need to update the definition of `Config::build`. In your I/O +project’s *src/lib.rs* file, let’s change the signature of `Config::build` to +look like Listing 13-19. This still won’t compile, because we need to update +the function body. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` impl Config { - pub fn new( + pub fn build( mut args: impl Iterator, ) -> Result { - // --snip-- + --snip-- ``` -Listing 13-19: Updating the signature of `Config::new` to expect an iterator +Listing 13-19: Updating the signature of `Config::build` to expect an iterator The standard library documentation for the `env::args` function shows that the type of the iterator it returns is `std::env::Args`, and that type implements the `Iterator` trait and returns `String` values. -We’ve updated the signature of the `Config::new` function so the parameter +We’ve updated the signature of the `Config::build` function so the parameter `args` has a generic type with the trait bounds `impl Iterator` instead of `&[String]`. This usage of the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed in -the “Traits as Parameters” section of Chapter 10 -means that `args` can be any type that implements the `Iterator` type and -returns `String` items. +“Traits as Parameters” on page XX means that `args` can be any type that +implements the `Iterator` type and returns `String` items. Because we’re taking ownership of `args` and we’ll be mutating `args` by iterating over it, we can add the `mut` keyword into the specification of the `args` parameter to make it mutable. -#### Using `Iterator` Trait Methods Instead of Indexing +#### Using Iterator Trait Methods Instead of Indexing -Next, we’ll fix the body of `Config::new`. Because `args` implements the +Next, we’ll fix the body of `Config::build`. Because `args` implements the `Iterator` trait, we know we can call the `next` method on it! Listing 13-20 -updates the code from Listing 12-23 to use the `next` method: +updates the code from Listing 12-23 to use the `next` method. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` impl Config { - pub fn new( + pub fn build( mut args: impl Iterator, ) -> Result { args.next(); @@ -1043,41 +1079,44 @@ impl Config { None => return Err("Didn't get a query string"), }; - let filename = match args.next() { + let file_path = match args.next() { Some(arg) => arg, - None => return Err("Didn't get a file name"), + None => return Err("Didn't get a file path"), }; - let case_sensitive = env::var("CASE_INSENSITIVE").is_err(); + let ignore_case = env::var("IGNORE_CASE").is_ok(); Ok(Config { query, - filename, - case_sensitive, + file_path, + ignore_case, }) } } ``` -Listing 13-20: Changing the body of `Config::new` to use iterator methods +Listing 13-20: Changing the body of `Config::build` to use iterator methods Remember that the first value in the return value of `env::args` is the name of the program. We want to ignore that and get to the next value, so first we call -`next` and do nothing with the return value. Second, we call `next` to get the -value we want to put in the `query` field of `Config`. If `next` returns a +`next` and do nothing with the return value. Then we call `next` to get the +value we want to put in the `query` field of `Config`. If `next` returns `Some`, we use a `match` to extract the value. If it returns `None`, it means not enough arguments were given and we return early with an `Err` value. We do the same thing for the `filename` value. -### Making Code Clearer with Iterator Adaptors +### Making Code Clearer with Iterator Adapters We can also take advantage of iterators in the `search` function in our I/O -project, which is reproduced here in Listing 13-21 as it was in Listing 12-19: +project, which is reproduced here in Listing 13-21 as it was in Listing 12-19. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>( + query: &str, + contents: &'a str, +) -> Vec<&'a str> { let mut results = Vec::new(); for line in contents.lines() { @@ -1092,17 +1131,20 @@ pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { Listing 13-21: The implementation of the `search` function from Listing 12-19 -We can write this code in a more concise way using iterator adaptor methods. +We can write this code in a more concise way using iterator adapter methods. Doing so also lets us avoid having a mutable intermediate `results` vector. The functional programming style prefers to minimize the amount of mutable state to make code clearer. Removing the mutable state might enable a future enhancement -to make searching happen in parallel, because we wouldn’t have to manage -concurrent access to the `results` vector. Listing 13-22 shows this change: +to make searching happen in parallel because we wouldn’t have to manage +concurrent access to the `results` vector. Listing 13-22 shows this change. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { +pub fn search<'a>( + query: &str, + contents: &'a str, +) -> Vec<&'a str> { contents .lines() .filter(|line| line.contains(query)) @@ -1110,22 +1152,23 @@ pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> { } ``` -Listing 13-22: Using iterator adaptor methods in the implementation of the +Listing 13-22: Using iterator adapter methods in the implementation of the `search` function Recall that the purpose of the `search` function is to return all lines in `contents` that contain the `query`. Similar to the `filter` example in Listing -13-16, this code uses the `filter` adaptor to keep only the lines that -`line.contains(query)` returns `true` for. We then collect the matching lines -into another vector with `collect`. Much simpler! Feel free to make the same -change to use iterator methods in the `search_case_insensitive` function as -well. +13-16, this code uses the `filter` adapter to keep only the lines for which +`line.contains(query)` returns `true`. We then collect the matching lines into +another vector with `collect`. Much simpler! Feel free to make the same change +to use iterator methods in the `search_case_insensitive` function as well. + +### Choosing Between Loops and Iterators The next logical question is which style you should choose in your own code and why: the original implementation in Listing 13-21 or the version using iterators in Listing 13-22. Most Rust programmers prefer to use the iterator style. It’s a bit tougher to get the hang of at first, but once you get a feel -for the various iterator adaptors and what they do, iterators can be easier to +for the various iterator adapters and what they do, iterators can be easier to understand. Instead of fiddling with the various bits of looping and building new vectors, the code focuses on the high-level objective of the loop. This abstracts away some of the commonplace code so it’s easier to see the concepts @@ -1133,8 +1176,7 @@ that are unique to this code, such as the filtering condition each element in the iterator must pass. But are the two implementations truly equivalent? The intuitive assumption -might be that the more low-level loop will be faster. Let’s talk about -performance. +might be that the lower-level loop will be faster. Let’s talk about performance. ## Comparing Performance: Loops vs. Iterators @@ -1153,8 +1195,8 @@ test bench_search_iter ... bench: 19,234,900 ns/iter (+/- 657,200) ``` The iterator version was slightly faster! We won’t explain the benchmark code -here, because the point is not to prove that the two versions are equivalent -but to get a general sense of how these two implementations compare +here because the point is not to prove that the two versions are equivalent but +to get a general sense of how these two implementations compare performance-wise. For a more comprehensive benchmark, you should check using various texts of @@ -1162,24 +1204,22 @@ various sizes as the `contents`, different words and words of different lengths as the `query`, and all kinds of other variations. The point is this: iterators, although a high-level abstraction, get compiled down to roughly the same code as if you’d written the lower-level code yourself. Iterators are one -of Rust’s *zero-cost abstractions*, by which we mean using the abstraction +of Rust’s *zero-cost abstractions*, by which we mean that using the abstraction imposes no additional runtime overhead. This is analogous to how Bjarne Stroustrup, the original designer and implementor of C++, defines *zero-overhead* in “Foundations of C++” (2012): > In general, C++ implementations obey the zero-overhead principle: What you -> don’t use, you don’t pay for. And further: What you do use, you couldn’t hand -> code any better. - -As another example, the following code is taken from an audio decoder. The -decoding algorithm uses the linear prediction mathematical operation to -estimate future values based on a linear function of the previous samples. This -code uses an iterator chain to do some math on three variables in scope: a -`buffer` slice of data, an array of 12 `coefficients`, and an amount by which -to shift data in `qlp_shift`. We’ve declared the variables within this example -but not given them any values; although this code doesn’t have much meaning -outside of its context, it’s still a concise, real-world example of how Rust -translates high-level ideas to low-level code. +don’t use, you don’t pay for. And further: What you do use, you couldn’t hand +code any better.As another example, the following code is taken from an audio +decoder. The decoding algorithm uses the linear prediction mathematical +operation to estimate future values based on a linear function of the previous +samples. This code uses an iterator chain to do some math on three variables in +scope: a `buffer` slice of data, an array of 12 `coefficients`, and an amount +by which to shift data in `qlp_shift`. We’ve declared the variables within this +example but not given them any values; although this code doesn’t have much +meaning outside of its context, it’s still a concise, real-world example of how +Rust translates high-level ideas to low-level code. ``` let buffer: &mut [i32]; @@ -1198,12 +1238,12 @@ for i in 12..buffer.len() { To calculate the value of `prediction`, this code iterates through each of the 12 values in `coefficients` and uses the `zip` method to pair the coefficient -values with the previous 12 values in `buffer`. Then, for each pair, we -multiply the values together, sum all the results, and shift the bits in the -sum `qlp_shift` bits to the right. +values with the previous 12 values in `buffer`. Then, for each pair, it +multiplies the values together, sums all the results, and shifts the bits in +the sum `qlp_shift` bits to the right. Calculations in applications like audio decoders often prioritize performance -most highly. Here, we’re creating an iterator, using two adaptors, and then +most highly. Here, we’re creating an iterator, using two adapters, and then consuming the value. What assembly code would this Rust code compile to? Well, as of this writing, it compiles down to the same assembly you’d write by hand. There’s no loop at all corresponding to the iteration over the values in @@ -1214,7 +1254,7 @@ the loop. All of the coefficients get stored in registers, which means accessing the values is very fast. There are no bounds checks on the array access at runtime. -All these optimizations that Rust is able to apply make the resulting code +All of these optimizations that Rust is able to apply make the resultant code extremely efficient. Now that you know this, you can use iterators and closures without fear! They make code seem like it’s higher level but don’t impose a runtime performance penalty for doing so. @@ -1230,3 +1270,4 @@ Rust’s goal to strive to provide zero-cost abstractions. Now that we’ve improved the expressiveness of our I/O project, let’s look at some more features of `cargo` that will help us share the project with the world. + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter14.md b/nostarch/chapter14.md index e06631c357..f5f2be7196 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter14.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter14.md @@ -8,19 +8,19 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. # More About Cargo and Crates.io -So far we’ve used only the most basic features of Cargo to build, run, and test -our code, but it can do a lot more. In this chapter, we’ll discuss some of its -other, more advanced features to show you how to do the following: +So far, we’ve used only the most basic features of Cargo to build, run, and +test our code, but it can do a lot more. In this chapter, we’ll discuss some of +its other, more advanced features to show you how to do the following: -* Customize your build through release profiles -* Publish libraries on *https://crates.io/* -* Organize large projects with workspaces -* Install binaries from *https://crates.io/* -* Extend Cargo using custom commands +* Customize your build through release profiles. +* Publish libraries on *https://crates.i**o*. +* Organize large projects with workspaces. +* Install binaries from *https://crates.io*. +* Extend Cargo using custom commands. Cargo can do even more than the functionality we cover in this chapter, so for a full explanation of all its features, see its documentation at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/*. +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo*. ## Customizing Builds with Release Profiles @@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ various options for compiling code. Each profile is configured independently of the others. Cargo has two main profiles: the `dev` profile Cargo uses when you run `cargo -build` and the `release` profile Cargo uses when you run `cargo build +build`, and the `release` profile Cargo uses when you run `cargo build --release`. The `dev` profile is defined with good defaults for development, and the `release` profile has good defaults for release builds. @@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ $ cargo build --release The `dev` and `release` are these different profiles used by the compiler. -Cargo has default settings for each of the profiles that apply when you haven't +Cargo has default settings for each of the profiles that apply when you haven’t explicitly added any `[profile.*]` sections in the project’s *Cargo.toml* file. By adding `[profile.*]` sections for any profile you want to customize, you override any subset of the default settings. For example, here are the default @@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ opt-level = 3 The `opt-level` setting controls the number of optimizations Rust will apply to your code, with a range of 0 to 3. Applying more optimizations extends compiling time, so if you’re in development and compiling your code often, -you’ll want fewer optimizations to compile faster even if the resulting code +you’ll want fewer optimizations to compile faster even if the resultant code runs slower. The default `opt-level` for `dev` is therefore `0`. When you’re ready to release your code, it’s best to spend more time compiling. You’ll only compile in release mode once, but you’ll run the compiled program many times, @@ -89,11 +89,12 @@ Cargo will use the defaults for the `dev` profile plus our customization to optimizations than the default, but not as many as in a release build. For the full list of configuration options and defaults for each profile, see -Cargo’s documentation at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/profiles.html*. +Cargo’s documentation at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/profiles.html*. ## Publishing a Crate to Crates.io -We’ve used packages from *https://crates.io/* as dependencies of our project, +We’ve used packages from *https://crates.io* as dependencies of our project, but you can also share your code with other people by publishing your own packages. The crate registry at *https://crates.io* distributes the source code of your packages, so it primarily hosts code that is open source. @@ -149,9 +150,7 @@ For convenience, running `cargo doc --open` will build the HTML for your current crate’s documentation (as well as the documentation for all of your crate’s dependencies) and open the result in a web browser. Navigate to the `add_one` function and you’ll see how the text in the documentation comments is -rendered, as shown in Figure 14-1: - -Rendered HTML documentation for the `add_one` function of `my_crate` +rendered, as shown in Figure 14-1. Figure 14-1: HTML documentation for the `add_one` function @@ -161,16 +160,16 @@ We used the `# Examples` Markdown heading in Listing 14-1 to create a section in the HTML with the title “Examples.” Here are some other sections that crate authors commonly use in their documentation: -* **Panics**: The scenarios in which the function being documented could - panic. Callers of the function who don’t want their programs to panic should - make sure they don’t call the function in these situations. +* **Panics**: The scenarios in which the function being documented could panic. +Callers of the function who don’t want their programs to panic should make sure +they don’t call the function in these situations. * **Errors**: If the function returns a `Result`, describing the kinds of - errors that might occur and what conditions might cause those errors to be - returned can be helpful to callers so they can write code to handle the - different kinds of errors in different ways. +errors that might occur and what conditions might cause those errors to be +returned can be helpful to callers so they can write code to handle the +different kinds of errors in different ways. * **Safety**: If the function is `unsafe` to call (we discuss unsafety in - Chapter 19), there should be a section explaining why the function is unsafe - and covering the invariants that the function expects callers to uphold. +Chapter 19), there should be a section explaining why the function is unsafe +and covering the invariants that the function expects callers to uphold. Most documentation comments don’t need all of these sections, but this is a good checklist to remind you of the aspects of your code users will be @@ -184,7 +183,8 @@ test` will run the code examples in your documentation as tests! Nothing is better than documentation with examples. But nothing is worse than examples that don’t work because the code has changed since the documentation was written. If we run `cargo test` with the documentation for the `add_one` -function from Listing 14-1, we will see a section in the test results like this: +function from Listing 14-1, we will see a section in the test results that +looks like this: ``` Doc-tests my_crate @@ -192,35 +192,36 @@ function from Listing 14-1, we will see a section in the test results like this: running 1 test test src/lib.rs - add_one (line 5) ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.27s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 +filtered out; finished in 0.27s ``` -Now if we change either the function or the example so the `assert_eq!` in the +Now, if we change either the function or the example so the `assert_eq!` in the example panics and run `cargo test` again, we’ll see that the doc tests catch that the example and the code are out of sync with each other! #### Commenting Contained Items -The style of doc comment `//!` adds documentation to the item that contains the -comments rather than to the items following the comments. We typically use +The doc comment `//!` adds documentation to the item that *contains* the +comments rather than to the items *following* the comments. We typically use these doc comments inside the crate root file (*src/lib.rs* by convention) or inside a module to document the crate or the module as a whole. For example, to add documentation that describes the purpose of the `my_crate` crate that contains the `add_one` function, we add documentation comments that start with `//!` to the beginning of the *src/lib.rs* file, as shown in Listing -14-2: +14-2. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` //! # My Crate //! -//! `my_crate` is a collection of utilities to make performing certain -//! calculations more convenient. +//! `my_crate` is a collection of utilities to make performing +//! certain calculations more convenient. /// Adds one to the number given. -// --snip-- +--snip-- ``` Listing 14-2: Documentation for the `my_crate` crate as a whole @@ -231,11 +232,9 @@ that contains this comment rather than an item that follows this comment. In this case, that item is the *src/lib.rs* file, which is the crate root. These comments describe the entire crate. -When we run `cargo doc --open`, these comments will display on the front -page of the documentation for `my_crate` above the list of public items in the -crate, as shown in Figure 14-2: - -Rendered HTML documentation with a comment for the crate as a whole +When we run `cargo doc --open`, these comments will display on the front page +of the documentation for `my_crate` above the list of public items in the +crate, as shown in Figure 14-2. Figure 14-2: Rendered documentation for `my_crate`, including the comment describing the crate as a whole @@ -244,7 +243,7 @@ Documentation comments within items are useful for describing crates and modules especially. Use them to explain the overall purpose of the container to help your users understand the crate’s organization. -### Exporting a Convenient Public API with `pub use` +### Exporting a Convenient Public API with pub use The structure of your public API is a major consideration when publishing a crate. People who use your crate are less familiar with the structure than you @@ -252,26 +251,26 @@ are and might have difficulty finding the pieces they want to use if your crate has a large module hierarchy. In Chapter 7, we covered how to make items public using the `pub` keyword, and -bring items into a scope with the `use` keyword. However, the structure that -makes sense to you while you’re developing a crate might not be very convenient -for your users. You might want to organize your structs in a hierarchy -containing multiple levels, but then people who want to use a type you’ve -defined deep in the hierarchy might have trouble finding out that type exists. -They might also be annoyed at having to enter `use` -`my_crate::some_module::another_module::UsefulType;` rather than `use` -`my_crate::UsefulType;`. +how to bring items into a scope with the `use` keyword. However, the structure +that makes sense to you while you’re developing a crate might not be very +convenient for your users. You might want to organize your structs in a +hierarchy containing multiple levels, but then people who want to use a type +you’ve defined deep in the hierarchy might have trouble finding out that type +exists. They might also be annoyed at having to enter `use` +`my_crate::`some_module`::`another_module`::`UsefulType`;` rather than `use` +`my_crate::`UsefulType`;`. The good news is that if the structure *isn’t* convenient for others to use from another library, you don’t have to rearrange your internal organization: instead, you can re-export items to make a public structure that’s different -from your private structure by using `pub use`. Re-exporting takes a public +from your private structure by using `pub use`. *Re-exporting* takes a public item in one location and makes it public in another location, as if it were defined in the other location instead. For example, say we made a library named `art` for modeling artistic concepts. Within this library are two modules: a `kinds` module containing two enums named `PrimaryColor` and `SecondaryColor` and a `utils` module containing a -function named `mix`, as shown in Listing 14-3: +function named `mix`, as shown in Listing 14-3. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -301,8 +300,11 @@ pub mod utils { /// Combines two primary colors in equal amounts to create /// a secondary color. - pub fn mix(c1: PrimaryColor, c2: PrimaryColor) -> SecondaryColor { - // --snip-- + pub fn mix( + c1: PrimaryColor, + c2: PrimaryColor, + ) -> SecondaryColor { + --snip-- } } ``` @@ -311,9 +313,7 @@ Listing 14-3: An `art` library with items organized into `kinds` and `utils` modules Figure 14-3 shows what the front page of the documentation for this crate -generated by `cargo doc` would look like: - -Rendered documentation for the `art` crate that lists the `kinds` and `utils` modules +generated by `cargo doc` would look like. Figure 14-3: Front page of the documentation for `art` that lists the `kinds` and `utils` modules @@ -325,7 +325,7 @@ see them. Another crate that depends on this library would need `use` statements that bring the items from `art` into scope, specifying the module structure that’s currently defined. Listing 14-4 shows an example of a crate that uses the -`PrimaryColor` and `mix` items from the `art` crate: +`PrimaryColor` and `mix` items from the `art` crate. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -354,7 +354,7 @@ module names in the `use` statements. To remove the internal organization from the public API, we can modify the `art` crate code in Listing 14-3 to add `pub use` statements to re-export the -items at the top level, as shown in Listing 14-5: +items at the top level, as shown in Listing 14-5. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -368,11 +368,11 @@ pub use self::kinds::SecondaryColor; pub use self::utils::mix; pub mod kinds { - // --snip-- + --snip-- } pub mod utils { - // --snip-- + --snip-- } ``` @@ -382,14 +382,12 @@ The API documentation that `cargo doc` generates for this crate will now list and link re-exports on the front page, as shown in Figure 14-4, making the `PrimaryColor` and `SecondaryColor` types and the `mix` function easier to find. -Rendered documentation for the `art` crate with the re-exports on the front page - -Figure 14-4: The front page of the documentation for `art` -that lists the re-exports +Figure 14-4: The front page of the documentation for `art` that lists the +re-exports The `art` crate users can still see and use the internal structure from Listing 14-3 as demonstrated in Listing 14-4, or they can use the more convenient -structure in Listing 14-5, as shown in Listing 14-6: +structure in Listing 14-5, as shown in Listing 14-6. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -398,7 +396,7 @@ use art::mix; use art::PrimaryColor; fn main() { - // --snip-- + --snip-- } ``` @@ -406,7 +404,9 @@ Listing 14-6: A program using the re-exported items from the `art` crate In cases where there are many nested modules, re-exporting the types at the top level with `pub use` can make a significant difference in the experience of -people who use the crate. +people who use the crate. Another common use of `pub use` is to re-export +definitions of a dependency in the current crate to make that crate’s +definitions part of your crate’s public API. Creating a useful public API structure is more of an art than a science, and you can iterate to find the API that works best for your users. Choosing `pub @@ -418,11 +418,11 @@ differs from their public API. ### Setting Up a Crates.io Account Before you can publish any crates, you need to create an account on -*https://crates.io/* and get an API token. To do so, visit the home page at -*https://crates.io/* and log in via a GitHub account. (The GitHub account is +*https://crates.io* and get an API token. To do so, visit the home page at +*https://crates.io* and log in via a GitHub account. (The GitHub account is currently a requirement, but the site might support other ways of creating an account in the future.) Once you’re logged in, visit your account settings at -*https://crates.io/me/* and retrieve your API key. Then run the `cargo login` +*https://crates.io/me* and retrieve your API key. Then run the `cargo login` command with your API key, like this: ``` @@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ $ cargo login abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz012345 This command will inform Cargo of your API token and store it locally in *~/.cargo/credentials*. Note that this token is a *secret*: do not share it with anyone else. If you do share it with anyone for any reason, you should -revoke it and generate a new token on *https://crates.io/*. +revoke it and generate a new token on *https://crates.io*. ### Adding Metadata to a New Crate @@ -442,7 +442,7 @@ file. Your crate will need a unique name. While you’re working on a crate locally, you can name a crate whatever you’d like. However, crate names on -*https://crates.io/* are allocated on a first-come, first-served basis. Once a +*https://crates.io* are allocated on a first-come, first-served basis. Once a crate name is taken, no one else can publish a crate with that name. Before attempting to publish a crate, search for the name you want to use. If the name has been used, you will need to find another name and edit the `name` field in @@ -462,22 +462,26 @@ the crate at this point, you’ll get a warning and then an error: ``` $ cargo publish Updating crates.io index -warning: manifest has no description, license, license-file, documentation, homepage or repository. -See https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html#package-metadata for more info. +warning: manifest has no description, license, license-file, documentation, +homepage or repository. +See https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html#package-metadata +for more info. --snip-- error: failed to publish to registry at https://crates.io Caused by: - the remote server responded with an error: missing or empty metadata fields: description, license. Please see https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html for how to upload metadata -``` - -This errors because you’re missing some crucial information: a description and -license are required so people will know what your crate does and under what -terms they can use it. In *Cargo.toml*, add a description that's just a -sentence or two, because it will appear with your crate in search results. For -the `license` field, you need to give a *license identifier value*. The Linux -Foundation’s Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX) at -*http://spdx.org/licenses/* lists the identifiers you can use for this value. + the remote server responded with an error: missing or empty metadata fields: +description, license. Please see https://doc.rust- +lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html for how to upload metadata +``` + +This results in an error because you’re missing some crucial information: a +description and license are required so people will know what your crate does +and under what terms they can use it. In *Cargo.toml*, add a description that’s +just a sentence or two, because it will appear with your crate in search +results. For the `license` field, you need to give a *license identifier +value*. The Linux Foundation’s Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX) at +*http://spdx.org/licenses* lists the identifiers you can use for this value. For example, to specify that you’ve licensed your crate using the MIT License, add the `MIT` identifier: @@ -510,27 +514,28 @@ Filename: Cargo.toml name = "guessing_game" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" -description = "A fun game where you guess what number the computer has chosen." +description = "A fun game where you guess what number the +computer has chosen." license = "MIT OR Apache-2.0" [dependencies] ``` -Cargo’s documentation at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/* describes other -metadata you can specify to ensure others can discover and use your crate more -easily. +Cargo’s documentation at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo* describes other +metadata you can specify to ensure that others can discover and use your crate +more easily. ### Publishing to Crates.io Now that you’ve created an account, saved your API token, chosen a name for your crate, and specified the required metadata, you’re ready to publish! -Publishing a crate uploads a specific version to *https://crates.io/* for -others to use. +Publishing a crate uploads a specific version to *https://crates.io* for others +to use. Be careful, because a publish is *permanent*. The version can never be -overwritten, and the code cannot be deleted. One major goal of crates.io is to +overwritten, and the code cannot be deleted. One major goal of Crates.io is to act as a permanent archive of code so that builds of all projects that depend -on crates from *https://crates.io/* will continue to work. Allowing version +on crates from *https://crates.io* will continue to work. Allowing version deletions would make fulfilling that goal impossible. However, there is no limit to the number of crate versions you can publish. @@ -554,41 +559,41 @@ anyone can easily add your crate as a dependency of their project. When you’ve made changes to your crate and are ready to release a new version, you change the `version` value specified in your *Cargo.toml* file and -republish. Use the Semantic Versioning rules at *http://semver.org/* to decide -what an appropriate next version number is based on the kinds of changes you’ve -made. Then run `cargo publish` to upload the new version. +republish. Use the Semantic Versioning rules at *http://semver.org* to decide +what an appropriate next version number is, based on the kinds of changes +you’ve made. Then run `cargo publish` to upload the new version. -### Deprecating Versions from Crates.io with `cargo yank` +### Deprecating Versions from Crates.io with cargo yank Although you can’t remove previous versions of a crate, you can prevent any future projects from adding them as a new dependency. This is useful when a crate version is broken for one reason or another. In such situations, Cargo -supports *yanking* a crate version. +supports yanking a crate version. -Yanking a version prevents new projects from depending on that version while +*Yanking* a version prevents new projects from depending on that version while allowing all existing projects that depend on it to continue. Essentially, a yank means that all projects with a *Cargo.lock* will not break, and any future *Cargo.lock* files generated will not use the yanked version. To yank a version of a crate, in the directory of the crate that you’ve previously published, run `cargo yank` and specify which version you want to -yank: +yank. For example, if we’ve published a crate named `guessing_game` version +1.0.1 and we want to yank it, in the project directory for `guessing_game` we’d +run: ``` $ cargo yank --vers 1.0.1 + Updating crates.io index + Yank guessing_game@1.0.1 ``` - - - By adding `--undo` to the command, you can also undo a yank and allow projects to start depending on a version again: ``` $ cargo yank --vers 1.0.1 --undo + Updating crates.io index + Unyank guessing_game@1.0.1 ``` A yank *does not* delete any code. It cannot, for example, delete accidentally @@ -607,10 +612,10 @@ help manage multiple related packages that are developed in tandem. A *workspace* is a set of packages that share the same *Cargo.lock* and output directory. Let’s make a project using a workspace—we’ll use trivial code so we can concentrate on the structure of the workspace. There are multiple ways to -structure a workspace, so we'll just show one common way. We’ll have a +structure a workspace, so we’ll just show one common way. We’ll have a workspace containing a binary and two libraries. The binary, which will provide the main functionality, will depend on the two libraries. One library will -provide an `add_one` function, and a second library an `add_two` function. +provide an `add_one` function and the other library an `add_two` function. These three crates will be part of the same workspace. We’ll start by creating a new directory for the workspace: @@ -620,11 +625,10 @@ $ cd add ``` Next, in the *add* directory, we create the *Cargo.toml* file that will -configure the entire workspace. This file won’t have a `[package]` section or -the metadata we’ve seen in other *Cargo.toml* files. Instead, it will start -with a `[workspace]` section that will allow us to add members to the workspace -by specifying the path to the package with our binary crate; in this case, -that path is *adder*: +configure the entire workspace. This file won’t have a `[package]` section. +Instead, it will start with a `[workspace]` section that will allow us to add +members to the workspace by specifying the path to the package with our binary +crate; in this case, that path is *adder*: Filename: Cargo.toml @@ -719,8 +723,8 @@ pub fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 { ``` Now we can have the `adder` package with our binary depend on the `add_one` -package that has our library. First, we’ll need to add a path dependency on -`add_one` to *adder/Cargo.toml*. +package that has our library. First we’ll need to add a path dependency on +`add_one` to *adder/Cargo.toml*: Filename: adder/Cargo.toml @@ -745,8 +749,7 @@ use add_one; fn main() { let num = 10; println!( - "Hello, world! {} plus one is {}!", - num, + "Hello, world! {num} plus one is {}!", add_one::add_one(num) ); } @@ -764,9 +767,9 @@ $ cargo build Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.68s ``` -To run the binary crate from the *add* directory, we can specify which -package in the workspace we want to run by using the `-p` argument and the -package name with `cargo run`: +To run the binary crate from the *add* directory, we can specify which package +in the workspace we want to run by using the `-p` argument and the package name +with `cargo run`: ``` $ cargo run -p adder @@ -793,7 +796,7 @@ Filename: add_one/Cargo.toml ``` [dependencies] -rand = "0.8.3" +rand = "0.8.5" ``` We can now add `use rand;` to the *add_one/src/lib.rs* file, and building the @@ -804,20 +807,10 @@ referring to the `rand` we brought into scope: ``` $ cargo build Updating crates.io index - Downloaded rand v0.8.3 + Downloaded rand v0.8.5 --snip-- - Compiling rand v0.8.3 + Compiling rand v0.8.5 Compiling add_one v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/add_one) -warning: unused import: `rand` - --> add_one/src/lib.rs:1:5 - | -1 | use rand; - | ^^^^ - | - = note: `#[warn(unused_imports)]` on by default - -warning: 1 warning emitted - Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder) Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 10.18s ``` @@ -830,7 +823,7 @@ to the *adder/src/main.rs* file for the `adder` package, we’ll get an error: ``` $ cargo build - --snip-- + --snip-- Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder) error[E0432]: unresolved import `rand` --> adder/src/main.rs:2:5 @@ -879,24 +872,27 @@ $ cargo test Compiling add_one v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/add_one) Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder) Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.27s - Running target/debug/deps/add_one-f0253159197f7841 + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/add_one-f0253159197f7841) running 1 test test tests::it_works ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; +finished in 0.00s - Running target/debug/deps/adder-49979ff40686fa8e + Running unittests src/main.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-49979ff40686fa8e) running 0 tests -test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; +finished in 0.00s Doc-tests add_one running 0 tests -test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; +finished in 0.00s ``` The first section of the output shows that the `it_works` test in the `add_one` @@ -911,24 +907,26 @@ we want to test: ``` $ cargo test -p add_one Finished test [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.00s - Running target/debug/deps/add_one-b3235fea9a156f74 + Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/add_one-b3235fea9a156f74) running 1 test test tests::it_works ... ok -test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; +finished in 0.00s Doc-tests add_one running 0 tests -test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s +test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; +finished in 0.00s ``` This output shows `cargo test` only ran the tests for the `add_one` crate and didn’t run the `adder` crate tests. -If you publish the crates in the workspace to *https://crates.io/*, each crate +If you publish the crates in the workspace to *https://crates.io*, each crate in the workspace will need to be published separately. Like `cargo test`, we can publish a particular crate in our workspace by using the `-p` flag and specifying the name of the crate we want to publish. @@ -936,17 +934,17 @@ specifying the name of the crate we want to publish. For additional practice, add an `add_two` crate to this workspace in a similar way as the `add_one` crate! -As your project grows, consider using a workspace: it’s easier to understand -smaller, individual components than one big blob of code. Furthermore, keeping -the crates in a workspace can make coordination between crates easier if they -are often changed at the same time. +As your project grows, consider using a workspace: it provides +easier-to-understand, smaller, individual components than one big blob of code. +Furthermore, keeping the crates in a workspace can make coordination between +crates easier if they are often changed at the same time. -## Installing Binaries with `cargo install` +## Installing Binaries with cargo install The `cargo install` command allows you to install and use binary crates locally. This isn’t intended to replace system packages; it’s meant to be a convenient way for Rust developers to install tools that others have shared on -*https://crates.io/*. Note that you can only install packages that have binary +*https://crates.io*. Note that you can only install packages that have binary targets. A *binary target* is the runnable program that is created if the crate has a *src/main.rs* file or another file specified as a binary, as opposed to a library target that isn’t runnable on its own but is suitable for including @@ -966,35 +964,36 @@ can run the following: ``` $ cargo install ripgrep Updating crates.io index - Downloaded ripgrep v11.0.2 + Downloaded ripgrep v13.0.0 Downloaded 1 crate (243.3 KB) in 0.88s - Installing ripgrep v11.0.2 ---snip-- - Compiling ripgrep v11.0.2 + Installing ripgrep v13.0.0 + --snip-- + Compiling ripgrep v13.0.0 Finished release [optimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 3m 10s Installing ~/.cargo/bin/rg - Installed package `ripgrep v11.0.2` (executable `rg`) + Installed package `ripgrep v13.0.0` (executable `rg`) ``` The second-to-last line of the output shows the location and the name of the installed binary, which in the case of `ripgrep` is `rg`. As long as the installation directory is in your `$PATH`, as mentioned previously, you can -then run `rg --help` and start using a faster, rustier tool for searching files! +then run `rg --help` and start using a faster, Rustier tool for searching files! ## Extending Cargo with Custom Commands Cargo is designed so you can extend it with new subcommands without having to -modify Cargo. If a binary in your `$PATH` is named `cargo-something`, you can -run it as if it was a Cargo subcommand by running `cargo something`. Custom +modify it. If a binary in your `$PATH` is named `cargo-something`, you can run +it as if it were a Cargo subcommand by running `cargo something`. Custom commands like this are also listed when you run `cargo --list`. Being able to use `cargo install` to install extensions and then run them just like the -built-in Cargo tools is a super convenient benefit of Cargo’s design! +built-in Cargo tools is a super-convenient benefit of Cargo’s design! ## Summary -Sharing code with Cargo and *https://crates.io/* is part of what makes the Rust +Sharing code with Cargo and *https://crates.io* is part of what makes the Rust ecosystem useful for many different tasks. Rust’s standard library is small and stable, but crates are easy to share, use, and improve on a timeline different from that of the language. Don’t be shy about sharing code that’s useful to you -on *https://crates.io/*; it’s likely that it will be useful to someone else as +on *https://crates.io*; it’s likely that it will be useful to someone else as well! + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter15.md b/nostarch/chapter15.md index e179b1ef39..c0e847da1c 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter15.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter15.md @@ -13,34 +13,34 @@ memory. This address refers to, or “points at,” some other data. The most common kind of pointer in Rust is a reference, which you learned about in Chapter 4. References are indicated by the `&` symbol and borrow the value they point to. They don’t have any special capabilities other than referring to -data, and have no overhead. +data, and they have no overhead. *Smart pointers*, on the other hand, are data structures that act like a pointer but also have additional metadata and capabilities. The concept of smart pointers isn’t unique to Rust: smart pointers originated in C++ and exist in other languages as well. Rust has a variety of smart pointers defined in the standard library that provide functionality beyond that provided by references. -To explore the general concept, we'll look at a couple of different examples of +To explore the general concept, we’ll look at a couple of different examples of smart pointers, including a *reference counting* smart pointer type. This pointer enables you to allow data to have multiple owners by keeping track of the number of owners and, when no owners remain, cleaning up the data. Rust, with its concept of ownership and borrowing, has an additional difference between references and smart pointers: while references only borrow data, in -many cases, smart pointers *own* the data they point to. +many cases smart pointers *own* the data they point to. -Though we didn't call them as much at the time, we’ve already encountered a few +Though we didn’t call them as such at the time, we’ve already encountered a few smart pointers in this book, including `String` and `Vec` in Chapter 8. Both -these types count as smart pointers because they own some memory and allow you -to manipulate it. They also have metadata and extra capabilities or guarantees. -`String`, for example, stores its capacity as metadata and has the extra -ability to ensure its data will always be valid UTF-8. +of these types count as smart pointers because they own some memory and allow +you to manipulate it. They also have metadata and extra capabilities or +guarantees. `String`, for example, stores its capacity as metadata and has the +extra ability to ensure its data will always be valid UTF-8. Smart pointers are usually implemented using structs. Unlike an ordinary struct, smart pointers implement the `Deref` and `Drop` traits. The `Deref` trait allows an instance of the smart pointer struct to behave like a reference so you can write your code to work with either references or smart pointers. -The `Drop` trait allows you to customize the code that's run when an instance +The `Drop` trait allows you to customize the code that’s run when an instance of the smart pointer goes out of scope. In this chapter, we’ll discuss both traits and demonstrate why they’re important to smart pointers. @@ -49,10 +49,10 @@ frequently in Rust, this chapter won’t cover every existing smart pointer. Man libraries have their own smart pointers, and you can even write your own. We’ll cover the most common smart pointers in the standard library: -* `Box` for allocating values on the heap +* `Box`, for allocating values on the heap * `Rc`, a reference counting type that enables multiple ownership * `Ref` and `RefMut`, accessed through `RefCell`, a type that enforces - the borrowing rules at runtime instead of compile time +the borrowing rules at runtime instead of compile time In addition, we’ll cover the *interior mutability* pattern where an immutable type exposes an API for mutating an interior value. We’ll also discuss @@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ type exposes an API for mutating an interior value. We’ll also discuss Let’s dive in! -## Using `Box` to Point to Data on the Heap +## Using Box to Point to Data on the Heap The most straightforward smart pointer is a *box*, whose type is written `Box`. Boxes allow you to store data on the heap rather than the stack. What @@ -72,35 +72,35 @@ heap instead of on the stack. But they don’t have many extra capabilities either. You’ll use them most often in these situations: * When you have a type whose size can’t be known at compile time and you want - to use a value of that type in a context that requires an exact size +to use a value of that type in a context that requires an exact size * When you have a large amount of data and you want to transfer ownership but - ensure the data won’t be copied when you do so +ensure the data won’t be copied when you do so * When you want to own a value and you care only that it’s a type that - implements a particular trait rather than being of a specific type +implements a particular trait rather than being of a specific type -We’ll demonstrate the first situation in the “Enabling Recursive Types with -Boxes” section. In the second case, transferring ownership of a large amount of +We’ll demonstrate the first situation in “Enabling Recursive Types with Boxes” +on page XX. In the second case, transferring ownership of a large amount of data can take a long time because the data is copied around on the stack. To improve performance in this situation, we can store the large amount of data on the heap in a box. Then, only the small amount of pointer data is copied around on the stack, while the data it references stays in one place on the heap. The -third case is known as a *trait object*, and Chapter 17 devotes an entire -section, “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types,” just -to that topic. So what you learn here you’ll apply again in Chapter 17! +third case is known as a *trait object*, and “Using Trait Objects That Allow +for Values of Different Types” on page XX is devoted to that topic. So what you +learn here you’ll apply again in that section! -### Using a `Box` to Store Data on the Heap +### Using Box to Store Data on the Heap Before we discuss the heap storage use case for `Box`, we’ll cover the syntax and how to interact with values stored within a `Box`. -Listing 15-1 shows how to use a box to store an `i32` value on the heap: +Listing 15-1 shows how to use a box to store an `i32` value on the heap. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let b = Box::new(5); - println!("b = {}", b); + println!("b = {b}"); } ``` @@ -118,49 +118,39 @@ Putting a single value on the heap isn’t very useful, so you won’t use boxes themselves in this way very often. Having values like a single `i32` on the stack, where they’re stored by default, is more appropriate in the majority of situations. Let’s look at a case where boxes allow us to define types that we -wouldn’t be allowed to if we didn’t have boxes. +wouldn’t be allowed to define if we didn’t have boxes. ### Enabling Recursive Types with Boxes -A value of *recursive type* can have another value of the same type as part of -itself. Recursive types pose an issue because at compile time Rust needs to +A value of a *recursive type* can have another value of the same type as part +of itself. Recursive types pose an issue because at compile time Rust needs to know how much space a type takes up. However, the nesting of values of recursive types could theoretically continue infinitely, so Rust can’t know how much space the value needs. Because boxes have a known size, we can enable recursive types by inserting a box in the recursive type definition. -As an example of a recursive type, let’s explore the *cons list*. This is a data -type commonly found in functional programming languages. The cons list type -we’ll define is straightforward except for the recursion; therefore, the +As an example of a recursive type, let’s explore the *cons list*. This is a +data type commonly found in functional programming languages. The cons list +type we’ll define is straightforward except for the recursion; therefore, the concepts in the example we’ll work with will be useful any time you get into more complex situations involving recursive types. #### More Information About the Cons List A *cons list* is a data structure that comes from the Lisp programming language -and its dialects and is made up of nested pairs. Its name comes from the `cons` -function (short for “construct function”) in Lisp that constructs a new pair -from its two arguments. By calling `cons` on a pair consisting of a value and -another pair, we can construct cons lists made up of recursive pairs. +and its dialects, is made up of nested pairs, and is the Lisp version of a +linked list. Its name comes from the `cons` function (short for *construct +function*) in Lisp that constructs a new pair from its two arguments. By +calling `cons` on a pair consisting of a value and another pair, we can +construct cons lists made up of recursive pairs. - - - -For example, here's a pseudocode representation of a cons list containing the -list 1, 2, 3 with each pair in parentheses: +For example, here’s a pseudocode representation of a cons list containing the +list `1, 2, 3` with each pair in parentheses: ``` (1, (2, (3, Nil))) ``` - - - Each item in a cons list contains two elements: the value of the current item and the next item. The last item in the list contains only a value called `Nil` without a next item. A cons list is produced by recursively calling the `cons` @@ -191,16 +181,18 @@ Listing 15-2: The first attempt at defining an enum to represent a cons list data structure of `i32` values > Note: We’re implementing a cons list that holds only `i32` values for the -> purposes of this example. We could have implemented it using generics, as we -> discussed in Chapter 10, to define a cons list type that could store values of -> any type. +purposes of this example. We could have implemented it using generics, as we +discussed in Chapter 10, to define a cons list type that could store values of +any type. Using the `List` type to store the list `1, 2, 3` would look like the code in -Listing 15-3: +Listing 15-3. Filename: src/main.rs ``` +--snip-- + use crate::List::{Cons, Nil}; fn main() { @@ -215,10 +207,8 @@ another `Cons` value that holds `2` and another `List` value. This `List` value is one more `Cons` value that holds `3` and a `List` value, which is finally `Nil`, the non-recursive variant that signals the end of the list. - - If we try to compile the code in Listing 15-3, we get the error shown in -Listing 15-4: +Listing 15-4. ``` error[E0072]: recursive type `List` has infinite size @@ -229,7 +219,11 @@ error[E0072]: recursive type `List` has infinite size 2 | Cons(i32, List), | ---- recursive without indirection | -help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to make `List` representable +help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to make `List` +representable + | +2 | Cons(i32, Box), + | ++++ + ``` Listing 15-4: The error we get when attempting to define a recursive enum @@ -237,7 +231,7 @@ Listing 15-4: The error we get when attempting to define a recursive enum The error shows this type “has infinite size.” The reason is that we’ve defined `List` with a variant that is recursive: it holds another value of itself directly. As a result, Rust can’t figure out how much space it needs to store a -`List` value. Let’s break down why we get this error. First, we'll look at how +`List` value. Let’s break down why we get this error. First we’ll look at how Rust decides how much space it needs to store a value of a non-recursive type. #### Computing the Size of a Non-Recursive Type @@ -270,20 +264,22 @@ type needs, the compiler looks at the variants, starting with the `Cons` variant. The `Cons` variant holds a value of type `i32` and a value of type `List`, and this process continues infinitely, as shown in Figure 15-1. -An infinite Cons list - Figure 15-1: An infinite `List` consisting of infinite `Cons` variants -#### Using `Box` to Get a Recursive Type with a Known Size +#### Using Box to Get a Recursive Type with a Known Size Because Rust can’t figure out how much space to allocate for recursively defined types, the compiler gives an error with this helpful suggestion: ``` -help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to make `List` representable +help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to make `List` +representable + | +2 | Cons(i32, Box), + | ++++ + ``` -In this suggestion, “indirection” means that instead of storing a value +In this suggestion, *indirection* means that instead of storing a value directly, we should change the data structure to store the value indirectly by storing a pointer to the value instead. @@ -297,7 +293,7 @@ this implementation is now more like placing the items next to one another rather than inside one another. We can change the definition of the `List` enum in Listing 15-2 and the usage -of the `List` in Listing 15-3 to the code in Listing 15-5, which will compile: +of the `List` in Listing 15-3 to the code in Listing 15-5, which will compile. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -310,31 +306,38 @@ enum List { use crate::List::{Cons, Nil}; fn main() { - let list = Cons(1, Box::new(Cons(2, Box::new(Cons(3, Box::new(Nil)))))); + let list = Cons( + 1, + Box::new(Cons( + 2, + Box::new(Cons( + 3, + Box::new(Nil) + )) + )) + ); } ``` Listing 15-5: Definition of `List` that uses `Box` in order to have a known size -The `Cons` variant needs the size of an `i32` plus the space to store the -box’s pointer data. The `Nil` variant stores no values, so it needs less space -than the `Cons` variant. We now know that any `List` value will take up the -size of an `i32` plus the size of a box’s pointer data. By using a box, we’ve -broken the infinite, recursive chain, so the compiler can figure out the size -it needs to store a `List` value. Figure 15-2 shows what the `Cons` variant -looks like now. - -A finite Cons list +The `Cons` variant needs the size of an `i32` plus the space to store the box’s +pointer data. The `Nil` variant stores no values, so it needs less space than +the `Cons` variant. We now know that any `List` value will take up the size of +an `i32` plus the size of a box’s pointer data. By using a box, we’ve broken +the infinite, recursive chain, so the compiler can figure out the size it needs +to store a `List` value. Figure 15-2 shows what the `Cons` variant looks like +now. -Figure 15-2: A `List` that is not infinitely sized because `Cons` holds a `Box` +Figure 15-2: A `List` that is not infinitely sized, because `Cons` holds a `Box` Boxes provide only the indirection and heap allocation; they don’t have any other special capabilities, like those we’ll see with the other smart pointer types. They also don’t have the performance overhead that these special capabilities incur, so they can be useful in cases like the cons list where the indirection is the only feature we need. We’ll look at more use cases for boxes -in Chapter 17, too. +in Chapter 17. The `Box` type is a smart pointer because it implements the `Deref` trait, which allows `Box` values to be treated like references. When a `Box` @@ -344,7 +347,7 @@ even more important to the functionality provided by the other smart pointer types we’ll discuss in the rest of this chapter. Let’s explore these two traits in more detail. -## Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the `Deref` Trait +## Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with Deref Implementing the `Deref` trait allows you to customize the behavior of the *dereference operator* `*` (not to be confused with the multiplication or glob @@ -356,36 +359,31 @@ Let’s first look at how the dereference operator works with regular references Then we’ll try to define a custom type that behaves like `Box`, and see why the dereference operator doesn’t work like a reference on our newly defined type. We’ll explore how implementing the `Deref` trait makes it possible for -smart pointers to work in ways similar to references. Then we’ll look at -Rust’s *deref coercion* feature and how it lets us work with either references -or smart pointers. +smart pointers to work in ways similar to references. Then we’ll look at Rust’s +*deref coercion* feature and how it lets us work with either references or +smart pointers. -> Note: there’s one big difference between the `MyBox` type we’re about to -> build and the real `Box`: our version will not store its data on the heap. -> We are focusing this example on `Deref`, so where the data is actually stored -> is less important than the pointer-like behavior. +> Note: There’s one big difference between the `MyBox` type we’re about to +build and the real `Box`: our version will not store its data on the heap. +We are focusing this example on `Deref`, so where the data is actually stored +is less important than the pointer-like behavior. ### Following the Pointer to the Value A regular reference is a type of pointer, and one way to think of a pointer is as an arrow to a value stored somewhere else. In Listing 15-6, we create a reference to an `i32` value and then use the dereference operator to follow the -reference to the value: - - +reference to the value. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - [1] let x = 5; - [2] let y = &x; + 1 let x = 5; + 2 let y = &x; - [3] assert_eq!(5, x); - [4] assert_eq!(5, *y); + 3 assert_eq!(5, x); + 4 assert_eq!(5, *y); } ``` @@ -407,31 +405,33 @@ error[E0277]: can't compare `{integer}` with `&{integer}` --> src/main.rs:6:5 | 6 | assert_eq!(5, y); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ no implementation for `{integer} == &{integer}` + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ no implementation for `{integer} == +&{integer}` | - = help: the trait `PartialEq<&{integer}>` is not implemented for `{integer}` + = help: the trait `PartialEq<&{integer}>` is not implemented +for `{integer}` ``` Comparing a number and a reference to a number isn’t allowed because they’re different types. We must use the dereference operator to follow the reference to the value it’s pointing to. -### Using `Box` Like a Reference +### Using Box Like a Reference We can rewrite the code in Listing 15-6 to use a `Box` instead of a reference; the dereference operator used on the `Box` in Listing 15-7 functions in the same way as the dereference operator used on the reference in -Listing 15-6: +Listing 15-6. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let x = 5; - [1] let y = Box::new(x); + 1 let y = Box::new(x); assert_eq!(5, x); - [2] assert_eq!(5, *y); + 2 assert_eq!(5, *y); } ``` @@ -444,14 +444,6 @@ use the dereference operator to follow the box’s pointer in the same way that we did when `y` was a reference. Next, we’ll explore what is special about `Box` that enables us to use the dereference operator by defining our own box type. - - ### Defining Our Own Smart Pointer @@ -467,18 +459,18 @@ Listing 15-8 defines a `MyBox` type in the same way. We’ll also define a Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[1] struct MyBox(T); + 1 struct MyBox(T); impl MyBox { - [2] fn new(x: T) -> MyBox { - [3] MyBox(x) + 2 fn new(x: T) -> MyBox { + 3 MyBox(x) } } ``` Listing 15-8: Defining a `MyBox` type -We define a struct named `MyBox` and declare a generic parameter `T` [1], +We define a struct named `MyBox` and declare a generic parameter `T` [1] because we want our type to hold values of any type. The `MyBox` type is a tuple struct with one element of type `T`. The `MyBox::new` function takes one parameter of type `T` [2] and returns a `MyBox` instance that holds the value @@ -504,7 +496,7 @@ fn main() { Listing 15-9: Attempting to use `MyBox` in the same way we used references and `Box` -Here’s the resulting compilation error: +Here’s the resultant compilation error: ``` error[E0614]: type `MyBox<{integer}>` cannot be dereferenced @@ -518,14 +510,14 @@ Our `MyBox` type can’t be dereferenced because we haven’t implemented tha ability on our type. To enable dereferencing with the `*` operator, we implement the `Deref` trait. -### Treating a Type Like a Reference by Implementing the `Deref` Trait +### Implementing the Deref Trait -As discussed in the “Implementing a Trait on a Type” section of Chapter 10, to -implement a trait, we need to provide implementations for the trait’s required -methods. The `Deref` trait, provided by the standard library, requires us to -implement one method named `deref` that borrows `self` and returns a reference -to the inner data. Listing 15-10 contains an implementation of `Deref` to add -to the definition of `MyBox`: +As discussed in “Implementing a Trait on a Type” on page XX, to implement a +trait we need to provide implementations for the trait’s required methods. The +`Deref` trait, provided by the standard library, requires us to implement one +method named `deref` that borrows `self` and returns a reference to the inner +data. Listing 15-10 contains an implementation of `Deref` to add to the +definition of `MyBox```. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -533,10 +525,10 @@ Filename: src/main.rs use std::ops::Deref; impl Deref for MyBox { - [1] type Target = T; + 1 type Target = T; fn deref(&self) -> &Self::Target { - [2] &self.0 + 2 &self.0 } } ``` @@ -550,10 +542,10 @@ them in more detail in Chapter 19. We fill in the body of the `deref` method with `&self.0` so `deref` returns a reference to the value we want to access with the `*` operator [2]; recall from -the “Using Tuple Structs without Named Fields to Create Different Types” -section of Chapter 5 that `.0` accesses the first value in a tuple struct. The -`main` function in Listing 15-9 that calls `*` on the `MyBox` value now -compiles, and the assertions pass! +“Using Tuple Structs Without Named Fields to Create Different Types” on page XX +that `.0` accesses the first value in a tuple struct. The `main` function in +Listing 15-9 that calls `*` on the `MyBox` value now compiles, and the +assertions pass! Without the `Deref` trait, the compiler can only dereference `&` references. The `deref` method gives the compiler the ability to take a value of any type @@ -575,7 +567,7 @@ identically whether we have a regular reference or a type that implements The reason the `deref` method returns a reference to a value, and that the plain dereference outside the parentheses in `*(y.deref())` is still necessary, -is to do with the ownership system. If the `deref` method returned the value +has to do with the ownership system. If the `deref` method returned the value directly instead of a reference to the value, the value would be moved out of `self`. We don’t want to take ownership of the inner value inside `MyBox` in this case or in most cases where we use the dereference operator. @@ -591,7 +583,7 @@ Listing 15-9. *Deref coercion* converts a reference to a type that implements the `Deref` trait into a reference to another type. For example, deref coercion can convert `&String` to `&str` because `String` implements the `Deref` trait such that it -returns `&str`. Deref conversion is a convenience Rust performs on arguments to +returns `&str`. Deref coercion is a convenience Rust performs on arguments to functions and methods, and works only on types that implement the `Deref` trait. It happens automatically when we pass a reference to a particular type’s value as an argument to a function or method that doesn’t match the parameter @@ -606,21 +598,21 @@ can work for either references or smart pointers. To see deref coercion in action, let’s use the `MyBox` type we defined in Listing 15-8 as well as the implementation of `Deref` that we added in Listing 15-10. Listing 15-11 shows the definition of a function that has a string slice -parameter: +parameter. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn hello(name: &str) { - println!("Hello, {}!", name); + println!("Hello, {name}!"); } ``` Listing 15-11: A `hello` function that has the parameter `name` of type `&str` We can call the `hello` function with a string slice as an argument, such as -`hello("Rust");` for example. Deref coercion makes it possible to call `hello` -with a reference to a value of type `MyBox`, as shown in Listing 15-12: +`hello("Rust");`, for example. Deref coercion makes it possible to call `hello` +with a reference to a value of type `MyBox`, as shown in Listing 15-12. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -683,14 +675,10 @@ cases: * From `&mut T` to `&mut U` when `T: DerefMut` * From `&mut T` to `&U` when `T: Deref` -The first two cases are the same as each other except that the second -implements mutability. The first case states that if you have a `&T`, and `T` -implements `Deref` to some type `U`, you can get a `&U` transparently. The -second case states that the same deref coercion happens for mutable references. - - - +The first two cases are the same except that the second implements mutability. +The first case states that if you have a `&T`, and `T` implements `Deref` to +some type `U`, you can get a `&U` transparently. The second case states that +the same deref coercion happens for mutable references. The third case is trickier: Rust will also coerce a mutable reference to an immutable one. But the reverse is *not* possible: immutable references will @@ -704,23 +692,21 @@ the borrowing rules don’t guarantee that. Therefore, Rust can’t make the assumption that converting an immutable reference to a mutable reference is possible. -## Running Code on Cleanup with the `Drop` Trait +## Running Code on Cleanup with the Drop Trait The second trait important to the smart pointer pattern is `Drop`, which lets you customize what happens when a value is about to go out of scope. You can -provide an implementation for the `Drop` trait on any type, and that code -can be used to release resources like files or network connections. - - +provide an implementation for the `Drop` trait on any type, and that code can +be used to release resources like files or network connections. + We’re introducing `Drop` in the context of smart pointers because the functionality of the `Drop` trait is almost always used when implementing a smart pointer. For example, when a `Box` is dropped it will deallocate the space on the heap that the box points to. In some languages, for some types, the programmer must call code to free memory -or resources every time they finish using an instance those types. Examples -include file handles, sockets, or locks. If they forget, the system might +or resources every time they finish using an instance of those types. Examples +include file handles, sockets, and locks. If they forget, the system might become overloaded and crash. In Rust, you can specify that a particular bit of code be run whenever a value goes out of scope, and the compiler will insert this code automatically. As a result, you don’t need to be careful about @@ -734,7 +720,7 @@ let’s implement `drop` with `println!` statements for now. Listing 15-14 shows a `CustomSmartPointer` struct whose only custom functionality is that it will print `Dropping CustomSmartPointer!` when the -instance goes out of scope, to show when Rust runs the `drop` function. +instance goes out of scope, to show when Rust runs the `drop` method. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -743,21 +729,24 @@ struct CustomSmartPointer { data: String, } -[1] impl Drop for CustomSmartPointer { +1 impl Drop for CustomSmartPointer { fn drop(&mut self) { - [2] println!("Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `{}`!", self.data); + 2 println!( + "Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `{}`!", + self.data + ); } } fn main() { - [3] let c = CustomSmartPointer { + 3 let c = CustomSmartPointer { data: String::from("my stuff"), }; - [4] let d = CustomSmartPointer { + 4 let d = CustomSmartPointer { data: String::from("other stuff"), }; - [5] println!("CustomSmartPointers created."); -[6] } + 5 println!("CustomSmartPointers created."); +6 } ``` Listing 15-14: A `CustomSmartPointer` struct that implements the `Drop` trait @@ -766,12 +755,12 @@ where we would put our cleanup code The `Drop` trait is included in the prelude, so we don’t need to bring it into scope. We implement the `Drop` trait on `CustomSmartPointer` [1] and provide an implementation for the `drop` method that calls `println!` [2]. The body of the -`drop` function is where you would place any logic that you wanted to run when -an instance of your type goes out of scope. We’re printing some text here to +`drop` method is where you would place any logic that you wanted to run when an +instance of your type goes out of scope. We’re printing some text here to demonstrate visually when Rust will call `drop`. -In `main`, we create two instances of `CustomSmartPointer` [3][4] and then -print `CustomSmartPointers created` [5]. At the end of `main` [6], our +In `main`, we create two instances of `CustomSmartPointer` at [3] and [4] and +then print `CustomSmartPointers created` [5]. At the end of `main` [6], our instances of `CustomSmartPointer` will go out of scope, and Rust will call the code we put in the `drop` method [2], printing our final message. Note that we didn’t need to call the `drop` method explicitly. @@ -786,26 +775,24 @@ Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `my stuff`! Rust automatically called `drop` for us when our instances went out of scope, calling the code we specified. Variables are dropped in the reverse order of -their creation, so `d` was dropped before `c`. This example's purpose is to +their creation, so `d` was dropped before `c`. This example’s purpose is to give you a visual guide to how the `drop` method works; usually you would specify the cleanup code that your type needs to run rather than a print message. -### Dropping a Value Early with `std::mem::drop` - Unfortunately, it’s not straightforward to disable the automatic `drop` functionality. Disabling `drop` isn’t usually necessary; the whole point of the `Drop` trait is that it’s taken care of automatically. Occasionally, however, you might want to clean up a value early. One example is when using smart pointers that manage locks: you might want to force the `drop` method that releases the lock so that other code in the same scope can acquire the lock. -Rust doesn’t let you call the `Drop` trait’s `drop` method manually; instead +Rust doesn’t let you call the `Drop` trait’s `drop` method manually; instead, you have to call the `std::mem::drop` function provided by the standard library if you want to force a value to be dropped before the end of its scope. If we try to call the `Drop` trait’s `drop` method manually by modifying the `main` function from Listing 15-14, as shown in Listing 15-15, we’ll get a -compiler error: +compiler error. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -816,7 +803,9 @@ fn main() { }; println!("CustomSmartPointer created."); c.drop(); - println!("CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main."); + println!( + "CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main." + ); } ``` @@ -833,6 +822,7 @@ error[E0040]: explicit use of destructor method | --^^^^-- | | | | | explicit destructor calls not allowed + | help: consider using `drop` function: `drop(c)` ``` This error message states that we’re not allowed to explicitly call `drop`. The @@ -851,9 +841,9 @@ scope, and we can’t call the `drop` method explicitly. So, if we need to force a value to be cleaned up early, we use the `std::mem::drop` function. The `std::mem::drop` function is different from the `drop` method in the `Drop` -trait. We call it by passing as an argument the value we want to force drop. +trait. We call it by passing as an argument the value we want to force-drop. The function is in the prelude, so we can modify `main` in Listing 15-15 to -call the `drop` function, as shown in Listing 15-16: +call the `drop` function, as shown in Listing 15-16. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -864,7 +854,9 @@ fn main() { }; println!("CustomSmartPointer created."); drop(c); - println!("CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main."); + println!( + "CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main." + ); } ``` @@ -879,7 +871,7 @@ Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `some data`! CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main. ``` -The text ```Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `some data`!``` is printed +The text `Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `some data`!` is printed between the `CustomSmartPointer created.` and `CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main.` text, showing that the `drop` method code is called to drop `c` at that point. @@ -898,7 +890,7 @@ Now that we’ve examined `Box` and some of the characteristics of smart pointers, let’s look at a few other smart pointers defined in the standard library. -## `Rc`, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer +## Rc, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer In the majority of cases, ownership is clear: you know exactly which variable owns a given value. However, there are cases when a single value might have @@ -907,8 +899,6 @@ point to the same node, and that node is conceptually owned by all of the edges that point to it. A node shouldn’t be cleaned up unless it doesn’t have any edges pointing to it and so has no owners. - - You have to enable multiple ownership explicitly by using the Rust type `Rc`, which is an abbreviation for *reference counting*. The `Rc` type keeps track of the number of references to a value to determine whether or not @@ -919,8 +909,7 @@ Imagine `Rc` as a TV in a family room. When one person enters to watch TV, they turn it on. Others can come into the room and watch the TV. When the last person leaves the room, they turn off the TV because it’s no longer being used. If someone turns off the TV while others are still watching it, there would be -uproar from the remaining TV watchers! - +an uproar from the remaining TV watchers! We use the `Rc` type when we want to allocate some data on the heap for multiple parts of our program to read and we can’t determine at compile time @@ -932,23 +921,21 @@ Note that `Rc` is only for use in single-threaded scenarios. When we discuss concurrency in Chapter 16, we’ll cover how to do reference counting in multithreaded programs. -### Using `Rc` to Share Data +### Using Rc to Share Data Let’s return to our cons list example in Listing 15-5. Recall that we defined it using `Box`. This time, we’ll create two lists that both share ownership -of a third list. Conceptually, this looks similar to Figure 15-3: - -Two lists that share ownership of a third list +of a third list. Conceptually, this looks similar to Figure 15-3. Figure 15-3: Two lists, `b` and `c`, sharing ownership of a third list, `a` -We’ll create list `a` that contains 5 and then 10. Then we’ll make two more -lists: `b` that starts with 3 and `c` that starts with 4. Both `b` and `c` -lists will then continue on to the first `a` list containing 5 and 10. In other -words, both lists will share the first list containing 5 and 10. +We’ll create list `a` that contains `5` and then `10`. Then we’ll make two more +lists: `b` that starts with `3` and `c` that starts with `4`. Both `b` and `c` +lists will then continue on to the first `a` list containing `5` and `10`. In +other words, both lists will share the first list containing `5` and `10`. Trying to implement this scenario using our definition of `List` with `Box` -won’t work, as shown in Listing 15-17: +won’t work, as shown in Listing 15-17. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -962,13 +949,13 @@ use crate::List::{Cons, Nil}; fn main() { let a = Cons(5, Box::new(Cons(10, Box::new(Nil)))); -[1] let b = Cons(3, Box::new(a)); -[2] let c = Cons(4, Box::new(a)); + 1 let b = Cons(3, Box::new(a)); + 2 let c = Cons(4, Box::new(a)); } ``` -Listing 15-17: Demonstrating we’re not allowed to have two lists using `Box` -that try to share ownership of a third list +Listing 15-17: Demonstrating that we’re not allowed to have two lists using +`Box` that try to share ownership of a third list When we compile this code, we get this error: @@ -977,7 +964,8 @@ error[E0382]: use of moved value: `a` --> src/main.rs:11:30 | 9 | let a = Cons(5, Box::new(Cons(10, Box::new(Nil)))); - | - move occurs because `a` has type `List`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | - move occurs because `a` has type `List`, which +does not implement the `Copy` trait 10 | let b = Cons(3, Box::new(a)); | - value moved here 11 | let c = Cons(4, Box::new(a)); @@ -1014,22 +1002,22 @@ enum List { } use crate::List::{Cons, Nil}; -[1] use std::rc::Rc; +1 use std::rc::Rc; fn main() { -[2] let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, Rc::new(Cons(10, Rc::new(Nil))))); -[3] let b = Cons(3, Rc::clone(&a)); -[4] let c = Cons(4, Rc::clone(&a)); + 2 let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, Rc::new(Cons(10, Rc::new(Nil))))); + 3 let b = Cons(3, Rc::clone(&a)); + 4 let c = Cons(4, Rc::clone(&a)); } ``` Listing 15-18: A definition of `List` that uses `Rc` We need to add a `use` statement to bring `Rc` into scope [1] because it’s -not in the prelude. In `main`, we create the list holding 5 and 10 and store it -in a new `Rc` in `a` [2]. Then when we create `b` [3] and `c` [4], we -call the `Rc::clone` function and pass a reference to the `Rc` in `a` as -an argument. +not in the prelude. In `main`, we create the list holding `5` and `10` and +store it in a new `Rc` in `a` [2]. Then, when we create `b` [3] and `c` +[4], we call the `Rc::clone` function and pass a reference to the `Rc` in +`a` as an argument. We could have called `a.clone()` rather than `Rc::clone(&a)`, but Rust’s convention is to use `Rc::clone` in this case. The implementation of @@ -1042,7 +1030,7 @@ increase the reference count. When looking for performance problems in the code, we only need to consider the deep-copy clones and can disregard calls to `Rc::clone`. -### Cloning an `Rc` Increases the Reference Count +### Cloning an Rc Increases the Reference Count Let’s change our working example in Listing 15-18 so we can see the reference counts changing as we create and drop references to the `Rc` in `a`. @@ -1053,16 +1041,30 @@ then we can see how the reference count changes when `c` goes out of scope. Filename: src/main.rs ``` +--snip-- + fn main() { let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, Rc::new(Cons(10, Rc::new(Nil))))); - println!("count after creating a = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a)); + println!( + "count after creating a = {}", + Rc::strong_count(&a) + ); let b = Cons(3, Rc::clone(&a)); - println!("count after creating b = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a)); + println!( + "count after creating b = {}", + Rc::strong_count(&a) + ); { let c = Cons(4, Rc::clone(&a)); - println!("count after creating c = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a)); + println!( + "count after creating c = {}", + Rc::strong_count(&a) + ); } - println!("count after c goes out of scope = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a)); + println!( + "count after c goes out of scope = {}", + Rc::strong_count(&a) + ); } ``` @@ -1071,8 +1073,8 @@ Listing 15-19: Printing the reference count At each point in the program where the reference count changes, we print the reference count, which we get by calling the `Rc::strong_count` function. This function is named `strong_count` rather than `count` because the `Rc` type -also has a `weak_count`; we’ll see what `weak_count` is used for in the -“Preventing Reference Cycles: Turning an `Rc` into a `Weak`” section. +also has a `weak_count`; we’ll see what `weak_count` is used for in “Preventing +Reference Cycles Using Weak” on page XX. This code prints the following: @@ -1105,18 +1107,16 @@ section, we’ll discuss the interior mutability pattern and the `RefCell` type that you can use in conjunction with an `Rc` to work with this immutability restriction. -## `RefCell` and the Interior Mutability Pattern +## RefCell and the Interior Mutability Pattern *Interior mutability* is a design pattern in Rust that allows you to mutate data even when there are immutable references to that data; normally, this action is disallowed by the borrowing rules. To mutate data, the pattern uses `unsafe` code inside a data structure to bend Rust’s usual rules that govern -mutation and borrowing. We haven’t yet covered unsafe code that indicates we're -checking the rules manually instead of the compiler checking them for us; we -will discuss unsafe code more in Chapter 19. - - +mutation and borrowing. Unsafe code indicates to the compiler that we’re +checking the rules manually instead of relying on the compiler to check them +for us; we will discuss unsafe code more in Chapter 19. + We can use types that use the interior mutability pattern only when we can ensure that the borrowing rules will be followed at runtime, even though the compiler can’t guarantee that. The `unsafe` code involved is then wrapped in a @@ -1125,14 +1125,14 @@ safe API, and the outer type is still immutable. Let’s explore this concept by looking at the `RefCell` type that follows the interior mutability pattern. -### Enforcing Borrowing Rules at Runtime with `RefCell` +### Enforcing Borrowing Rules at Runtime with RefCell Unlike `Rc`, the `RefCell` type represents single ownership over the data -it holds. So, what makes `RefCell` different from a type like `Box`? +it holds. So what makes `RefCell` different from a type like `Box`? Recall the borrowing rules you learned in Chapter 4: -* At any given time, you can have *either* (but not both) one mutable reference - or any number of immutable references. +* At any given time, you can have *either* one mutable reference or any number +of immutable references (but not both). * References must always be valid. With references and `Box`, the borrowing rules’ invariants are enforced at @@ -1170,13 +1170,13 @@ multithreaded program in Chapter 16. Here is a recap of the reasons to choose `Box`, `Rc`, or `RefCell`: * `Rc` enables multiple owners of the same data; `Box` and `RefCell` - have single owners. +have single owners. * `Box` allows immutable or mutable borrows checked at compile time; `Rc` - allows only immutable borrows checked at compile time; `RefCell` allows - immutable or mutable borrows checked at runtime. +allows only immutable borrows checked at compile time; `RefCell` allows +immutable or mutable borrows checked at runtime. * Because `RefCell` allows mutable borrows checked at runtime, you can - mutate the value inside the `RefCell` even when the `RefCell` is - immutable. +mutate the value inside the `RefCell` even when the `RefCell` is +immutable. Mutating the value inside an immutable value is the *interior mutability* pattern. Let’s look at a situation in which interior mutability is useful and @@ -1187,6 +1187,8 @@ examine how it’s possible. A consequence of the borrowing rules is that when you have an immutable value, you can’t borrow it mutably. For example, this code won’t compile: +Filename: src/main.rs + ``` fn main() { let x = 5; @@ -1197,7 +1199,8 @@ fn main() { If you tried to compile this code, you’d get the following error: ``` -error[E0596]: cannot borrow `x` as mutable, as it is not declared as mutable +error[E0596]: cannot borrow `x` as mutable, as it is not declared +as mutable --> src/main.rs:3:13 | 2 | let x = 5; @@ -1221,19 +1224,13 @@ an immutable value and see why that is useful. #### A Use Case for Interior Mutability: Mock Objects Sometimes during testing a programmer will use a type in place of another type, -in order to observe particular behavior and assert it's implemented correctly. - - -This placeholder type is called a *test double*. Think of it in the sense of a -"stunt double" in filmmaking, where a person steps in and substitutes for an -actor to do a particular tricky scene. Test doubles stand in for other types -when we're running tests. *Mock objects* are specific types of test doubles -that record what happens during a test so you can assert that the correct -actions took place. +in order to observe particular behavior and assert that it’s implemented +correctly. This placeholder type is called a *test double*. Think of it in the +sense of a stunt double in filmmaking, where a person steps in and substitutes +for an actor to do a particularly tricky scene. Test doubles stand in for other +types when we’re running tests. *Mock objects* are specific types of test +doubles that record what happens during a test so you can assert that the +correct actions took place. Rust doesn’t have objects in the same sense as other languages have objects, and Rust doesn’t have mock object functionality built into the standard library @@ -1249,15 +1246,15 @@ Our library will only provide the functionality of tracking how close to the maximum a value is and what the messages should be at what times. Applications that use our library will be expected to provide the mechanism for sending the messages: the application could put a message in the application, send an -email, send a text message, or something else. The library doesn’t need to know -that detail. All it needs is something that implements a trait we’ll provide -called `Messenger`. Listing 15-20 shows the library code: +email, send a text message, or do something else. The library doesn’t need to +know that detail. All it needs is something that implements a trait we’ll +provide called `Messenger`. Listing 15-20 shows the library code. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` pub trait Messenger { -[1] fn send(&self, msg: &str); + 1 fn send(&self, msg: &str); } pub struct LimitTracker<'a, T: Messenger> { @@ -1270,7 +1267,10 @@ impl<'a, T> LimitTracker<'a, T> where T: Messenger, { - pub fn new(messenger: &'a T, max: usize) -> LimitTracker<'a, T> { + pub fn new( + messenger: &'a T, + max: usize + ) -> LimitTracker<'a, T> { LimitTracker { messenger, value: 0, @@ -1278,19 +1278,21 @@ where } } -[2] pub fn set_value(&mut self, value: usize) { + 2 pub fn set_value(&mut self, value: usize) { self.value = value; - let percentage_of_max = self.value as f64 / self.max as f64; + let percentage_of_max = + self.value as f64 / self.max as f64; if percentage_of_max >= 1.0 { - self.messenger.send("Error: You are over your quota!"); + self.messenger + .send("Error: You are over your quota!"); } else if percentage_of_max >= 0.9 { self.messenger - .send("Urgent warning: You've used up over 90% of your quota!"); + .send("Urgent: You're at 90% of your quota!"); } else if percentage_of_max >= 0.75 { self.messenger - .send("Warning: You've used up over 75% of your quota!"); + .send("Warning: You're at 75% of your quota!"); } } } @@ -1308,7 +1310,7 @@ part is that we want to test the behavior of the `set_value` method on the but `set_value` doesn’t return anything for us to make assertions on. We want to be able to say that if we create a `LimitTracker` with something that implements the `Messenger` trait and a particular value for `max`, when we pass -different numbers for `value`, the messenger is told to send the appropriate +different numbers for `value` the messenger is told to send the appropriate messages. We need a mock object that, instead of sending an email or text message when we @@ -1316,7 +1318,7 @@ call `send`, will only keep track of the messages it’s told to send. We can create a new instance of the mock object, create a `LimitTracker` that uses the mock object, call the `set_value` method on `LimitTracker`, and then check that the mock object has the messages we expect. Listing 15-21 shows an attempt to -implement a mock object to do just that, but the borrow checker won’t allow it: +implement a mock object to do just that, but the borrow checker won’t allow it. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1325,28 +1327,31 @@ Filename: src/lib.rs mod tests { use super::*; - [1] struct MockMessenger { - [2] sent_messages: Vec, + 1 struct MockMessenger { + 2 sent_messages: Vec, } impl MockMessenger { - [3] fn new() -> MockMessenger { + 3 fn new() -> MockMessenger { MockMessenger { sent_messages: vec![], } } } - [4] impl Messenger for MockMessenger { + 4 impl Messenger for MockMessenger { fn send(&self, message: &str) { - [5] self.sent_messages.push(String::from(message)); + 5 self.sent_messages.push(String::from(message)); } } #[test] - [6] fn it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message() { + 6 fn it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message() { let mock_messenger = MockMessenger::new(); - let mut limit_tracker = LimitTracker::new(&mock_messenger, 100); + let mut limit_tracker = LimitTracker::new( + &mock_messenger, + 100 + ); limit_tracker.set_value(80); @@ -1368,37 +1373,40 @@ we can give a `MockMessenger` to a `LimitTracker`. In the definition of the the `MockMessenger` list of `sent_messages`. In the test, we’re testing what happens when the `LimitTracker` is told to set -`value` to something that is more than 75 percent of the `max` value [6]. -First, we create a new `MockMessenger`, which will start with an empty list of +`value` to something that is more than 75 percent of the `max` value [6]. First +we create a new `MockMessenger`, which will start with an empty list of messages. Then we create a new `LimitTracker` and give it a reference to the -new `MockMessenger` and a `max` value of 100. We call the `set_value` method on -the `LimitTracker` with a value of 80, which is more than 75 percent of 100. -Then we assert that the list of messages that the `MockMessenger` is keeping -track of should now have one message in it. +new `MockMessenger` and a `max` value of `100`. We call the `set_value` method +on the `LimitTracker` with a value of `80`, which is more than 75 percent of +100. Then we assert that the list of messages that the `MockMessenger` is +keeping track of should now have one message in it. However, there’s one problem with this test, as shown here: ``` -error[E0596]: cannot borrow `self.sent_messages` as mutable, as it is behind a `&` reference +error[E0596]: cannot borrow `self.sent_messages` as mutable, as it is behind a +`&` reference --> src/lib.rs:58:13 | 2 | fn send(&self, msg: &str); - | ----- help: consider changing that to be a mutable reference: `&mut self` + | ----- help: consider changing that to be a mutable reference: +`&mut self` ... 58 | self.sent_messages.push(String::from(message)); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `self` is a `&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `self` is a +`&` reference, so the data it refers to cannot be borrowed as mutable ``` -We can’t modify the `MockMessenger` to keep track of the messages, because the +We can’t modify the `MockMessenger` to keep track of the messages because the `send` method takes an immutable reference to `self`. We also can’t take the -suggestion from the error text to use `&mut self` instead, because then the +suggestion from the error text to use `&mut self` instead because then the signature of `send` wouldn’t match the signature in the `Messenger` trait -definition (feel free to try and see what error message you get). +definition (feel free to try it and see what error message you get). This is a situation in which interior mutability can help! We’ll store the -`sent_messages` within a `RefCell`, and then the `send` method will be -able to modify `sent_messages` to store the messages we’ve seen. Listing 15-22 -shows what that looks like: +`sent_messages` within a `RefCell`, and then the `send` method will be able +to modify `sent_messages` to store the messages we’ve seen. Listing 15-22 shows +what that looks like. Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -1409,28 +1417,33 @@ mod tests { use std::cell::RefCell; struct MockMessenger { - [1] sent_messages: RefCell>, + 1 sent_messages: RefCell>, } impl MockMessenger { fn new() -> MockMessenger { MockMessenger { - sent_messages: RefCell::new(vec![]) [2], + 2 sent_messages: RefCell::new(vec![]), } } } impl Messenger for MockMessenger { fn send(&self, message: &str) { - [3] self.sent_messages.borrow_mut().push(String::from(message)); + self.sent_messages + 3 .borrow_mut() + .push(String::from(message)); } } #[test] fn it_sends_an_over_75_percent_warning_message() { - // --snip-- + --snip-- - [4] assert_eq!(mock_messenger.sent_messages.borrow().len(), 1); + assert_eq!( + 4 mock_messenger.sent_messages.borrow().len(), + 1 + ); } } ``` @@ -1445,9 +1458,9 @@ instance around the empty vector [2]. For the implementation of the `send` method, the first parameter is still an immutable borrow of `self`, which matches the trait definition. We call `borrow_mut` on the `RefCell>` in `self.sent_messages` [3] to get a -mutable reference to the value inside the `RefCell>`, which is -the vector. Then we can call `push` on the mutable reference to the vector to -keep track of the messages sent during the test. +mutable reference to the value inside the `RefCell>`, which is the +vector. Then we can call `push` on the mutable reference to the vector to keep +track of the messages sent during the test. The last change we have to make is in the assertion: to see how many items are in the inner vector, we call `borrow` on the `RefCell>` to get an @@ -1455,7 +1468,7 @@ immutable reference to the vector [4]. Now that you’ve seen how to use `RefCell`, let’s dig into how it works! -#### Keeping Track of Borrows at Runtime with `RefCell` +#### Keeping Track of Borrows at Runtime with RefCell When creating immutable and mutable references, we use the `&` and `&mut` syntax, respectively. With `RefCell`, we use the `borrow` and `borrow_mut` @@ -1467,7 +1480,7 @@ can treat them like regular references. The `RefCell` keeps track of how many `Ref` and `RefMut` smart pointers are currently active. Every time we call `borrow`, the `RefCell` increases its count of how many immutable borrows are active. When a `Ref` -value goes out of scope, the count of immutable borrows goes down by one. Just +value goes out of scope, the count of immutable borrows goes down by 1. Just like the compile-time borrowing rules, `RefCell` lets us have many immutable borrows or one mutable borrow at any point in time. @@ -1481,15 +1494,15 @@ at runtime. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` - impl Messenger for MockMessenger { - fn send(&self, message: &str) { - let mut one_borrow = self.sent_messages.borrow_mut(); - let mut two_borrow = self.sent_messages.borrow_mut(); +impl Messenger for MockMessenger { + fn send(&self, message: &str) { + let mut one_borrow = self.sent_messages.borrow_mut(); + let mut two_borrow = self.sent_messages.borrow_mut(); - one_borrow.push(String::from(message)); - two_borrow.push(String::from(message)); - } + one_borrow.push(String::from(message)); + two_borrow.push(String::from(message)); } +} ``` Listing 15-23: Creating two mutable references in the same scope to see that @@ -1512,7 +1525,7 @@ BorrowMutError`. This is how `RefCell` handles violations of the borrowing rules at runtime. Choosing to catch borrowing errors at runtime rather than compile time, as -we've done here, means you'd potentially be finding mistakes in your code later +we’ve done here, means you’d potentially be finding mistakes in your code later in the development process: possibly not until your code was deployed to production. Also, your code would incur a small runtime performance penalty as a result of keeping track of the borrows at runtime rather than compile time. @@ -1522,7 +1535,7 @@ in a context where only immutable values are allowed. You can use `RefCell` despite its trade-offs to get more functionality than regular references provide. -### Having Multiple Owners of Mutable Data by Combining `Rc` and `RefCell` +### Allowing Multiple Owners of Mutable Data with Rc and RefCell A common way to use `RefCell` is in combination with `Rc`. Recall that `Rc` lets you have multiple owners of some data, but it only gives immutable @@ -1532,10 +1545,10 @@ get a value that can have multiple owners *and* that you can mutate! For example, recall the cons list example in Listing 15-18 where we used `Rc` to allow multiple lists to share ownership of another list. Because `Rc` holds only immutable values, we can’t change any of the values in the -list once we’ve created them. Let’s add in `RefCell` to gain the ability to +list once we’ve created them. Let’s add in `RefCell` for its ability to change the values in the lists. Listing 15-24 shows that by using a `RefCell` in the `Cons` definition, we can modify the value stored in all -the lists: +the lists. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1551,14 +1564,14 @@ use std::cell::RefCell; use std::rc::Rc; fn main() { - [1] let value = Rc::new(RefCell::new(5)); + 1 let value = Rc::new(RefCell::new(5)); - [2] let a = Rc::new(Cons(Rc::clone(&value), Rc::new(Nil))); + 2 let a = Rc::new(Cons(Rc::clone(&value), Rc::new(Nil))); let b = Cons(Rc::new(RefCell::new(3)), Rc::clone(&a)); let c = Cons(Rc::new(RefCell::new(4)), Rc::clone(&a)); - [3] *value.borrow_mut() += 10; + 3 *value.borrow_mut() += 10; println!("a after = {:?}", a); println!("b after = {:?}", b); @@ -1580,13 +1593,13 @@ can both refer to `a`, which is what we did in Listing 15-18. After we’ve created the lists in `a`, `b`, and `c`, we want to add 10 to the value in `value` [3]. We do this by calling `borrow_mut` on `value`, which uses -the automatic dereferencing feature we discussed in Chapter 5 (see the section -“Where’s the `->` Operator?”) to dereference the `Rc` to the inner -`RefCell` value. The `borrow_mut` method returns a `RefMut` smart -pointer, and we use the dereference operator on it and change the inner value. +the automatic dereferencing feature we discussed in “Where’s the -> Operator?” +on page XX to dereference the `Rc` to the inner `RefCell` value. The +`borrow_mut` method returns a `RefMut` smart pointer, and we use the +dereference operator on it and change the inner value. When we print `a`, `b`, and `c`, we can see that they all have the modified -value of 15 rather than 5: +value of `15` rather than `5`: ``` a after = Cons(RefCell { value: 15 }, Nil) @@ -1599,14 +1612,9 @@ immutable `List` value. But we can use the methods on `RefCell` that provide access to its interior mutability so we can modify our data when we need to. The runtime checks of the borrowing rules protect us from data races, and it’s sometimes worth trading a bit of speed for this flexibility in our data -structures. - -The standard library has other types that provide interior mutability, such as -`Cell`, which is similar except that instead of giving references to the -inner value, the value is copied in and out of the `Cell`. There’s also -`Mutex`, which offers interior mutability that’s safe to use across threads; -we’ll discuss its use in Chapter 16. Check out the standard library docs for -more details on the differences between these types. +structures. Note that `RefCell` does not work for multithreaded code! +`Mutex` is the thread-safe version of `RefCell`, and we’ll discuss +`Mutex` in Chapter 16. ## Reference Cycles Can Leak Memory @@ -1623,7 +1631,7 @@ will never be dropped. Let’s look at how a reference cycle might happen and how to prevent it, starting with the definition of the `List` enum and a `tail` method in Listing -15-25: +15-25. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1634,12 +1642,12 @@ use std::rc::Rc; #[derive(Debug)] enum List { - [1] Cons(i32, RefCell>), + 1 Cons(i32, RefCell>), Nil, } impl List { - [2] fn tail(&self) -> Option<&RefCell>> { + 2 fn tail(&self) -> Option<&RefCell>> { match self { Cons(_, item) => Some(item), Nil => None, @@ -1654,9 +1662,9 @@ modify what a `Cons` variant is referring to We’re using another variation of the `List` definition from Listing 15-5. The second element in the `Cons` variant is now `RefCell>` [1], meaning that instead of having the ability to modify the `i32` value as we did in -Listing 15-24, we want to modify the `List` value a `Cons` variant is -pointing to. We’re also adding a `tail` method [2] to make it convenient for us -to access the second item if we have a `Cons` variant. +Listing 15-24, we want to modify the `List` value a `Cons` variant is pointing +to. We’re also adding a `tail` method [2] to make it convenient for us to +access the second item if we have a `Cons` variant. In Listing 15-26, we’re adding a `main` function that uses the definitions in Listing 15-25. This code creates a list in `a` and a list in `b` that points to @@ -1668,23 +1676,32 @@ Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - [1] let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, RefCell::new(Rc::new(Nil)))); + 1 let a = Rc::new(Cons(5, RefCell::new(Rc::new(Nil)))); println!("a initial rc count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a)); println!("a next item = {:?}", a.tail()); - [2] let b = Rc::new(Cons(10, RefCell::new(Rc::clone(&a)))); + 2 let b = Rc::new(Cons(10, RefCell::new(Rc::clone(&a)))); - println!("a rc count after b creation = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a)); + println!( + "a rc count after b creation = {}", + Rc::strong_count(&a) + ); println!("b initial rc count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&b)); println!("b next item = {:?}", b.tail()); - [3] if let Some(link) = a.tail() { - [4] *link.borrow_mut() = Rc::clone(&b); + 3 if let Some(link) = a.tail() { + 4 *link.borrow_mut() = Rc::clone(&b); } - println!("b rc count after changing a = {}", Rc::strong_count(&b)); - println!("a rc count after changing a = {}", Rc::strong_count(&a)); + println!( + "b rc count after changing a = {}", + Rc::strong_count(&b) + ); + println!( + "a rc count after changing a = {}", + Rc::strong_count(&a) + ); // Uncomment the next line to see that we have a cycle; // it will overflow the stack @@ -1697,8 +1714,8 @@ other We create an `Rc` instance holding a `List` value in the variable `a` with an initial list of `5, Nil` [1]. We then create an `Rc` instance -holding another `List` value in the variable `b` that contains the value 10 and -points to the list in `a` [2]. +holding another `List` value in the variable `b` that contains the value `10` +and points to the list in `a` [2]. We modify `a` so it points to `b` instead of `Nil`, creating a cycle. We do that by using the `tail` method to get a reference to the `RefCell>` @@ -1719,33 +1736,28 @@ b rc count after changing a = 2 a rc count after changing a = 2 ``` -The reference count of the `Rc` instances in both `a` and `b` are 2 after +The reference count of the `Rc` instances in both `a` and `b` is 2 after we change the list in `a` to point to `b`. At the end of `main`, Rust drops the -variable `b`, which decreases the reference count of the `Rc` instance -from 2 to 1. The memory that `Rc` has on the heap won’t be dropped at -this point, because its reference count is 1, not 0. Then Rust drops `a`, which -decreases the reference count of the `a` `Rc` instance from 2 to 1 as -well. This instance’s memory can’t be dropped either, because the other +variable `b`, which decreases the reference count of the `b` `Rc` +instance from 2 to 1. The memory that `Rc` has on the heap won’t be +dropped at this point because its reference count is 1, not 0. Then Rust drops +`a`, which decreases the reference count of the `a` `Rc` instance from 2 +to 1 as well. This instance’s memory can’t be dropped either, because the other `Rc` instance still refers to it. The memory allocated to the list will remain uncollected forever. To visualize this reference cycle, we’ve created a diagram in Figure 15-4. -Reference cycle of lists - Figure 15-4: A reference cycle of lists `a` and `b` pointing to each other If you uncomment the last `println!` and run the program, Rust will try to print this cycle with `a` pointing to `b` pointing to `a` and so forth until it overflows the stack. - - -Compared to a real-world program, the consequences creating a reference cycle -in this example aren’t very dire: right after we create the reference cycle, -the program ends. However, if a more complex program allocated lots of memory -in a cycle and held onto it for a long time, the program would use more memory -than it needed and might overwhelm the system, causing it to run out of +Compared to a real-world program, the consequences of creating a reference +cycle in this example aren’t very dire: right after we create the reference +cycle, the program ends. However, if a more complex program allocated lots of +memory in a cycle and held onto it for a long time, the program would use more +memory than it needed and might overwhelm the system, causing it to run out of available memory. Creating reference cycles is not easily done, but it’s not impossible either. @@ -1766,7 +1778,7 @@ Let’s look at an example using graphs made up of parent nodes and child nodes to see when non-ownership relationships are an appropriate way to prevent reference cycles. -### Preventing Reference Cycles: Turning an `Rc` into a `Weak` +### Preventing Reference Cycles Using Weak So far, we’ve demonstrated that calling `Rc::clone` increases the `strong_count` of an `Rc` instance, and an `Rc` instance is only cleaned @@ -1774,16 +1786,10 @@ up if its `strong_count` is 0. You can also create a *weak reference* to the value within an `Rc` instance by calling `Rc::downgrade` and passing a reference to the `Rc`. Strong references are how you can share ownership of an `Rc` instance. Weak references don’t express an ownership relationship, -and their count doesn't affect when an `Rc` instance is cleaned up. They +and their count doesn’t affect when an `Rc` instance is cleaned up. They won’t cause a reference cycle because any cycle involving some weak references will be broken once the strong reference count of values involved is 0. - - - When you call `Rc::downgrade`, you get a smart pointer of type `Weak`. Instead of increasing the `strong_count` in the `Rc` instance by 1, calling `Rc::downgrade` increases the `weak_count` by 1. The `Rc` type uses @@ -1792,7 +1798,7 @@ Instead of increasing the `strong_count` in the `Rc` instance by 1, calling `Rc` instance to be cleaned up. Because the value that `Weak` references might have been dropped, to do -anything with the value that a `Weak` is pointing to, you must make sure the +anything with the value that a `Weak` is pointing to you must make sure the value still exists. Do this by calling the `upgrade` method on a `Weak` instance, which will return an `Option>`. You’ll get a result of `Some` if the `Rc` value has not been dropped yet and a result of `None` if the @@ -1804,7 +1810,7 @@ As an example, rather than using a list whose items know only about the next item, we’ll create a tree whose items know about their children items *and* their parent items. -#### Creating a Tree Data Structure: a `Node` with Child Nodes +#### Creating a Tree Data Structure: A Node with Child Nodes To start, we’ll build a tree with nodes that know about their child nodes. We’ll create a struct named `Node` that holds its own `i32` value as well as @@ -1830,8 +1836,8 @@ modify which nodes are children of another node, so we have a `RefCell` in `children` around the `Vec>`. Next, we’ll use our struct definition and create one `Node` instance named -`leaf` with the value 3 and no children, and another instance named `branch` -with the value 5 and `leaf` as one of its children, as shown in Listing 15-27: +`leaf` with the value `3` and no children, and another instance named `branch` +with the value `5` and `leaf` as one of its children, as shown in Listing 15-27. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1863,7 +1869,7 @@ parent. We’ll do that next. To make the child node aware of its parent, we need to add a `parent` field to our `Node` struct definition. The trouble is in deciding what the type of -`parent` should be. We know it can’t contain an `Rc`, because that would +`parent` should be. We know it can’t contain an `Rc` because that would create a reference cycle with `leaf.parent` pointing to `branch` and `branch.children` pointing to `leaf`, which would cause their `strong_count` values to never be 0. @@ -1873,7 +1879,7 @@ children: if a parent node is dropped, its child nodes should be dropped as well. However, a child should not own its parent: if we drop a child node, the parent should still exist. This is a case for weak references! -So instead of `Rc`, we’ll make the type of `parent` use `Weak`, +So, instead of `Rc`, we’ll make the type of `parent` use `Weak`, specifically a `RefCell>`. Now our `Node` struct definition looks like this: @@ -1891,35 +1897,41 @@ struct Node { } ``` -A node will be able to refer to its parent node but doesn’t own its parent. -In Listing 15-28, we update `main` to use this new definition so the `leaf` -node will have a way to refer to its parent, `branch`: +A node will be able to refer to its parent node but doesn’t own its parent. In +Listing 15-28, we update `main` to use this new definition so the `leaf` node +will have a way to refer to its parent, `branch`. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { let leaf = Rc::new(Node { value: 3, - [1] parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()), + 1 parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()), children: RefCell::new(vec![]), }); - [2] println!("leaf parent = {:?}", leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade()); + 2 println!( + "leaf parent = {:?}", + leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade() + ); let branch = Rc::new(Node { value: 5, - [3] parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()), + 3 parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()), children: RefCell::new(vec![Rc::clone(&leaf)]), }); - [4] *leaf.parent.borrow_mut() = Rc::downgrade(&branch); + 4 *leaf.parent.borrow_mut() = Rc::downgrade(&branch); - [5] println!("leaf parent = {:?}", leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade()); + 5 println!( + "leaf parent = {:?}", + leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade() + ); } ``` -Listing 15-28: A `leaf` node with a weak reference to its parent node `branch` +Listing 15-28: A `leaf` node with a weak reference to its parent node, `branch` Creating the `leaf` node looks similar to Listing 15-27 with the exception of the `parent` field: `leaf` starts out without a parent, so we create a new, @@ -1934,13 +1946,13 @@ leaf parent = None ``` When we create the `branch` node, it will also have a new `Weak` -reference in the `parent` field [3], because `branch` doesn’t have a parent +reference in the `parent` field [3] because `branch` doesn’t have a parent node. We still have `leaf` as one of the children of `branch`. Once we have the `Node` instance in `branch`, we can modify `leaf` to give it a `Weak` reference to its parent [4]. We use the `borrow_mut` method on the `RefCell>` in the `parent` field of `leaf`, and then we use the `Rc::downgrade` function to create a `Weak` reference to `branch` from -the `Rc` in `branch.` +the `Rc` in `branch`. When we print the parent of `leaf` again [5], this time we’ll get a `Some` variant holding `branch`: now `leaf` can access its parent! When we print @@ -1957,13 +1969,13 @@ The lack of infinite output indicates that this code didn’t create a reference cycle. We can also tell this by looking at the values we get from calling `Rc::strong_count` and `Rc::weak_count`. -#### Visualizing Changes to `strong_count` and `weak_count` +#### Visualizing Changes to strong_count and weak_count Let’s look at how the `strong_count` and `weak_count` values of the `Rc` instances change by creating a new inner scope and moving the creation of `branch` into that scope. By doing so, we can see what happens when `branch` is created and then dropped when it goes out of scope. The modifications are shown -in Listing 15-29: +in Listing 15-29. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1975,13 +1987,13 @@ fn main() { children: RefCell::new(vec![]), }); - [1] println!( + 1 println!( "leaf strong = {}, weak = {}", Rc::strong_count(&leaf), Rc::weak_count(&leaf), ); - [2] { + 2 { let branch = Rc::new(Node { value: 5, parent: RefCell::new(Weak::new()), @@ -1990,21 +2002,24 @@ fn main() { *leaf.parent.borrow_mut() = Rc::downgrade(&branch); - [3] println!( + 3 println!( "branch strong = {}, weak = {}", Rc::strong_count(&branch), Rc::weak_count(&branch), ); - [4] println!( + 4 println!( "leaf strong = {}, weak = {}", Rc::strong_count(&leaf), Rc::weak_count(&leaf), ); - [5] } + 5 } - [6] println!("leaf parent = {:?}", leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade()); - [7] println!( + 6 println!( + "leaf parent = {:?}", + leaf.parent.borrow().upgrade() + ); + 7 println!( "leaf strong = {}, weak = {}", Rc::strong_count(&leaf), Rc::weak_count(&leaf), @@ -2020,7 +2035,7 @@ count of 0 [1]. In the inner scope [2], we create `branch` and associate it with `leaf`, at which point when we print the counts [3], the `Rc` in `branch` will have a strong count of 1 and a weak count of 1 (for `leaf.parent` pointing to `branch` with a `Weak`). When we print the counts in `leaf` -[4], we’ll see it will have a strong count of 2, because `branch` now has a +[4], we’ll see it will have a strong count of 2 because `branch` now has a clone of the `Rc` of `leaf` stored in `branch.children`, but will still have a weak count of 0. @@ -2031,7 +2046,7 @@ don’t get any memory leaks! If we try to access the parent of `leaf` after the end of the scope, we’ll get `None` again [6]. At the end of the program [7], the `Rc` in `leaf` has a -strong count of 1 and a weak count of 0, because the variable `leaf` is now the +strong count of 1 and a weak count of 0 because the variable `leaf` is now the only reference to the `Rc` again. All of the logic that manages the counts and value dropping is built into @@ -2058,7 +2073,8 @@ memory leaks and how to prevent them using `Weak`. If this chapter has piqued your interest and you want to implement your own smart pointers, check out “The Rustonomicon” at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/nomicon/* for more useful information. +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/nomicon* for more useful information. Next, we’ll talk about concurrency in Rust. You’ll even learn about a few new smart pointers. + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter16.md b/nostarch/chapter16.md index 880713d102..7c5389e4f4 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter16.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter16.md @@ -31,16 +31,16 @@ shipped to production. We’ve nicknamed this aspect of Rust *fearless* subtle bugs and is easy to refactor without introducing new bugs. > Note: For simplicity’s sake, we’ll refer to many of the problems as -> *concurrent* rather than being more precise by saying *concurrent and/or -> parallel*. If this book were about concurrency and/or parallelism, we’d be -> more specific. For this chapter, please mentally substitute *concurrent -> and/or parallel* whenever we use *concurrent*. +*concurrent* rather than being more precise by saying *concurrent and/or +parallel*. If this book were about concurrency and/or parallelism, we’d be more +specific. For this chapter, please mentally substitute *concurrent and/or +parallel* whenever we use *concurrent*. Many languages are dogmatic about the solutions they offer for handling concurrent problems. For example, Erlang has elegant functionality for message-passing concurrency but has only obscure ways to share state between threads. Supporting only a subset of possible solutions is a reasonable -strategy for higher-level languages, because a higher-level language promises +strategy for higher-level languages because a higher-level language promises benefits from giving up some control to gain abstractions. However, lower-level languages are expected to provide the solution with the best performance in any given situation and have fewer abstractions over the hardware. Therefore, Rust @@ -52,9 +52,9 @@ Here are the topics we’ll cover in this chapter: * How to create threads to run multiple pieces of code at the same time * *Message-passing* concurrency, where channels send messages between threads * *Shared-state* concurrency, where multiple threads have access to some piece - of data +of data * The `Sync` and `Send` traits, which extend Rust’s concurrency guarantees to - user-defined types as well as types provided by the standard library +user-defined types as well as types provided by the standard library ## Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously @@ -65,11 +65,6 @@ The features that run these independent parts are called *threads*. For example, a web server could have multiple threads so that it could respond to more than one request at the same time. - - - Splitting the computation in your program into multiple threads to run multiple tasks at the same time can improve performance, but it also adds complexity. Because threads can run simultaneously, there’s no inherent guarantee about the @@ -77,11 +72,11 @@ order in which parts of your code on different threads will run. This can lead to problems, such as: * Race conditions, where threads are accessing data or resources in an - inconsistent order +inconsistent order * Deadlocks, where two threads are waiting for each other, preventing both - threads from continuing +threads from continuing * Bugs that happen only in certain situations and are hard to reproduce and fix - reliably +reliably Rust attempts to mitigate the negative effects of using threads, but programming in a multithreaded context still takes careful thought and requires @@ -93,14 +88,14 @@ operating systems provide an API the language can call for creating new threads. The Rust standard library uses a *1:1* model of thread implementation, whereby a program uses one operating system thread per one language thread. There are crates that implement other models of threading that make different -tradeoffs to the 1:1 model. +trade-offs to the 1:1 model. -### Creating a New Thread with `spawn` +### Creating a New Thread with spawn To create a new thread, we call the `thread::spawn` function and pass it a closure (we talked about closures in Chapter 13) containing the code we want to run in the new thread. The example in Listing 16-1 prints some text from a main -thread and other text from a new thread: +thread and other text from a new thread. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -111,13 +106,13 @@ use std::time::Duration; fn main() { thread::spawn(|| { for i in 1..10 { - println!("hi number {} from the spawned thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the spawned thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } }); for i in 1..5 { - println!("hi number {} from the main thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the main thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } } @@ -126,13 +121,6 @@ fn main() { Listing 16-1: Creating a new thread to print one thing while the main thread prints something else - - - Note that when the main thread of a Rust program completes, all spawned threads are shut down, whether or not they have finished running. The output from this program might be a little different every time, but it will look similar to the @@ -162,19 +150,20 @@ If you run this code and only see output from the main thread, or don’t see an overlap, try increasing the numbers in the ranges to create more opportunities for the operating system to switch between the threads. -### Waiting for All Threads to Finish Using `join` Handles +### Waiting for All Threads to Finish Using join Handles The code in Listing 16-1 not only stops the spawned thread prematurely most of the time due to the main thread ending, but because there is no guarantee on the order in which threads run, we also can’t guarantee that the spawned thread will get to run at all! -We can fix the problem of the spawned thread not running or ending prematurely -by saving the return value of `thread::spawn` in a variable. The return type of -`thread::spawn` is `JoinHandle`. A `JoinHandle` is an owned value that, when we -call the `join` method on it, will wait for its thread to finish. Listing 16-2 -shows how to use the `JoinHandle` of the thread we created in Listing 16-1 and -call `join` to make sure the spawned thread finishes before `main` exits: +We can fix the problem of the spawned thread not running or of it ending +prematurely by saving the return value of `thread::spawn` in a variable. The +return type of `thread::spawn` is `JoinHandle`. A `JoinHandle` is an +owned value that, when we call the `join` method on it, will wait for its +thread to finish. Listing 16-2 shows how to use the `JoinHandle` of the +thread we created in Listing 16-1 and call `join` to make sure the spawned +thread finishes before `main` exits. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -185,13 +174,13 @@ use std::time::Duration; fn main() { let handle = thread::spawn(|| { for i in 1..10 { - println!("hi number {} from the spawned thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the spawned thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } }); for i in 1..5 { - println!("hi number {} from the main thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the main thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } @@ -199,7 +188,7 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 16-2: Saving a `JoinHandle` from `thread::spawn` to guarantee the +Listing 16-2: Saving a `JoinHandle` from `thread::spawn` to guarantee the thread is run to completion Calling `join` on the handle blocks the thread currently running until the @@ -239,7 +228,7 @@ use std::time::Duration; fn main() { let handle = thread::spawn(|| { for i in 1..10 { - println!("hi number {} from the spawned thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the spawned thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } }); @@ -247,7 +236,7 @@ fn main() { handle.join().unwrap(); for i in 1..5 { - println!("hi number {} from the main thread!", i); + println!("hi number {i} from the main thread!"); thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); } } @@ -275,21 +264,21 @@ hi number 4 from the main thread! Small details, such as where `join` is called, can affect whether or not your threads run at the same time. -### Using `move` Closures with Threads +### Using move Closures with Threads -We'll often use the `move` keyword with closures passed to `thread::spawn` +We’ll often use the `move` keyword with closures passed to `thread::spawn` because the closure will then take ownership of the values it uses from the environment, thus transferring ownership of those values from one thread to -another. In the “Capturing the Environment with Closures” section of Chapter -13, we discussed `move` in the context of closures. Now, we’ll concentrate more -on the interaction between `move` and `thread::spawn`. +another. In “Capturing the Environment with Closures” on page XX, we discussed +`move` in the context of closures. Now we’ll concentrate more on the +interaction between `move` and `thread::spawn`. Notice in Listing 16-1 that the closure we pass to `thread::spawn` takes no arguments: we’re not using any data from the main thread in the spawned thread’s code. To use data from the main thread in the spawned thread, the spawned thread’s closure must capture the values it needs. Listing 16-3 shows an attempt to create a vector in the main thread and use it in the spawned -thread. However, this won’t yet work, as you’ll see in a moment. +thread. However, this won’t work yet, as you’ll see in a moment. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -316,7 +305,8 @@ should be able to access `v` inside that new thread. But when we compile this example, we get the following error: ``` -error[E0373]: closure may outlive the current function, but it borrows `v`, which is owned by the current function +error[E0373]: closure may outlive the current function, but it borrows `v`, +which is owned by the current function --> src/main.rs:6:32 | 6 | let handle = thread::spawn(|| { @@ -332,7 +322,8 @@ note: function requires argument type to outlive `'static` 7 | | println!("Here's a vector: {:?}", v); 8 | | }); | |______^ -help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced variables), use the `move` keyword +help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced +variables), use the `move` keyword | 6 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { | ++++ @@ -340,11 +331,11 @@ help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced va Rust *infers* how to capture `v`, and because `println!` only needs a reference to `v`, the closure tries to borrow `v`. However, there’s a problem: Rust can’t -tell how long the spawned thread will run, so it doesn’t know if the reference -to `v` will always be valid. +tell how long the spawned thread will run, so it doesn’t know whether the +reference to `v` will always be valid. Listing 16-4 provides a scenario that’s more likely to have a reference to `v` -that won’t be valid: +that won’t be valid. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -367,10 +358,10 @@ fn main() { Listing 16-4: A thread with a closure that attempts to capture a reference to `v` from a main thread that drops `v` -If Rust allowed us to run this code, there’s a possibility the spawned thread -would be immediately put in the background without running at all. The spawned -thread has a reference to `v` inside, but the main thread immediately drops -`v`, using the `drop` function we discussed in Chapter 15. Then, when the +If Rust allowed us to run this code, there’s a possibility that the spawned +thread would be immediately put in the background without running at all. The +spawned thread has a reference to `v` inside, but the main thread immediately +drops `v`, using the `drop` function we discussed in Chapter 15. Then, when the spawned thread starts to execute, `v` is no longer valid, so a reference to it is also invalid. Oh no! @@ -378,7 +369,8 @@ To fix the compiler error in Listing 16-3, we can use the error message’s advice: ``` -help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced variables), use the `move` keyword +help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced +variables), use the `move` keyword | 6 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { | ++++ @@ -387,7 +379,7 @@ help: to force the closure to take ownership of `v` (and any other referenced va By adding the `move` keyword before the closure, we force the closure to take ownership of the values it’s using rather than allowing Rust to infer that it should borrow the values. The modification to Listing 16-3 shown in Listing -16-5 will compile and run as we intend: +16-5 will compile and run as we intend. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -420,12 +412,14 @@ error[E0382]: use of moved value: `v` --> src/main.rs:10:10 | 4 | let v = vec![1, 2, 3]; - | - move occurs because `v` has type `Vec`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | - move occurs because `v` has type `Vec`, which does not +implement the `Copy` trait 5 | 6 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { | ------- value moved into closure here 7 | println!("Here's a vector: {:?}", v); - | - variable moved due to use in closure + | - variable moved due to use in +closure ... 10 | drop(v); // oh no! | ^ value used here after move @@ -441,42 +435,27 @@ rules when we try to use `v` in the main thread. The `move` keyword overrides Rust’s conservative default of borrowing; it doesn’t let us violate the ownership rules. -With a basic understanding of threads and the thread API, let’s look at what we -can *do* with threads. +Now that we’ve covered what threads are and the methods supplied by the thread +API, let’s look at some situations in which we can use threads. ## Using Message Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads One increasingly popular approach to ensuring safe concurrency is *message passing*, where threads or actors communicate by sending each other messages -containing data. Here’s the idea in a slogan from the Go language -documentation at *https://golang.org/doc/effective_go.html#concurrency*: -“Do not communicate by sharing memory; instead, share memory by communicating.” - - - - -To accomplish message-sending concurrency, Rust's standard library provides an +containing data. Here’s the idea in a slogan from the Go language documentation +at *https://golang.org/doc/effective_go.html#concurrency*: “Do not communicate +by sharing memory; instead, share memory by communicating.” + +To accomplish message-sending concurrency, Rust’s standard library provides an implementation of *channels*. A channel is a general programming concept by which data is sent from one thread to another. - - - You can imagine a channel in programming as being like a directional channel of water, such as a stream or a river. If you put something like a rubber duck into a river, it will travel downstream to the end of the waterway. A channel has two halves: a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter half is -the upstream location where you put rubber ducks into the river, and the +the upstream location where you put the rubber duck into the river, and the receiver half is where the rubber duck ends up downstream. One part of your code calls methods on the transmitter with the data you want to send, and another part checks the receiving end for arriving messages. A channel is said @@ -486,15 +465,9 @@ Here, we’ll work up to a program that has one thread to generate values and send them down a channel, and another thread that will receive the values and print them out. We’ll be sending simple values between threads using a channel to illustrate the feature. Once you’re familiar with the technique, you could -use channels for any threads that needs to communicate between each other, such -as a chat system or a system where many threads perform parts of a calculation -and send the parts to one thread that aggregates the results. - - - +use channels for any threads that need to communicate with each other, such as +a chat system or a system where many threads perform parts of a calculation and +send the parts to one thread that aggregates the results. First, in Listing 16-6, we’ll create a channel but not do anything with it. Note that this won’t compile yet because Rust can’t tell what type of values we @@ -522,14 +495,14 @@ producer for now, but we’ll add multiple producers when we get this example working. The `mpsc::channel` function returns a tuple, the first element of which is the -sending end--the transmitter--and the second element is the receiving end--the -receiver. The abbreviations `tx` and `rx` are traditionally used in many fields -for *transmitter* and *receiver* respectively, so we name our variables as such -to indicate each end. We’re using a `let` statement with a pattern that -destructures the tuples; we’ll discuss the use of patterns in `let` statements -and destructuring in Chapter 18. For now, know that using a `let` statement -this way is a convenient approach to extract the pieces of the tuple returned -by `mpsc::channel`. +sending end—the transmitter—and the second element of which is the receiving +end—the receiver. The abbreviations `tx` and `rx` are traditionally used in +many fields for *transmitter* and *receiver*, respectively, so we name our +variables as such to indicate each end. We’re using a `let` statement with a +pattern that destructures the tuples; we’ll discuss the use of patterns in +`let` statements and destructuring in Chapter 18. For now, know that using a +`let` statement in this way is a convenient approach to extract the pieces of +the tuple returned by `mpsc::channel`. Let’s move the transmitting end into a spawned thread and have it send one string so the spawned thread is communicating with the main thread, as shown in @@ -552,21 +525,18 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 16-7: Moving `tx` to a spawned thread and sending “hi” +Listing 16-7: Moving `tx` to a spawned thread and sending `"hi"` Again, we’re using `thread::spawn` to create a new thread and then using `move` to move `tx` into the closure so the spawned thread owns `tx`. The spawned thread needs to own the transmitter to be able to send messages through the channel. - - -The transmitter has a `send` method that takes the value we want to send. -The `send` method returns a `Result` type, so if the receiver has -already been dropped and there’s nowhere to send a value, the send operation -will return an error. In this example, we’re calling `unwrap` to panic in case -of an error. But in a real application, we would handle it properly: return to + +The transmitter has a `send` method that takes the value we want to send. The +`send` method returns a `Result` type, so if the receiver has already +been dropped and there’s nowhere to send a value, the send operation will +return an error. In this example, we’re calling `unwrap` to panic in case of an +error. But in a real application, we would handle it properly: return to Chapter 9 to review strategies for proper error handling. In Listing 16-8, we’ll get the value from the receiver in the main thread. This @@ -588,11 +558,11 @@ fn main() { }); let received = rx.recv().unwrap(); - println!("Got: {}", received); + println!("Got: {received}"); } ``` -Listing 16-8: Receiving the value “hi” in the main thread and printing it +Listing 16-8: Receiving the value `"hi"` in the main thread and printing it The receiver has two useful methods: `recv` and `try_recv`. We’re using `recv`, short for *receive*, which will block the main thread’s execution and wait @@ -629,7 +599,7 @@ advantage of thinking about ownership throughout your Rust programs. Let’s do an experiment to show how channels and ownership work together to prevent problems: we’ll try to use a `val` value in the spawned thread *after* we’ve sent it down the channel. Try compiling the code in Listing 16-9 to see why -this code isn’t allowed: +this code isn’t allowed. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -643,11 +613,11 @@ fn main() { thread::spawn(move || { let val = String::from("hi"); tx.send(val).unwrap(); - println!("val is {}", val); + println!("val is {val}"); }); let received = rx.recv().unwrap(); - println!("Got: {}", received); + println!("Got: {received}"); } ``` @@ -665,15 +635,16 @@ error[E0382]: borrow of moved value: `val` --> src/main.rs:10:31 | 8 | let val = String::from("hi"); - | --- move occurs because `val` has type `String`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | --- move occurs because `val` has type `String`, which does +not implement the `Copy` trait 9 | tx.send(val).unwrap(); | --- value moved here -10 | println!("val is {}", val); - | ^^^ value borrowed here after move +10 | println!("val is {val}"); + | ^^^ value borrowed here after move ``` -Our concurrency mistake has caused a compile time error. The `send` function -takes ownership of its parameter, and when the value is moved, the receiver +Our concurrency mistake has caused a compile-time error. The `send` function +takes ownership of its parameter, and when the value is moved the receiver takes ownership of it. This stops us from accidentally using the value again after sending it; the ownership system checks that everything is okay. @@ -710,24 +681,24 @@ fn main() { }); for received in rx { - println!("Got: {}", received); + println!("Got: {received}"); } } ``` -Listing 16-10: Sending multiple messages and pausing between each +Listing 16-10: Sending multiple messages and pausing between each one This time, the spawned thread has a vector of strings that we want to send to the main thread. We iterate over them, sending each individually, and pause between each by calling the `thread::sleep` function with a `Duration` value of -1 second. +one second. In the main thread, we’re not calling the `recv` function explicitly anymore: instead, we’re treating `rx` as an iterator. For each value received, we’re printing it. When the channel is closed, iteration will end. When running the code in Listing 16-10, you should see the following output -with a 1-second pause in between each line: +with a one-second pause in between each line: ``` Got: hi @@ -742,52 +713,52 @@ the spawned thread. ### Creating Multiple Producers by Cloning the Transmitter -Earlier we mentioned that `mpsc` was an acronym for *multiple producer, -single consumer*. Let’s put `mpsc` to use and expand the code in Listing 16-10 -to create multiple threads that all send values to the same receiver. We can do -so by cloning the transmitter, as shown in Listing 16-11: +Earlier we mentioned that `mpsc` was an acronym for *multiple producer, single +consumer*. Let’s put `mpsc` to use and expand the code in Listing 16-10 to +create multiple threads that all send values to the same receiver. We can do so +by cloning the transmitter, as shown in Listing 16-11. Filename: src/main.rs ``` - // --snip-- - - let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel(); - - let tx1 = tx.clone(); - thread::spawn(move || { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("hi"), - String::from("from"), - String::from("the"), - String::from("thread"), - ]; - - for val in vals { - tx1.send(val).unwrap(); - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); - } - }); +--snip-- + +let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel(); + +let tx1 = tx.clone(); +thread::spawn(move || { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("thread"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); + } +}); - thread::spawn(move || { - let vals = vec![ - String::from("more"), - String::from("messages"), - String::from("for"), - String::from("you"), - ]; +thread::spawn(move || { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; - for val in vals { - tx.send(val).unwrap(); - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); - } - }); - - for received in rx { - println!("Got: {}", received); + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); } +}); - // --snip-- +for received in rx { + println!("Got: {received}"); +} + +--snip-- ``` Listing 16-11: Sending multiple messages from multiple producers @@ -820,24 +791,17 @@ concurrency. ## Shared-State Concurrency -Message passing is a fine way of handling concurrency, but it’s not the only -one. Another method would be for multiple threads to access the same shared -data. - - -Consider this part of the slogan from the Go language documentation again: -“do not communicate by sharing memory.” +Message passing is a fine way to handle concurrency, but it’s not the only way. +Another method would be for multiple threads to access the same shared data. +Consider this part of the slogan from the Go language documentation again: “Do +not communicate by sharing memory.” What would communicating by sharing memory look like? In addition, why would message-passing enthusiasts caution not to use memory sharing? - - -In a way, channels in any programming language are similar to single ownership, +In a way, channels in any programming language are similar to single ownership because once you transfer a value down a channel, you should no longer use that -value. Shared memory concurrency is like multiple ownership: multiple threads +value. Shared-memory concurrency is like multiple ownership: multiple threads can access the same memory location at the same time. As you saw in Chapter 15, where smart pointers made multiple ownership possible, multiple ownership can add complexity because these different owners need managing. Rust’s type system @@ -847,7 +811,7 @@ for shared memory. ### Using Mutexes to Allow Access to Data from One Thread at a Time -*Mutex* is an abbreviation for *mutual exclusion*, as in, a mutex allows only +*Mutex* is an abbreviation for *mutual exclusion*, as in a mutex allows only one thread to access some data at any given time. To access the data in a mutex, a thread must first signal that it wants access by asking to acquire the mutex’s *lock*. The lock is a data structure that is part of the mutex that @@ -857,9 +821,9 @@ mutex is described as *guarding* the data it holds via the locking system. Mutexes have a reputation for being difficult to use because you have to remember two rules: -* You must attempt to acquire the lock before using the data. -* When you’re done with the data that the mutex guards, you must unlock the - data so other threads can acquire the lock. +1. You must attempt to acquire the lock before using the data. +1. When you’re done with the data that the mutex guards, you must unlock the +data so other threads can acquire the lock. For a real-world metaphor for a mutex, imagine a panel discussion at a conference with only one microphone. Before a panelist can speak, they have to @@ -874,10 +838,10 @@ Management of mutexes can be incredibly tricky to get right, which is why so many people are enthusiastic about channels. However, thanks to Rust’s type system and ownership rules, you can’t get locking and unlocking wrong. -#### The API of `Mutex` +#### The API of Mutex As an example of how to use a mutex, let’s start by using a mutex in a -single-threaded context, as shown in Listing 16-12: +single-threaded context, as shown in Listing 16-12. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -885,14 +849,14 @@ Filename: src/main.rs use std::sync::Mutex; fn main() { - [1] let m = Mutex::new(5); + 1 let m = Mutex::new(5); { - [2] let mut num = m.lock().unwrap(); - [3] *num = 6; - [4] } + 2 let mut num = m.lock().unwrap(); + 3 *num = 6; + 4 } - [5] println!("m = {:?}", m); + 5 println!("m = {:?}", m); } ``` @@ -922,19 +886,19 @@ pointer implements `Deref` to point at our inner data; the smart pointer also has a `Drop` implementation that releases the lock automatically when a `MutexGuard` goes out of scope, which happens at the end of the inner scope [4]. As a result, we don’t risk forgetting to release the lock and blocking the -mutex from being used by other threads, because the lock release happens +mutex from being used by other threads because the lock release happens automatically. After dropping the lock, we can print the mutex value and see that we were able -to change the inner `i32` to 6 [5]. +to change the inner `i32` to `6` [5]. -#### Sharing a `Mutex` Between Multiple Threads +#### Sharing a Mutex Between Multiple Threads -Now, let’s try to share a value between multiple threads using `Mutex`. -We’ll spin up 10 threads and have them each increment a counter value by 1, so -the counter goes from 0 to 10. The next example in Listing 16-13 will have -a compiler error, and we’ll use that error to learn more about using -`Mutex` and how Rust helps us use it correctly. +Now let’s try to share a value between multiple threads using `Mutex`. We’ll +spin up 10 threads and have them each increment a counter value by 1, so the +counter goes from 0 to 10. The example in Listing 16-13 will have a compiler +error, and we’ll use that error to learn more about using `Mutex` and how +Rust helps us use it correctly. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -943,27 +907,27 @@ use std::sync::Mutex; use std::thread; fn main() { - [1] let counter = Mutex::new(0); + 1 let counter = Mutex::new(0); let mut handles = vec![]; - [2] for _ in 0..10 { - [3] let handle = thread::spawn(move || { - [4] let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); + 2 for _ in 0..10 { + 3 let handle = thread::spawn(move || { + 4 let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); - [5] *num += 1; + 5 *num += 1; }); - [6] handles.push(handle); + 6 handles.push(handle); } for handle in handles { - [7] handle.join().unwrap(); + 7 handle.join().unwrap(); } - [8] println!("Result: {}", *counter.lock().unwrap()); + 8 println!("Result: {}", *counter.lock().unwrap()); } ``` -Listing 16-13: Ten threads each increment a counter guarded by a `Mutex` +Listing 16-13: Ten threads, each incrementing a counter guarded by a `Mutex` We create a `counter` variable to hold an `i32` inside a `Mutex` [1], as we did in Listing 16-12. Next, we create 10 threads by iterating over a range of @@ -985,22 +949,24 @@ error[E0382]: use of moved value: `counter` --> src/main.rs:9:36 | 5 | let counter = Mutex::new(0); - | ------- move occurs because `counter` has type `Mutex`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | ------- move occurs because `counter` has type `Mutex`, which +does not implement the `Copy` trait ... 9 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { - | ^^^^^^^ value moved into closure here, in previous iteration of loop + | ^^^^^^^ value moved into closure here, +in previous iteration of loop 10 | let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); | ------- use occurs due to use in closure ``` The error message states that the `counter` value was moved in the previous -iteration of the loop. Rust is telling us that we can’t move the ownership -of lock `counter` into multiple threads. Let’s fix the compiler error with a +iteration of the loop. Rust is telling us that we can’t move the ownership of +lock `counter` into multiple threads. Let’s fix the compiler error with the multiple-ownership method we discussed in Chapter 15. #### Multiple Ownership with Multiple Threads -In Chapter 15, we gave a value multiple owners by using the smart pointer +In Chapter 15, we gave a value to multiple owners by using the smart pointer `Rc` to create a reference counted value. Let’s do the same here and see what happens. We’ll wrap the `Mutex` in `Rc` in Listing 16-14 and clone the `Rc` before moving ownership to the thread. @@ -1037,33 +1003,36 @@ fn main() { Listing 16-14: Attempting to use `Rc` to allow multiple threads to own the `Mutex` -Once again, we compile and get... different errors! The compiler is teaching us -a lot. +Once again, we compile and get… different errors! The compiler is teaching us a +lot. ``` -[1] error[E0277]: `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely +error[E0277]: `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely 1 --> src/main.rs:11:22 | 11 | let handle = thread::spawn(move || { | ______________________^^^^^^^^^^^^^_- | | | - | | `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely + | | `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads +safely 12 | | let mut num = counter.lock().unwrap(); 13 | | 14 | | *num += 1; 15 | | }); | |_________- within this `[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]` | -[2] = help: within `[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]`, the trait `Send` is not implemented for `Rc>` - = note: required because it appears within the type `[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]` += help: within `[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]`, the trait `Send` is not +implemented for `Rc>` 2 + = note: required because it appears within the type +`[closure@src/main.rs:11:36: 15:10]` note: required by a bound in `spawn` ``` Wow, that error message is very wordy! Here’s the important part to focus on: -`` `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely `` [1]. The compiler -is also telling us the reason why: ``the trait `Send` is not implemented for -`Rc>` `` [2]. We’ll talk about `Send` in the next section: it’s one -of the traits that ensures the types we use with threads are meant for use in +``Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely` [1]. The compiler is +also telling us the reason why: `the trait `Send` is not implemented for +`Rc>`` [2]. We’ll talk about `Send` in the next section: it’s one of +the traits that ensures the types we use with threads are meant for use in concurrent situations. Unfortunately, `Rc` is not safe to share across threads. When `Rc` @@ -1075,7 +1044,7 @@ could in turn lead to memory leaks or a value being dropped before we’re done with it. What we need is a type exactly like `Rc` but one that makes changes to the reference count in a thread-safe way. -#### Atomic Reference Counting with `Arc` +#### Atomic Reference Counting with Arc Fortunately, `Arc` *is* a type like `Rc` that is safe to use in concurrent situations. The *a* stands for *atomic*, meaning it’s an *atomically @@ -1094,7 +1063,7 @@ guarantees atomics provide. Let’s return to our example: `Arc` and `Rc` have the same API, so we fix our program by changing the `use` line, the call to `new`, and the call to -`clone`. The code in Listing 16-15 will finally compile and run: +`clone`. The code in Listing 16-15 will finally compile and run. Filename: src/main.rs @@ -1140,7 +1109,13 @@ counter. Using this strategy, you can divide a calculation into independent parts, split those parts across threads, and then use a `Mutex` to have each thread update the final result with its part. -### Similarities Between `RefCell`/`Rc` and `Mutex`/`Arc` +Note that if you are doing simple numerical operations, there are types simpler +than `Mutex` types provided by the `std::sync::atomic` module of the +standard library. These types provide safe, concurrent, atomic access to +primitive types. We chose to use `Mutex` with a primitive type for this +example so we could concentrate on how `Mutex` works. + +### Similarities Between RefCell/Rc and Mutex/Arc You might have noticed that `counter` is immutable but we could get a mutable reference to the value inside it; this means `Mutex` provides interior @@ -1163,7 +1138,7 @@ useful information. We’ll round out this chapter by talking about the `Send` and `Sync` traits and how we can use them with custom types. -## Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits +## Extensible Concurrency with the Send and Sync Traits Interestingly, the Rust language has *very* few concurrency features. Almost every concurrency feature we’ve talked about so far in this chapter has been @@ -1172,9 +1147,9 @@ concurrency are not limited to the language or the standard library; you can write your own concurrency features or use those written by others. However, two concurrency concepts are embedded in the language: the -`std::marker` traits `Sync` and `Send`. +`std::marker` traits `Send` and `Sync` . -### Allowing Transference of Ownership Between Threads with `Send` +### Allowing Transference of Ownership Between Threads with Send The `Send` marker trait indicates that ownership of values of the type implementing `Send` can be transferred between threads. Almost every Rust type @@ -1187,15 +1162,15 @@ performance penalty. Therefore, Rust’s type system and trait bounds ensure that you can never accidentally send an `Rc` value across threads unsafely. When we tried to do -this in Listing 16-14, we got the error `the trait Send is not implemented for -Rc>`. When we switched to `Arc`, which is `Send`, the code +this in Listing 16-14, we got the error `the trait `Send` is not implemented +for `Rc>``. When we switched to `Arc`, which is `Send`, the code compiled. Any type composed entirely of `Send` types is automatically marked as `Send` as well. Almost all primitive types are `Send`, aside from raw pointers, which we’ll discuss in Chapter 19. -### Allowing Access from Multiple Threads with `Sync` +### Allowing Access from Multiple Threads with Sync The `Sync` marker trait indicates that it is safe for the type implementing `Sync` to be referenced from multiple threads. In other words, any type `T` is @@ -1208,10 +1183,9 @@ The smart pointer `Rc` is also not `Sync` for the same reasons that it’s no family of related `Cell` types are not `Sync`. The implementation of borrow checking that `RefCell` does at runtime is not thread-safe. The smart pointer `Mutex` is `Sync` and can be used to share access with multiple -threads as you saw in the “Sharing a `Mutex` Between Multiple -Threads” section. +threads, as you saw in “Sharing a Mutex Between Multiple Threads” on page XX. -### Implementing `Send` and `Sync` Manually Is Unsafe +### Implementing Send and Sync Manually Is Unsafe Because types that are made up of `Send` and `Sync` traits are automatically also `Send` and `Sync`, we don’t have to implement those traits manually. As @@ -1222,7 +1196,7 @@ Manually implementing these traits involves implementing unsafe Rust code. We’ll talk about using unsafe Rust code in Chapter 19; for now, the important information is that building new concurrent types not made up of `Send` and `Sync` parts requires careful thought to uphold the safety guarantees. “The -Rustonomicon” at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/nomicon/* has more +Rustonomicon” at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/nomicon* has more information about these guarantees and how to uphold them. ## Summary @@ -1249,3 +1223,4 @@ go forth and make your programs concurrent, fearlessly! Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter17.md b/nostarch/chapter17.md index a358ef26d1..225b0a8a42 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter17.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter17.md @@ -1,1227 +1,3025 @@ - +## Async and Await + +Many operations we ask the computer to do can take a while to finish. For +example, if you used a video editor to create a video of a family celebration, +exporting it could take anywhere from minutes to hours. Similarly, downloading a +video shared by someone in your family might take a long time. It would be nice +if we could do something else while we are waiting for those long-running +processes to complete. + +The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you only had +one CPU core, and your operating system never paused that export until it +completed, you couldn’t do anything else on your computer while it was running. +That would be a pretty frustrating experience, though. Instead, your computer’s +operating system can—and does!—invisibly interrupt the export often enough to +let you get other work done along the way. + +The file download is different. It does not take up very much CPU time. Instead, +the CPU needs to wait on data to arrive from the network. While you can start +reading the data once some of it is present, it might take a while for the rest +to show up. Even once the data is all present, a video can be quite large, so it +might take some time to load it all. Maybe it only takes a second or two—but +that’s a very long time for a modern processor, which can do billions of +operations every second. It would be nice to be able to put the CPU to use for +other work while waiting for the network call to finish—so, again, your +operating system will invisibly interrupt your program so other things can +happen while the network operation is still ongoing. + +> Note: The video export is the kind of operation which is often described as +> “CPU-bound” or “compute-bound”. It’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> ability to process data within the *CPU* or *GPU*, and how much of that speed +> it can use. The video download is the kind of operation which is often +> described as “IO-bound,” because it’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> *input and output*. It can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the +> network. + +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a +form of concurrency. That concurrency only happens at the level of a whole +program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other +programs get work done. In many cases, because we understand our programs at a +much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot lots of +opportunities for concurrency that the operating system cannot see. + +For example, if we’re building a tool to manage file downloads, we should be +able to write our program in such a way that starting one download does not lock +up the UI, and users should be able to start multiple downloads at the same +time. Many operating system APIs for interacting with the network are +*blocking*, though. That is, these APIs block the program’s progress until the +data that they are processing is completely ready. + +> Note: This is how *most* function calls work, if you think about it! However, +> we normally reserve the term “blocking” for function calls which interact with +> files, the network, or other resources on the computer, because those are the +> places where an individual program would benefit from the operation being +> *non*-blocking. + +We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to +download each file. However, we would eventually find that the overhead of those +threads was a problem. It would also be nicer if the call were not blocking in +the first place. Last but not least, it would be better if we could write in the +same direct style we use in blocking code. Something similar to this: -[TOC] +``` +let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; +println!("{data}"); +``` + +That is exactly what Rust’s async abstraction gives us. Before we see how this +works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour into the differences +between parallelism and concurrency. + +### Parallelism and Concurrency + +In the “Fearless Concurrency” chapter on page XX, we treated parallelism and +concurrency as mostly interchangeable. Now we need to distinguish between them +more precisely, because the differences will show up as we start working. + +Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. We +could assign a single individual multiple tasks, or we could assign one task per +team member, or we could do a mix of both approaches. + +When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is +complete, this is *concurrency*. Maybe you have two different projects checked +out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch +to the other. You’re just one person, so you can’t make progress on both tasks +at the exact same time—but you can multi-task, making progress on multiple +tasks by switching between them. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B. + +When you agree to split up a group of tasks between the people on the team, with +each person taking one task and working on it alone, this is *parallelism*. Each +person on the team can make progress at the exact same time. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B +independently. + +With both of these situations, you might have to coordinate between different +tasks. Maybe you *thought* the task that one person was working on was totally +independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually needs something finished +by another person on the team. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but +some of it was actually *serial*: it could only happen in a series, one thing +after the other, as in Figure 17-3. + +Concurrent work flow + +Figure 17-3: A partially parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently until task A3 is blocked on the results of task B3. + +Likewise, you might realize that one of your own tasks depends on another of +your tasks. Now your concurrent work has also become serial. + +Parallelism and concurrency can intersect with each other, too. If you learn +that a colleague is stuck until you finish one of your tasks, you’ll probably +focus all your efforts on that task to “unblock” your colleague. You and your +coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you’re also no longer able +to work concurrently on your own tasks. + +The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine +with a single CPU core, the CPU can only do one operation at a time, but it can +still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and async, the +computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually cycling +back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, it can +also do work in parallel. One core can be doing one thing while another core +does something completely unrelated, and those actually happen at the same +time. + +When working with async in Rust, we’re always dealing with concurrency. +Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are +using—more on async runtimes shortly!—that concurrency may also use parallelism +under the hood. + +Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works! In the rest +of this chapter, we will: + +* see how to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax +* explore how to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we + looked at in Chapter 16 +* look at how multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, which + you can even use together in many cases + +## Futures and the Async Syntax + +The key elements of asynchronous programming in Rust are *futures* and Rust’s +`async` and `await` keywords. + +A *future* is a value which may not be ready now, but will become ready at some +point in the future. (This same concept shows up in many languages, sometimes +under other names such as “task” or “promise”.) Rust provides a `Future` trait +as a building block so different async operations can be implemented with +different data structures, but with a common interface. In Rust, we say that +types which implement the `Future` trait are futures. Each type which +implements `Future` holds its own information about the progress that has been +made and what “ready” means. + +The `async` keyword can be applied to blocks and functions to specify that they +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can +use the `await` keyword to wait for a future to become ready, called *awaiting a +future*. Each place you await a future within an async block or function is a +place that async block or function may get paused and resumed. The process of +checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called *polling*. + +Some other languages also use `async` and `await` keywords for async +programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you may notice some +significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it handles the +syntax. That’s for good reason, as we’ll see! + +Most of the time when writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` +keywords. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much +as it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. +We’ll return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig +into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. + +That may all feel a bit abstract. Let’s write our first async program: a little +web scraper. We’ll pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of them +concurrently, and return the result of whichever one finishes first. This +example will have a fair bit of new syntax, but don’t worry. We’ll explain +everything you need to know as we go. + +### Our First Async Program + +To keep this chapter focused on learning async, rather than juggling parts of +the ecosystem, we have created the `trpl` crate (`trpl` is short for “The Rust +Programming Language”). It re-exports all the types, traits, and functions +you’ll need, primarily from the `futures` and `tokio` crates, available on +*https://crates.io*. + +* The `futures` crate is an official home for Rust experimentation for async + code, and is actually where the `Future` type was originally designed. + +* Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially (but + not only!) for web applications. There are other great runtimes out there, + and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use Tokio under the hood + for `trpl` because it’s well-tested and widely used. + +In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to let us stay +focused on the details relevant to this chapter. If you want to understand what +the crate does, we encourage you to check out its source code at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl*. +You’ll be able to see what crate each re-export comes from, and we’ve left +extensive comments explaining what the crate does. + +Create a new binary project named `hello-async` and add the `trpl` crate as a +dependency: + +``` +$ cargo new hello-async +$ cd hello-async +$ cargo add trpl +``` + +Now we can use the various pieces provided by `trpl` to write our first async +program. We’ll build a little command line tool which fetches two web pages, +pulls the `` element from each, and prints out the title of whichever +finishes that whole process first. -# Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust - -Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of modeling programs. Objects as a -programmatic concept were introduced in the programming language Simula in the -1960s. Those objects influenced Alan Kay’s programming architecture in which -objects pass messages to each other. To describe this architecture, he coined -the term *object-oriented programming* in 1967. Many competing definitions -describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object oriented, -but by others it is not. In this chapter, we’ll explore certain characteristics -that are commonly considered object oriented and how those characteristics -translate to idiomatic Rust. We’ll then show you how to implement an -object-oriented design pattern in Rust and discuss the trade-offs of doing so -versus implementing a solution using some of Rust’s strengths instead. - -## Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages - -There is no consensus in the programming community about what features a -language must have to be considered object oriented. Rust is influenced by many -programming paradigms, including OOP; for example, we explored the features -that came from functional programming in Chapter 13. Arguably, OOP languages -share certain common characteristics, namely objects, encapsulation, and -inheritance. Let’s look at what each of those characteristics means and whether -Rust supports it. - -### Objects Contain Data and Behavior - -The book *Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software* by -Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides (Addison-Wesley -Professional, 1994), colloquially referred to as *The Gang of Four* book, is a -catalog of object-oriented design patterns. It defines OOP this way: - -> Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An *object* packages both -> data and the procedures that operate on that data. The procedures are -> typically called *methods* or *operations*. - -Using this definition, Rust is object oriented: structs and enums have data, -and `impl` blocks provide methods on structs and enums. Even though structs and -enums with methods aren’t *called* objects, they provide the same -functionality, according to the Gang of Four’s definition of objects. - -### Encapsulation that Hides Implementation Details - -Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of *encapsulation*, -which means that the implementation details of an object aren’t accessible to -code using that object. Therefore, the only way to interact with an object is -through its public API; code using the object shouldn’t be able to reach into -the object’s internals and change data or behavior directly. This enables the -programmer to change and refactor an object’s internals without needing to -change the code that uses the object. - -We discussed how to control encapsulation in Chapter 7: we can use the `pub` -keyword to decide which modules, types, functions, and methods in our code -should be public, and by default everything else is private. For example, we -can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector -of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of -the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed -on demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will -cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the -`AveragedCollection` struct: - -Filename: src/lib.rs - -``` -pub struct AveragedCollection { - list: Vec<i32>, - average: f64, +Let’s start by writing a function that takes one page URL as a parameter, makes +a request to it, and returns the text of the title element: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::Html; + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> Option<String> { + let response = trpl::get(url).await; + let response_text = response.text().await; + Html::parse(&response_text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title_element| title_element.inner_html()) } ``` -Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers -and the average of the items in the collection +Listing 17-1: Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page + +In Listing 17-1, we define a function named `page_title`, and we mark it with +the `async` keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL +is passed in, and, and we await the response by using the `await` keyword. Then +we get the text of the response by calling its `text` method and once again +awaiting it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For +`get`, we need to wait for the server to send back the first part of its +response, which will include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on. That part of the +response can be delivered separately from the body of the request. Especially if +the body is very large, it can take some time for it all to arrive. Thus, we +have to wait for the *entirety* of the response to arrive, so the `text` method +is also async. + +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +*lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators back in the “Processing a Series of +Items with Iterators” section of Chapter 13 on page XX. Iterators do nothing +unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or using `for` loops or +methods such as `map` which use `next` under the hood. With futures, the same +basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask them to. This +laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s actually needed. + +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in +> the “Creating a New Thread with `spawn`” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, +> where the closure we passed to another thread started running immediately. +> It’s also different from how many other languages approach async! But it’s +> important for Rust. We’ll see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s +present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. + +Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes after the expression you’re awaiting, +not before it. That is, it’s a *postfix keyword*. This may be different from +what you might be used to if you have used async in other languages. Rust chose +this because it makes chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we +can change the body of `page_url_for` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` +function calls together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` + let response_text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; +``` + +Listing 17-2: Chaining with the `await` keyword + +With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add +some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we’ve +written and what it means. -The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within -the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to -ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is -also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods -on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2: +When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type which implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees +a function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function whose +body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of the of +the anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function which returns a +*future* of the return type. When the compiler sees a function definition such +as the `async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1, it’s equivalent to a non-async +function defined like this: ``` -impl AveragedCollection { - pub fn add(&mut self, value: i32) { - self.list.push(value); - self.update_average(); +use std::future::Future; +use trpl::Html; + +fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ { + async move { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()) } +} +``` - pub fn remove(&mut self) -> Option<i32> { - let result = self.list.pop(); - match result { - Some(value) => { - self.update_average(); - Some(value) - } - None => None, - } - } +Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: + +* It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in the “Traits as + Parameters” section in Chapter 10 on page XX. +* The returned trait is a `Future`, with an associated type of `Output`. Notice + that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the the + original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +* All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an + `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is + the expression returned from the function. +* This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as described + above. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is just + like other blocks you have seen. +* The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the + `url` parameter. (We’ll talk about `async` vs. `async move` much more later + in the chapter.) +* The new version of the function has a kind of lifetime we haven’t seen before + in the output type: `'_`. Because the function returns a `Future` which refers + to a reference—in this case, the reference from the `url` parameter—we need to + tell Rust that we mean for that reference to be included. We don’t have to + name the lifetime here, because Rust is smart enough to know there is only one + reference which could be involved, but we *do* have to be explicit that the + resulting `Future` is bound by that lifetime. + +Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. To start, we’ll just get the title for +a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow the same pattern we used for getting +command line arguments back in the “Accepting Command Line Arguments” section +of Chapter 12 on page XX. Then we pass the first URL `page_title`, and await +the result. Because the value produced by the future is an `Option<String>`, we +use a `match` expression to print different messages to account for whether the +page had a `<title>`. - pub fn average(&self) -> f64 { - self.average - } +Filename: src/main.rs - fn update_average(&mut self) { - let total: i32 = self.list.iter().sum(); - self.average = total as f64 / self.list.len() as f64; +``` +async fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + let url = &args[1]; + match page_title(url).await { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), } } ``` -Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and -`average` on `AveragedCollection` - -The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access -or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added -to `list` using the `add` method or removed using the `remove` method, the -implementations of each call the private `update_average` method that handles -updating the `average` field as well. - -We leave the `list` and `average` fields private so there is no way for -external code to add or remove items to or from the `list` field directly; -otherwise, the `average` field might become out of sync when the `list` -changes. The `average` method returns the value in the `average` field, -allowing external code to read the `average` but not modify it. - -Because we’ve encapsulated the implementation details of the struct -`AveragedCollection`, we can easily change aspects, such as the data structure, -in the future. For instance, we could use a `HashSet<i32>` instead of a -`Vec<i32>` for the `list` field. As long as the signatures of the `add`, -`remove`, and `average` public methods stay the same, code using -`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change. If we made `list` public instead, -this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and `Vec<i32>` have -different methods for adding and removing items, so the external code would -likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. - -If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered object -oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or not for -different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. - -### Inheritance as a Type System and as Code Sharing - -*Inheritance* is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from -another object’s definition, thus gaining the parent object’s data and behavior -without you having to define them again. - -If a language must have inheritance to be an object-oriented language, then -Rust is not one. There is no way to define a struct that inherits the parent -struct’s fields and method implementations. However, if you’re used to having -inheritance in your programming toolbox, you can use other solutions in Rust, -depending on your reason for reaching for inheritance in the first place. - -You would choose inheritance for two main reasons. One is for reuse of code: -you can implement particular behavior for one type, and inheritance enables you -to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can share Rust code -using default trait method implementations instead, which you saw in Listing -10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method on the -`Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have the -`summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is similar to -a parent class having an implementation of a method and an inheriting child -class also having the implementation of the method. We can also override the -default implementation of the `summarize` method when we implement the -`Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the -implementation of a method inherited from a parent class. - -The other reason to use inheritance relates to the type system: to enable a -child type to be used in the same places as the parent type. This is also -called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for -each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. - -> ### Polymorphism -> -> To many people, polymorphism is synonymous with inheritance. But it’s -> actually a more general concept that refers to code that can work with data -> of multiple types. For inheritance, those types are generally subclasses. -> -> Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and -> trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is -> sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. - -Inheritance has recently fallen out of favor as a programming design solution -in many programming languages because it’s often at risk of sharing more code -than necessary. Subclasses shouldn’t always share all characteristics of their -parent class but will do so with inheritance. This can make a program’s design -less flexible. It also introduces the possibility of calling methods on -subclasses that don’t make sense or that cause errors because the methods don’t -apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow a subclass -to inherit from one class, further restricting the flexibility of a program’s -design. - -For these reasons, Rust takes the different approach of using trait objects -instead of inheritance. Let’s look at how trait objects enable polymorphism in -Rust. - -## Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types - -In Chapter 8, we mentioned that one limitation of vectors is that they can -store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-10 where -we defined a `SpreadsheetCell` enum that had variants to hold integers, floats, -and text. This meant we could store different types of data in each cell and -still have a vector that represented a row of cells. This is a perfectly good -solution when our interchangeable items are a fixed set of types that we know -when our code is compiled. - -However, sometimes we want our library user to be able to extend the set of -types that are valid in a particular situation. To show how we might achieve -this, we’ll create an example graphical user interface (GUI) tool that iterates -through a list of items, calling a `draw` method on each one to draw it to the -screen—a common technique for GUI tools. We’ll create a library crate called -`gui` that contains the structure of a GUI library. This crate might include -some types for people to use, such as `Button` or `TextField`. In addition, -`gui` users will want to create their own types that can be drawn: for -instance, one programmer might add an `Image` and another might add a -`SelectBox`. - -We won’t implement a fully fledged GUI library for this example but will show -how the pieces would fit together. At the time of writing the library, we can’t -know and define all the types other programmers might want to create. But we do -know that `gui` needs to keep track of many values of different types, and it -needs to call a `draw` method on each of these differently typed values. It -doesn’t need to know exactly what will happen when we call the `draw` method, -just that the value will have that method available for us to call. - -To do this in a language with inheritance, we might define a class named -`Component` that has a method named `draw` on it. The other classes, such as -`Button`, `Image`, and `SelectBox`, would inherit from `Component` and thus -inherit the `draw` method. They could each override the `draw` method to define -their custom behavior, but the framework could treat all of the types as if -they were `Component` instances and call `draw` on them. But because Rust -doesn’t have inheritance, we need another way to structure the `gui` library to -allow users to extend it with new types. - -### Defining a Trait for Common Behavior - -To implement the behavior we want `gui` to have, we’ll define a trait named -`Draw` that will have one method named `draw`. Then we can define a vector that -takes a *trait object*. A trait object points to both an instance of a type -implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on -that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of -pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` -keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason -trait objects must use a pointer in Chapter 19 in the section “Dynamically -Sized Types and the `Sized` Trait.”) We can use trait objects in place of a -generic or concrete type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system -will ensure at compile time that any value used in that context will implement -the trait object’s trait. Consequently, we don’t need to know all the possible -types at compile time. - -We’ve mentioned that, in Rust, we refrain from calling structs and enums -“objects” to distinguish them from other languages’ objects. In a struct or -enum, the data in the struct fields and the behavior in `impl` blocks are -separated, whereas in other languages, the data and behavior combined into one -concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects *are* more like -objects in other languages in the sense that they combine data and behavior. -But trait objects differ from traditional objects in that we can’t add data to -a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other -languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common -behavior. - -Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named -`draw`: - -Filename: src/lib.rs - -``` -pub trait Draw { - fn draw(&self); +Listing 17-3: Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a +user-supplied argument + +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. The only place we can use the `await` +keyword is in async functions or blocks, and Rust won’t let us mark the +special `main` function as `async`. + +``` +error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async` + --> src/main.rs:6:1 + | +6 | async fn main() { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async` +``` + +The reason `main` can’t be marked `async` is that async code needs a *runtime*: +a Rust crate which manages the details of executing asynchronous code. A +program’s `main` function can *initialize* a runtime, but it’s not a runtime +*itself*. (We’ll see more about why this is a bit later.) Every Rust program +that executes async code has at least one place where it sets up a runtime and +executes the futures. + +Most languages which support async bundle a runtime with the language. Rust does +not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which +makes different tradeoffs suitable to the use case they target. For example, a +high-throughput web server with many CPU cores and a large amount of RAM has +very different different needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a +small amount of RAM, and no ability to do heap allocations. The crates which +provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality +such as file or network I/O. + +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `run` function +from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to +completion. Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime to use to run the +future passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the +future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`. Once it +completed, we would be able to match on the resulting `Option<String>`, the way +we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter +(and most async code in the real world!), we’ll be doing more than just one +async function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly +await the result of calling `page_title`, as in Listing 17-4. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let url = &args[1]; + match page_title(url).await { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + }) } ``` -Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait +Listing 17-4: Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run` + +When we run this, we get the behavior we might have expected initially: -This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits -in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named -`Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type -`Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside -a `Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. +``` +$ cargo run "http://www.rust-lang.org" +The title for http://www.rust-lang.org was + Rust Programming Language +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Phew: we finally have some working async code! This now compiles, and we can run +it. Before we add code to race two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn +our attention back to how futures work. + +Each *await point*—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` +keyword—represents a place where control gets handed back to the runtime. To +make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async +block, so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when +it’s ready to try advancing this one again. This is an invisible state machine, +as if you wrote an enum in this way to save the current state at each `await` +point: ``` -pub struct Screen { - pub components: Vec<Box<dyn Draw>>, +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + Initial { url: &'a str }, + GetAwaitPoint { url: &'a str }, + TextAwaitPoint { response: trpl::Response }, } ``` -Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field -holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait - -On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the -`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5: +Writing the code to transition between each state by hand would be tedious and +error-prone, especially when adding more functionality and more states to the +code later. Instead, the Rust compiler creates and manages the state machine +data structures for async code automatically. If you’re wondering: yep, the +normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all apply. Happily, +the compiler also handles checking those for us, and has good error messages. +We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter! + +Ultimately, something has to execute that state machine. That something is a +runtime. (This is why you may sometimes come across references to *executors* +when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +executing the async code.) + +Now we can understand why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an +async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something +else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, +but `main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we call the +`trpl::run` function in `main`, which sets up a runtime and runs the future +returned by the `async` block until it returns `Ready`. + +> Note: some runtimes provide macros to make it so you *can* write an async +> main function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal +> `fn main` which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a +> function which runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. + +Let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code, by +calling `page_title` with two different URLs passed in from the command line +and racing them. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Screen { - pub fn run(&self) { - for component in self.components.iter() { - component.draw(); +use trpl::{Either, Html}; + +fn main() { + let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().collect(); + + trpl::run(async { + let title_fut_1 = page_title(&args[1]); + let title_fut_2 = page_title(&args[2]); + + let (url, maybe_title) = + match trpl::race(title_fut_1, title_fut_2).await { + Either::Left(left) => left, + Either::Right(right) => right, + }; + + println!("{url} returned first"); + match maybe_title { + Some(title) => println!("Its page title is: '{title}'"), + None => println!("Its title could not be parsed."), } - } + }) +} + +async fn page_title(url: &str) -> (&str, Option<String>) { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + let title = Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()); + (url, title) } ``` -Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each -component +Listing 17-5: Calling `page_title` for two URLs to see which returns first + +In Listing 17-5, we begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied +URLs. We save the futures produced by calling `page_title` as `title_fut_1` and +`title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do anything yet, because futures are lazy, +and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then we pass the futures to `trpl::race`, +which returns a value to indicate which of the futures passed to it finishes +first. -This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type -parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted -with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple -concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we -could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound -as in Listing 17-6: +> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, +> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` +> function can do a lot of things that `trpl::race` function can’t, but it also +> has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Either future can legitimately “win,” so it doesn’t make sense to return a +`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we haven’t seen before, +`trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat similar to a `Result`, in that it +has two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or +failure baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate +“one or the other”. ``` -pub struct Screen<T: Draw> { - pub components: Vec<T>, +enum Either<A, B> { + Left(A), + Right(B), } +``` + +The `race` function returns `Left` if the first argument finishes first, with +that future’s output, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if +*that* one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear when +calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. + +We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if +the page which returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can +still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and +what the `<title>` was for the web page at that URL, if any. + +You have built a small working web scraper now! Pick a couple URLs and run the +command line tool. You may discover that some sites are reliably faster than +others, while in other cases which site “wins” varies from run to run. More +importantly, you’ve learned the basics of working with futures, so we can now +dig into even more of the things we can do with async. + +## Concurrency With Async + +In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges +we tackled with threads in Chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of +the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between +threads and futures. + +In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very +similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped +quite differently. Even when the APIs *look* similar between threads and async, +they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different +performance characteristics. + +### Counting + +The first task we tackled in the “Creating a New Thread with spawn” section of +Chapter 16 on page XX was counting up on two separate threads. Let’s do the +same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function which looks +very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function which is an +async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together to +implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + trpl::spawn_task(async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }); -impl<T> Screen<T> -where - T: Draw, -{ - pub fn run(&self) { - for component in self.components.iter() { - component.draw(); + for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } - } + }); } ``` -Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` -method using generics and trait bounds +Listing 17-6: Using `spawn_task` to count with two + +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so +that our top-level function can be async. -This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of -type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous -collections, using generics and trait bounds is preferable because the -definitions will be monomorphized at compile time to use the concrete types. +> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it +> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! -On the other hand, with the method using trait objects, one `Screen` instance -can hold a `Vec<T>` that contains a `Box<Button>` as well as a -`Box<TextField>`. Let’s look at how this works, and then we’ll talk about the -runtime performance implications. +Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it, +which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a +top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls. -### Implementing the Trait +This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the +fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own +terminal when you run it. + +``` +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +``` -Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the -`Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope -of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its -body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct -might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7: +This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block +finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main +function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you +will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With +threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. +In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task +handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it +after awaiting it. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub struct Button { - pub width: u32, - pub height: u32, - pub label: String, +let handle = trpl::spawn_task(async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}); + +for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -impl Draw for Button { - fn draw(&self) { - // code to actually draw a button +handle.await.unwrap(); +``` + +Listing 17-7: Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion + +This updated version runs till *both* loops finish. + +``` +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just +with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join +handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. + +The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system +thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because +async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async +block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` +function. + +In the “Waiting for All Threads to Finish Using `join` Handles” section of +Chapter 16 on page XX, we showed how to use the `join` method on the +`JoinHandle` type returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` +function is similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces +a single new future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the +futures you passed in once *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use +`trpl::join` to wait for both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await +`fut1` and `fut2`, but instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We +ignore the output, because it’s just a tuple with two unit values in it. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let fut1 = async { + for i in 1..10 { + println!("hi number {i} from the first task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -} +}; + +let fut2 = async { + for i in 1..5 { + println!("hi number {i} from the second task!"); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +trpl::join(fut1, fut2).await; ``` -Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait +Listing 17-8: Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures -The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the -fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those -same fields plus a `placeholder` field. Each of the types we want to draw on -the screen will implement the `Draw` trait but will use different code in the -`draw` method to define how to draw that particular type, as `Button` has here -(without the actual GUI code, as mentioned). The `Button` type, for instance, -might have an additional `impl` block containing methods related to what -happens when a user clicks the button. These kinds of methods won’t apply to -types like `TextField`. +When we run this, we see both futures run to completion: + +``` +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` -If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has -`width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they implement the `Draw` trait on the -`SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8: +Here, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from +what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, +meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never +lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system +decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the +runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated +because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as +part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work +for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee +fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let +you choose whether you want fairness or not. + +Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they +do: + +* Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops. +* Await each async block immediately after defining it. +* Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future + after the body of second loop. + +For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in +each case *before* running the code! + +### Message Passing + +Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing +again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take a +slightly different path than we did in the “Using Message Passing to Transfer +Data Between Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, to illustrate some of +the key differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In +Listing 17-9, we’ll begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a +separate task as we spawned a separate thread. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::Draw; +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); -struct SelectBox { - width: u32, - height: u32, - options: Vec<String>, +let val = String::from("hi"); +tx.send(val).unwrap(); + +let received = rx.recv().await.unwrap(); +println!("Got: {received}"); +``` + +Listing 17-9: Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` +and `rx` + +Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, +single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in the “Using Message +Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX. The +async version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based +version: it uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its +`recv` method produces a future we need to await rather than producing the +value directly. Now we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. +Notice that we don’t have to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely +need to await the `rx.recv` call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until +it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it +is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either +a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we +don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to, +because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded. + +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` +> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it +> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the +> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async +> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async +> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. + +Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away! +Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything +in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures +involved. + +Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in +between them, as shown in Listing 17-10: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), +]; + +for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; } -impl Draw for SelectBox { - fn draw(&self) { - // code to actually draw a select box - } +while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); } ``` -Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a -`SelectBox` struct +Listing 17-10: Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel +and sleeping with an `await` between each message + +In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we +could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we +know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we’ll +generally be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages. In that case, we need +to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. + +In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a +synchronous channel. However, Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop +over an *asynchronous* series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of +loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let` +loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in the “Concise +Control Flow with `if let`” section in Chapter 6 on page XX. The loop will +continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to match the +value. + +The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause +the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +regardless of whether *any* messages have arrived, the future will instead +resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop +polling—that is, stop awaiting. + +The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling +`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can +use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is +`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point +again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. + +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, +there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at +half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds) +after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, +it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span +class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. + +Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full +delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given +async block, the order that `await` keywords appear in the code is also the +order they happen when running the program. + +There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs +linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, +interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await` +points on the `recv` calls. + +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving +each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async +blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`, +just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling +`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures +in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we’re +trying *not* to do. + +Filename: src/main.rs -Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` -instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` -by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the -`run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the -components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation: +``` +let tx_fut = async { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; +``` + +Listing 17-11: Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and +awaiting the futures for those blocks + +With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at +500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds. + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +interacts with `trpl::join`: + +* The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once *both* futures + passed to it have completed. +* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last + message in `vals`. +* The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. +* The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. +* Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel + is closed. +* The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, + `tx`, is dropped. +* We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the + outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. +* The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which + takes us back to the top of this list! + +We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t +make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would +make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way +to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function. + +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because +sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into +that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In the “Capturing +References or Moving Ownership” section of Chapter 13 on page XX, we learned +how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and in the “Using `move` Closures +with Threads” section of Chapter 16 on page XX, we saw that we often need to +move data into closures when working with threads. The same basic dynamics +apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with async blocks just as it +does with closures. + +In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain +`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run *this* version of the code, +it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::{Button, Screen}; +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; -fn main() { - let screen = Screen { - components: vec![ - Box::new(SelectBox { - width: 75, - height: 10, - options: vec![ - String::from("Yes"), - String::from("Maybe"), - String::from("No"), - ], - }), - Box::new(Button { - width: 50, - height: 10, - label: String::from("OK"), - }), - ], - }; - - screen.run(); -} +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + eprintln!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; +``` + +Listing 17-12: A working example of sending and receiving messages between +futures which correctly shuts down when complete + +This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` +on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we +clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into +that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original +`tx` into a *new* async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower +delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving +messages, but it could go before it just as well. The key is the order of the +futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in. + +Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so +that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we’ll +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from +`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + +let tx1 = tx.clone(); +let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } +}; + +let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } +}; + +let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1500)).await; + } +}; + +trpl::join3(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut).await; ``` -Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of different types that -implement the same trait +Listing 17-13: Using multiple producers with async blocks + +Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending +futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also +received at those different intervals. -When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the -`SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the -new type and draw it because `SelectBox` implements the `Draw` trait, which -means it implements the `draw` method. +``` +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'the' +received 'messages' +received 'future' +received 'for' +received 'you' +``` -This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to -rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck -typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks -like a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` -in Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each -component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` -or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By -specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` -vector, we’ve defined `Screen` to need values that we can call the `draw` -method on. +This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with +`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. -The advantage of using trait objects and Rust’s type system to write code -similar to code using duck typing is that we never have to check whether a -value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors -if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile -our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. +## Working With Any Number of Futures -For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` -with a `String` as a component: +When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we +also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to +have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we +wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an +arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. +Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of +`join3`, as in Listing 17-14: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use gui::Screen; +trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); +``` -fn main() { - let screen = Screen { - components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], - }; +Listing 17-14: Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures - screen.run(); -} +This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and +`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we +know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing +futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that +collection to complete is a common pattern. + +To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and +join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which +implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in “The Iterator +Trait and the next Method” section of Chapter 13 on page XX, so it seems like +just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and replace `join!` +with `join_all`. + +``` +let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + +trpl::join_all(futures).await; ``` -Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t -implement the trait object’s trait +Listing 17-15: Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all` -We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error: ``` -error[E0277]: the trait bound `String: Draw` is not satisfied - --> src/main.rs:5:26 - | -5 | components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is not implemented for `String` - | - = note: required for the cast to the object type `dyn Draw` -``` - -This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` we -didn’t mean to pass and so should pass a different type or we should implement -`Draw` on `String` so that `Screen` is able to call `draw` on it. - -### Trait Objects Perform Dynamic Dispatch - -Recall in the “Performance of Code Using Generics” section in Chapter 10 our -discussion on the monomorphization process performed by the compiler when we -use trait bounds on generics: the compiler generates nongeneric implementations -of functions and methods for each concrete type that we use in place of a -generic type parameter. The code that results from monomorphization is doing -*static dispatch*, which is when the compiler knows what method you’re calling -at compile time. This is opposed to *dynamic dispatch*, which is when the -compiler can’t tell at compile time which method you’re calling. In dynamic -dispatch cases, the compiler emits code that at runtime will figure out which -method to call. - -When we use trait objects, Rust must use dynamic dispatch. The compiler doesn’t -know all the types that might be used with the code that’s using trait objects, -so it doesn’t know which method implemented on which type to call. Instead, at -runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to -call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static -dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a -method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get -extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to -support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. - -## Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern - -The *state pattern* is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the -pattern is that we define a set of states a value can have internally. The -states are represented by a set of *state objects*, and the value’s behavior -changes based on its state. We’re going to work through an example of a blog -post struct that has a field to hold its state, which will be a state object -from the set "draft", "review", or "published". -<!-- can you give a quick example here, something we could visualize? are we -saying "we define a set of states a value can have as state objects...."? /LC ---> -<!-- What do you think about this, hinting at the coming example quickly? It -felt weird to introduce something different only to switch gears in a few -paragraphs, so is moving the example's introduction here ok? /Carol --> -The state objects share functionality: in Rust, of course, we use -structs and traits rather than objects and inheritance. Each state object is -responsible for its own behavior and for governing when it should change into -another state. The value that holds a state object knows nothing about the -different behavior of the states or when to transition between states. - -The advantage of using the state pattern is that, when the business -requirements of the program change, we won’t need to change the code of the -value holding the state or the code that uses the value. We’ll only need to -update the code inside one of the state objects to change its rules or perhaps -add more state objects. Let’s dig in to incrementally implementing a blog post -workflow using the state pattern. - -The final functionality will look like this: - -1. A blog post starts as an empty draft. -2. When the draft is done, a review of the post is requested. -3. When the post is approved, it gets published. -4. Only published blog posts return content to print, so unapproved posts can’t - accidentally be published. - -Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we -try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post -should remain an unpublished draft. - -Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the -API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet -because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:43:37 + | +8 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | _______________________- +9 | | let vals = vec![ +10 | | String::from("hi"), +11 | | String::from("from"), +... | +19 | | } +20 | | }; + | |_________- the expected `async` block +21 | +22 | let rx_fut = async { + | ______________________- +23 | | while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { +24 | | println!("received '{value}'"); +25 | | } +26 | | }; + | |_________- the found `async` block +... +43 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:22:22: 26:10}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and and casting it to a trait object +``` + +This might be surprising. After all, none of them return anything, so each +block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a +concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated +by the compiler for async blocks. You can’t put two different hand-written +structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs +generated by the compiler. + +To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in the +“Returning Errors from the run function” section in Chapter 12 on page XX. +(We’ll cover trait objects in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets +us treat each of the anonymous futures produced by these types as the same +type, because all of them implement the `Future` trait. + +> Note: In the “Using an Enum to Store Multiple Types” section of Chapter 8 on +> page XX, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a `Vec`: using +> an enum to represent each of the different types which can appear in the +> vector. We can’t do that here, though. For one thing, we have no way to name +> the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, the reason we +> reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be able to work +> with a dynamic collection of futures where we don’t know what they will all +> be until runtime. + +We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown +in Listing 17-16. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use blog::Post; +let futures = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; -fn main() { - [1] let mut post = Post::new(); +trpl::join_all(futures).await; +``` - [2] post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - [3] assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Listing 17-16: Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a +`Vec` - [4] post.request_review(); - [5] assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Unfortunately, this still doesn’t compile. In fact, we have the same basic +error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new` +calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come +back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the +`Box::new` calls, by explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable: - [6] post.approve(); - [7] assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); -} +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let futures: Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; ``` -Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` -crate to have - -We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new` [1]. -We want to allow text to be added to the blog post [2]. If we try to get the -post’s content immediately, before approval, we shouldn't get any text because -the post is still a draft. We’ve added `assert_eq!` in the code for -demonstration purposes [3]. An excellent unit test for this would be to assert -that a draft blog post returns an empty string from the `content` method, but -we’re not going to write tests for this example. - -Next, we want to enable a request for a review of the post [4], and we want -`content` to return an empty string while waiting for the review [5]. When the -post receives approval [6], it should get published, meaning the text of the -post will be returned when `content` is called [7]. - -Notice that the only type we’re interacting with from the crate is the `Post` -type. This type will use the state pattern and will hold a value that will be -one of three state objects representing the various states a post can be -in—draft, waiting for review, or published. Changing from one state to another -will be managed internally within the `Post` type. The states change in -response to the methods called by our library’s users on the `Post` instance, -but they don’t have to manage the state changes directly. Also, users can’t -make a mistake with the states, like publishing a post before it’s reviewed. - -### Defining `Post` and Creating a New Instance in the Draft State -<!-- is one of these new definitions the "state object"? I wasn't sure where -the state object fitted in /LC --> -<!-- I've tried to clarify in this paragraph /Carol --> -Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a -public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the -definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an -instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private -`State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` -must have. -<!-- what till the state trait do, allow access to one of the three states? /LC --> -<!-- How's this? /Carol --> -Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` -in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the -`Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. - -Filename: src/lib.rs - -``` -pub struct Post { - state: Option<Box<dyn State>>, - content: String, -} +Listing 17-17: Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit +type declaration -impl Post { - pub fn new() -> Post { - Post { - [1] state: Some(Box::new(Draft {})), - [2] content: String::new(), - } - } -} +The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: -trait State {} +* The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of + the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. +* Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. +* The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. +* Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items. -struct Draft {} +That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have +the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that +each is very similar in its contents. -impl State for Draft {} +``` +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:24 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | | + | required by a bound introduced by this call + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `join_all` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 + | +102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> + | -------- required by a bound in this function +... +105 | I::Item: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:9 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. ``` -Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates -a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct +That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message +tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not +implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve +it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and +`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get +unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for +`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin +the futures themselves. -The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The -state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all -implement the `State` trait. For now, the trait doesn’t have any methods, and -we’ll start by defining just the `Draft` state because that is the state we -want a post to start in. +Filename: src/main.rs -When we create a new `Post`, we set its `state` field to a `Some` value that -holds a `Box` [1]. This `Box` points to a new instance of the `Draft` struct. -This ensures whenever we create a new instance of `Post`, it will start out as -a draft. Because the `state` field of `Post` is private, there is no way to -create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the -`content` field to a new, empty `String` [2]. +``` +let futures: Vec<Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>> = + vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; +``` + +Listing 17-18: Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check -### Storing the Text of the Post Content +If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: -We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named -`add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the -blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` -field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how -the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty -straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl -Post` block: +``` +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'messages' +received 'the' +received 'for' +received 'future' +received 'you' +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Phew! + +There’s a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` +comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the +heap with `Box`—and we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t +actually *need* the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this +particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can +get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we +reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly +with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. + +However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; +otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, +which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future +when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable +references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { +let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { // --snip-- - pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { - self.content.push_str(text); - } -} +}); + +let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // --snip-- +}); + +let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- +}); + +let futures: Vec<Pin<&mut dyn Future<Output = ()>>> = + vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; +``` + +Listing 17-19: Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary +heap allocations + +We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` +types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements +`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements +`Future<Output = &str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements +`Future<Output = bool>`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` + let a = async { 1u32 }; + let b = async { "Hello!" }; + let c = async { true }; + + let (a_result, b_result, c_result) = trpl::join!(a, b, c); + println!("{a_result}, {b_result}, {c_result}"); ``` -Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s -`content` +Listing 17-20: Three futures with distinct types + +We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in +multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use +`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same +type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`! -The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self`, because we’re -changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call -`push_str` on the `String` in `content` and pass the `text` argument to add to -the saved `content`. This behavior doesn’t depend on the state the post is in, -so it’s not part of the state pattern. The `add_text` method doesn’t interact -with the `state` field at all, but it is part of the behavior we want to -support. +This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of +futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal +with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, +even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other +types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice +syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing. -### Ensuring the Content of a Draft Post Is Empty +### Racing futures -Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still -want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is -still in the draft state, as shown at [3] in Listing 17-11. For now, let’s -implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this -requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later -once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. -So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always -be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation: +When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we +require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only +need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to +racing one future against another. -Filename: src/lib.rs +In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and +`fast`, against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running, +pauses for some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints +another message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for +one of them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!) +Unlike when we used `race` back in the “Our First Async Program” section of this +chapter on page XX, we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, +because all of the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - // --snip-- - pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - "" - } +let slow = async { + println!("'slow' started."); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; + println!("'slow' finished."); +}; + +let fast = async { + println!("'fast' started."); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'fast' finished."); +}; + +trpl::race(slow, fast).await; +``` + +Listing 17-21: Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first + +Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the +“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes +first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is +not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they’re +passed. Other implementations *are* fair, and will randomly choose which future +to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we’re using is +fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first `await` in its body +before another task can start. + +Recall from the “Our First Async Program” section of this chapter on page XX +that at each await point, Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and +switch to another one if the future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is +also true: Rust *only* pauses async blocks and hands control back to a runtime +at an await point. Everything between await points is synchronous. + +That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, +that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes +hear this referred to as one future *starving* other futures. In some cases, +that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive +setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some +particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to +hand control back to the runtime. + +By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a +useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to +each other. + +But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? + +### Yielding + +Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` +function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use +`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and +blocking. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); } ``` -Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on -`Post` that always returns an empty string slice +Listing 17-22: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations -With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to the line at -[3] works as intended. +In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime +*after* carrying out a bunch of slow operations. -### Requesting a Review of the Post Changes Its State +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + slow("a", 10); + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + slow("b", 10); + slow("b", 15); + slow("b", 350); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(50)).await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; + +trpl::race(a, b).await; +``` -Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should -change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code: +Listing 17-23: Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations -Filename: src/lib.rs +If you run this, you will see this output: ``` -impl Post { - // --snip-- - [1] pub fn request_review(&mut self) { - [2] if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { - [3] self.state = Some(s.request_review()) - } - } -} +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'b' ran for 350ms +'a' finished. +``` -trait State { - [4] fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; -} +As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. +There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all +of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does +all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a` +future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow +tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That +means we need something we can await! + +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete +without the `b` future running *at all*. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function +as a starting point? + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); + +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; +``` + +Listing 17-24: Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress + +In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call +to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: + +``` +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'a' finished. +``` -struct Draft {} +The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because +it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures +swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we +have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work +however makes the most sense to us. -impl State for Draft { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - [5] Box::new(PendingReview {}) +We don’t really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast +as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that +directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those +`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'a' finished."); +}; + +let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'b' finished."); +}; +``` + +Listing 17-25: Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress + +This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster +than using `sleep`, because timers such as the one used by `sleep` often have +limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for +example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a +`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a +lot in one millisecond! + +You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one +in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance +testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the +status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let +each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run +for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes +compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let one_ns = Duration::from_nanos(1); +let start = Instant::now(); +async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::sleep(one_ns).await; + } +} +.await; +let time = Instant::now() - start; +println!( + "'sleep' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() +); + +let start = Instant::now(); +async { + for _ in 1..1000 { + trpl::yield_now().await; } } +.await; +let time = Instant::now() - start; +println!( + "'yield' version finished after {} seconds.", + time.as_secs_f32() +); +``` + +Listing 17-26: Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now` + +The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster! + +This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on +what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a +form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has the power to determine +when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the +responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based embedded +operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking! + +In real-world code, you won’t usually be alternating function calls with await +points on every single line, of course. While yielding control in this way is +relatively inexpensive, it’s not free! In many cases, trying to break up a +compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it’s better +for *overall* performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always +measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The +underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you *are* seeing a +lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently, +though! + +### Building Our Own Async Abstractions -struct PendingReview {} +We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can +build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When +we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up +yet further async abstractions. -impl State for PendingReview { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - [6] self +Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +future. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(100)).await; + "I finished!" +}; + +match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) } } ``` -Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` -trait +Listing 17-27: Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time +limit -We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable -reference to `self` [1]. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on -the current state of `Post` [3], and this second `request_review` method -consumes the current state and returns a new state. +Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: -We add the `request_review` method to the `State` trait [4]; all types that -implement the trait will now need to implement the `request_review` method. -Note that rather than having `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first -parameter of the method, we have `self: Box<Self>`. This syntax means the -method is only valid when called on a `Box` holding the type. This syntax takes -ownership of `Box<Self>`, invalidating the old state so the state value of the -`Post` can transform into a new state. +* It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it. +* Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow + it to work with any future. +* Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`, + that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`. +* It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the + `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout + elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout + waited for. -To consume the old state, the `request_review` method needs to take ownership -of the state value. This is where the `Option` in the `state` field of `Post` -comes in: we call the `take` method to take the `Some` value out of the `state` -field and leave a `None` in its place, because Rust doesn’t let us have -unpopulated fields in structs [2]. This lets us move the `state` value out of -`Post` rather than borrowing it. Then we’ll set the post’s `state` value to the -result of this operation. +Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. -We need to set `state` to `None` temporarily rather than setting it directly -with code like `self.state = self.state.request_review();` to get ownership of -the `state` value. This ensures `Post` can’t use the old `state` value after -we’ve transformed it into a new state. +Filename: src/main.rs -The `request_review` method on `Draft` returns a new, boxed instance of a new -`PendingReview` struct [5], which represents the state when a post is waiting -for a review. The `PendingReview` struct also implements the `request_review` -method but doesn’t do any transformations. Rather, it returns itself [6], -because when we request a review on a post already in the `PendingReview` -state, it should stay in the `PendingReview` state. +``` +async fn timeout<F: Future>( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result<F::Output, Duration> { + // Here is where our implementation will go! +} +``` -Now we can start seeing the advantages of the state pattern: the -`request_review` method on `Post` is the same no matter its `state` value. Each -state is responsible for its own rules. +Listing 17-28: Defining the signature of `timeout` -We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string -slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the -`Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. -Listing 17-11 now works up to the line at [5]! +That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we +need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to +run that timer with the future the caller passes in. -### Adding `approve` to Change the Behavior of `content` +We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are +passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to +complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try` +finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If +`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of +`()`. -The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will -set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that -state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16: +In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the +`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. +If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` +with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - // --snip-- - pub fn approve(&mut self) { - if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { - self.state = Some(s.approve()) +use trpl::Either; + +// --snip-- + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } } + }); +} + +async fn timeout<F: Future>( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result<F::Output, Duration> { + match trpl::race(future_to_try, trpl::sleep(max_time)).await { + Either::Left(output) => Ok(output), + Either::Right(_) => Err(max_time), } +``` + +Listing 17-29: Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep` + +With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If +we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout: + +``` +Failed after 2 seconds +``` + +Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same +approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things +such as network calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter! + +In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and +secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and +so on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those +APIs. + +We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same +time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a +sequence over time, with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want +to consider first, though: + +* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group + to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in + sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? + +* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` + crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about + the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine + with any collection of futures.) + +## Streams + +So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big +exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for +our async channel in the “Message Passing” section of this chapter on page XX. +The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an +instance of a much more general pattern, often called a *stream*. + +A sequence of items is something we’ve seen before, when we looked at the +`Iterator` trait in “The `Iterator` Trait and the `next` Method” section of +Chapter 13 on page XX, but there are two differences between iterators and the +async channel receiver. The first difference is the element of time: iterators +are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second +difference is the API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call its +synchronous `next` method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we +called an asynchronous `recv` method instead, but these APIs otherwise feel +very similar. + +That similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is similar to an asynchronous +form of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive +messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much more general: it +provides the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The +similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a +stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by +calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; +let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); +let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + +while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); } +``` + +Listing 17-30: Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values + +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call +`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream +using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the +stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. + +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile. Instead, as we +can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available. + +``` +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:8:40 + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + | ^^^^ + | + = note: the full type name has been written to '~/projects/hello-async/target/debug/deps/async_await-bbd5bb8f6851cb5f.long-type-18426562901668632191.txt' + = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console + = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope +help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them + | +1 + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt; + | +1 + use std::iter::Iterator; + | +1 + use std::str::pattern::Searcher; + | +1 + use trpl::StreamExt; + | +help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await { + | ~~~~~~~~ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. +``` + +As the output suggests, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the +right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion +so far, you might reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need +here is actually `StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a +common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another. + +Why do we need `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and what does the `Stream` trait +itself do? Briefly, the answer is that throughout the Rust ecosystem, the +`Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which effectively combines the +`Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait supplies a higher-level +set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other +utility methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. We’ll return +to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of the +chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving. + +The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, +as in Listing 17-31. -trait State { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]; + let iter = values.iter().map(|n| n * 2); + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); } +``` -struct Draft {} +Listing 17-31: Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream -impl State for Draft { - // --snip-- - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - [1] self - } +With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s +more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility +methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the +`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::StreamExt; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let values = 1..101; + let iter = values.map(|n| n * 2); + let stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(iter); + + let mut filtered = + stream.filter(|value| value % 3 == 0 || value % 5 == 0); + + while let Some(value) = filtered.next().await { + println!("The value was: {value}"); + } + }); } +``` -struct PendingReview {} +Listing 17-32: Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method -impl State for PendingReview { - // --snip-- - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - [2] Box::new(Published {}) - } +Of course, this isn’t very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators +and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can +do which are unique to streams. + +### Composing Streams + +Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in +a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only +pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the +network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other +kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example, +we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts +on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to +avoid doing needless work. + +Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, as a stand-in for a stream +of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication +protocol. In Listing 17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns +`impl Stream<Item = String>`. For its implementation, we create an async +channel, loop over the first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them +across the channel. + +We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from +the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use +a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = get_messages(); + + while let Some(message) = messages.next().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); } -struct Published {} +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); -impl State for Published { - fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - self + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for message in messages { + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); } - fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { - self - } + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait +Listing 17-33: Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream` -We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that -implements `State`, the `Published` state. +When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: -Similar to the way `request_review` on `PendingReview` works, if we call the -`approve` method on a `Draft`, it will have no effect because `approve` will -return `self` [1]. When we call `approve` on `PendingReview`, it returns a new, -boxed instance of the `Published` struct [2]. The `Published` struct implements -the `State` trait, and for both the `request_review` method and the `approve` -method, it returns itself, because the post should stay in the `Published` -state in those cases. +``` +Message: 'a' +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Message: 'j' +``` -Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value -returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we're -going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, -as shown in Listing 17-17: +We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator` +API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams: adding a timeout +which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit. -Filename: src/lib.rs +In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` +method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the +`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant +indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the +timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either +print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the +timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to +them, because the timeout helper produces a stream which needs to be pinned to +be polled. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl Post { - // --snip-- - pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - self.state.as_ref().unwrap().content(self) - } - // --snip-- +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) } ``` -Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a -`content` method on `State` +Listing 17-34: Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the +items in a stream -Because the goal is to keep all these rules inside the structs that implement -`State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass the post -instance (that is, `self`) as an argument. Then we return the value that’s -returned from using the `content` method on the `state` value. +However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not +change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages +we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the +`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along +with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items +and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays +we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is +for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. -We call the `as_ref` method on the `Option` because we want a reference to the -value inside the `Option` rather than ownership of the value. Because `state` -is an `Option<Box<dyn State>>`, when we call `as_ref`, an `Option<&Box<dyn -State>>` is returned. If we didn’t call `as_ref`, we would get an error because -we can’t move `state` out of the borrowed `&self` of the function parameter. +Filename: src/main.rs -We then call the `unwrap` method, which we know will never panic, because we -know the methods on `Post` ensure that `state` will always contain a `Some` -value when those methods are done. This is one of the cases we talked about in -the “Cases In Which You Have More Information Than the -Compiler” section of Chapter 9 when we -know that a `None` value is never possible, even though the compiler isn’t able -to understand that. +``` +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); -At this point, when we call `content` on the `&Box<dyn State>`, deref coercion -will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will -ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means -we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where -we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we -have, as shown in Listing 17-18: + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; -Filename: src/lib.rs + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); -``` -trait State { - // --snip-- - fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { - [1] "" - } + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } +``` -// --snip-- -struct Published {} +Listing 17-35: Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making +`get_messages` an async function + +To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we +need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async +function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>` +instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await +`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a +given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* futures. Awaiting +`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including sleeping +between sending each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result, +the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself: +the delays would all happen before the stream was even available. + +Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream, +and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. + +> Note: calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our +> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` *without* +> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose +> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but +> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to +> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what +> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! + +Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of +messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`. -impl State for Published { - // --snip-- - fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { - [2] &post.content - } +``` +Message: 'a' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'j' +``` + +The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get +all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can +hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive +before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls +the stream again, the message may now have arrived. + +You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or +other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our +final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with +this stream of messages. + +### Merging Streams + +First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if +we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send +a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream +from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time, +we’re going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return +type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function +`get_intervals`. + +In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define +it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given +variable.) Then we create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop +asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends +it over the channel. Because this is all wrapped in the task created by +`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including +the infinite loop. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait - -We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty -string slice [1]. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the `Draft` -and `PendingReview` structs. The `Published` struct will override the `content` -method and return the value in `post.content` [2]. - -Note that we need lifetime annotations on this method, as we discussed in -Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning a -reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is -related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. - -And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state -pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the -rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. - -### Trade-offs of the State Pattern - -We’ve shown that Rust is capable of implementing the object-oriented state -pattern to encapsulate the different kinds of behavior a post should have in -each state. The methods on `Post` know nothing about the various behaviors. The -way we organized the code, we have to look in only one place to know the -different ways a published post can behave: the implementation of the `State` -trait on the `Published` struct. - -If we were to create an alternative implementation that didn’t use the state -pattern, we might instead use `match` expressions in the methods on `Post` or -even in the `main` code that checks the state of the post and changes behavior -in those places. That would mean we would have to look in several places to -understand all the implications of a post being in the published state! This -would only increase the more states we added: each of those `match` expressions -would need another arm. - -With the state pattern, the `Post` methods and the places we use `Post` don’t -need `match` expressions, and to add a new state, we would only need to add a -new struct and implement the trait methods on that one struct. - -The implementation using the state pattern is easy to extend to add more -functionality. To see the simplicity of maintaining code that uses the state -pattern, try a few of these suggestions: - -* Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back - to `Draft`. -* Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. -* Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. - Hint: have the state object responsible for what might change about the - content but not responsible for modifying the `Post`. - -One downside of the state pattern is that, because the states implement the -transitions between states, some of the states are coupled to each other. If we -add another state between `PendingReview` and `Published`, such as `Scheduled`, -we would have to change the code in `PendingReview` to transition to -`Scheduled` instead. It would be less work if `PendingReview` didn’t need to -change with the addition of a new state, but that would mean switching to -another design pattern. - -Another downside is that we’ve duplicated some logic. To eliminate some of the -duplication, we might try to make default implementations for the -`request_review` and `approve` methods on the `State` trait that return `self`; -however, this would violate object safety, because the trait doesn’t know what -the concrete `self` will be exactly. We want to be able to use `State` as a -trait object, so we need its methods to be object safe. - -Other duplication includes the similar implementations of the `request_review` -and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of -the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new -value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` -that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the -repetition (see the “Macros” section in Chapter 19). - -By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented -languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. -Let’s look at some changes we can make to the `blog` crate that can make -invalid states and transitions into compile time errors. - -#### Encoding States and Behavior as Types - -We’ll show you how to rethink the state pattern to get a different set of -trade-offs. Rather than encapsulating the states and transitions completely so -outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different -types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use -draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. - -Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: +Listing 17-36: Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every +millisecond + +This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn +down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running +indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is +at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. + +Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`. +Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method, +which combines multiple streams into one stream that produces items from any of +the source streams as soon as the items are available, without imposing any +particular ordering. Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over +`messages` (Listing 17-37). Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let mut post = Post::new(); +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals(); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals); +``` - post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - assert_eq!("", post.content()); +Listing 17-37: Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals + +At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or +mutable, because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. +However, this call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call +in the `while let` loop, but we’ll come back to that after fixing this.) The +two streams have different types. The `messages` stream has the type +`Timeout<impl Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which +implements `Stream` for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has +the type `impl Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to +transform one of them to match the other. + +In Listing 17-38, we rework the `intervals` stream, because `messages` is +already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we +can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string. +Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t +actually *want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout +which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a +10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make +`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate +through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals); +let mut stream = pin!(merged); +``` + +Listing 17-38: Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type +of the `messages` stream + +That gets us *almost* to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run +this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll +need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the +messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the +interval counter messages: + +``` +--snip-- +Interval: 38 +Interval: 39 +Interval: 40 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 41 +Interval: 42 +Interval: 43 +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the +`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it doesn’t overwhelm the +`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function +will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every +hundred milliseconds should do, because that is in the same ballpark as how +often our messages arrive. + +To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take` +method. We apply it to the *merged* stream, because we want to limit the final +output, not just one stream or the other. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); +let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); +let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); +let mut stream = pin!(merged); +``` + +Listing 17-39: Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams + +Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling twenty items from the +stream, and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get +`Interval: 100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`, +`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which *can* +produce an event every millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call +produces a new stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original +stream only gets polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We +don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval messages we’re choosing to +ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval messages in the first place! +This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to +choose our performance characteristics. + +``` +Interval: 1 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 2 +Interval: 3 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 4 +Message: 'b' +Interval: 5 +Message: 'c' +Interval: 6 +Interval: 7 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 8 +Message: 'd' +Interval: 9 +Message: 'e' +Interval: 10 +Interval: 11 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 12 +``` + +There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these +channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the +channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures +which make up the stream. Up until now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`, +but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by +ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages! Listing 17-40 shows +a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As +usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure +you have a strategy. + +``` +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream<Item = String> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` -and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a -`content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so -draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get -a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method -doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally -display draft post content in production, because that code won’t even compile. -Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, -as well as methods on each: +Listing 17-40: Handling errors and shutting down the loops + +Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and +dig into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key +traits which Rust uses to make async work. + +## Digging Into the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and +`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided digging too +far into the details of how they work or how they fit together. Much of the time +when writing Rust day to day, this is fine. Sometimes, though, you’ll hit +situations where understanding a few more of these details matters. In this +section, we’ll dig down *enough* further to help with those situations—while +still leaving the *really* deep dive for other documentation! + +### Future -Filename: src/lib.rs +Back in the “Futures and the Async Syntax” section of this chapter on page XX, +we noted that `Future` is a trait. Let’s start by taking a closer look at how +it works. Here is how Rust defines a `Future`: ``` -pub struct Post { - content: String, +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; } +``` + +That trait definition includes a bunch of new types and also some syntax we +haven’t seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. -pub struct DraftPost { - content: String, +First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. +This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. +Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` +reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, +and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk a little more about `Pin` and +`Context` later in the section. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, +the `Poll` type: + +``` +enum Poll<T> { + Ready(T), + Pending, } +``` -impl Post { - [1] pub fn new() -> DraftPost { - DraftPost { - content: String::new(), - } - } +This `Poll` type is similar to an `Option`: it has one variant which has a value +(`Ready(T)`), and one which does not (`Pending`). It means something quite +different, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has +work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` variant +indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is +available. + +> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the +> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> becoming ready! Futures which are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in +> their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves! + +Under the hood, when you see code which uses `await`, Rust compiles that to code +which calls `poll`. If you look back at Listing 17-4, where we printed out the +page title for a single URL once it resolved, Rust compiles it into something +kind of (although not exactly) like this: - [2] pub fn content(&self) -> &str { - &self.content +``` +match page_title(url).poll() { + Ready(page_title) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // But what goes here? } } +``` -impl DraftPost { - [3] pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { - self.content.push_str(text); +What should we do when the `Future` is still `Pending`? We need some way to try +again… and again, and again, until the future is finally ready. In other words, +a loop: + +``` +let mut page_title_fut = page_title(url); +loop { + match page_title_fut.poll() { + Ready(value) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // continue + } } } ``` -Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a `DraftPost` without a -`content` method +If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `await` would be +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust needs +makes sure that the loop can hand off control to something which can pause work +on this future and work on other futures and check this one again later. That +“something” is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is +one of the main jobs for a runtime. + +Recall our description (in the “Counting” section of this chapter on page XX) +of waiting on `rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a `Future`, and awaiting it +polls it. In our initial discussion, we noted that a runtime will pause the +future until it’s ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the channel +closes. With our deeper understanding of `Future` in place, and specifically +`Future::poll`, we can see how that works. The runtime knows the future isn’t +ready when it returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future +is ready and advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. + +The exact details of how a runtime does that are more than we will cover in even +this deep dive section. The key here is to see the basic mechanic of futures: a +runtime *polls* each future it is responsible for, putting it back to sleep when +it is not yet ready. + +### Pinning and the Pin and Unpin Traits + +When we introduced the idea of pinning while working on Listing 17-17, we ran +into a very gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: + +``` +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> ~/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` -Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that -stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because -we’re moving the encoding of the state to the types of the structs. The `Post` -struct will represent a published post, and it has a `content` method that -returns the `content` [2]. +When we read this error message carefully, it not only tells us that we need to +pin the values, but also tells us why pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` +function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct is generic over a type +`F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. Directly awaiting a +future with `await` pins the future implicitly. That’s why we don’t need to use +`pin!` everywhere we want to await futures. -We still have a `Post::new` function, but instead of returning an instance of -`Post`, it returns an instance of `DraftPost` [1]. Because `content` is private -and there aren’t any functions that return `Post`, it’s not possible to create -an instance of `Post` right now. +However, we’re not directly awaiting a future here. Instead, we construct a new +future, `JoinAll`, by passing a collection of futures to the `join_all` +function. The signature for `join_all` produces requires that the type of the +items in the collection all implement the `Future` trait, and `Box<T>` only +implements `Future` if the `T` that it wraps is a future which implements the +`Unpin` trait. -The `DraftPost` struct has an `add_text` method, so we can add text to -`content` as before [3], but note that `DraftPost` does not have a `content` -method defined! So now the program ensures all posts start as draft posts, and -draft posts don’t have their content available for display. Any attempt to get -around these constraints will result in a compiler error. +That’s a lot! But we can understand it, if we dive a little further into how the +`Future` type actually works, in particular around *pinning*. -#### Implementing Transitions as Transformations into Different Types +Let’s look again at the definition of `Future`: -So how do we get a published post? We want to enforce the rule that a draft -post has to be reviewed and approved before it can be published. A post in the -pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement -these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the -`request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost`, and -defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as -shown in Listing 17-20: +``` +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; -Filename: src/lib.rs +pub trait Future { + type Output; + // Required method + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} ``` -impl DraftPost { - // --snip-- - pub fn request_review(self) -> PendingReviewPost { - PendingReviewPost { - content: self.content, - } - } + +The `cx` parameter and its `Context` type is the key to how a runtime actually +knows when to check any given future, while still being lazy. The details of how +that works are beyond the scope of this chapter, though: you generally only need +to worry about it when writing a custom `Future` implementation. + +Instead, we’ll focus on the type for `self`. This is the first time we’ve seen +a method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` is +similar to type annotations for other function parameters, with two key +differences. First, when we specify the type of `self` in this way, we’re +telling Rust what type `self` must be to call this method. Second, a type +annotation on `self` can’t be just any type. It’s only allowed to be the type +on which the method is implemented, a reference or smart pointer to that type, +or a `Pin` wrapping a reference to that type. We’ll see more on this syntax in +Chapter 18. For now, it’s enough to know that if we want to poll a future (to +check whether it is `Pending` or `Ready(Output)`), we need a mutable reference +to the type, which is wrapped in a `Pin`. + +`Pin` is a wrapper type. In some ways, it’s similar to the `Box`, `Rc`, and +other smart pointer types we saw in Chapter 15, which also wrap other types. +Unlike those, however, `Pin` only works with *pointer types* such as references +(`&` and `&mut`) and smart pointers (`Box`, `Rc`, and so on). To be precise, +`Pin` works with types which implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` traits, which +we covered in the “Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the +Deref Trait” section of Chapter 15 on page XX. You can think of this restriction +as equivalent to only working with pointers, though, because implementing +`Deref` or `DerefMut` means your type behaves similarly to a pointer type. `Pin` +is also not a pointer itself, and it doesn’t have any behavior of its own the +way `Rc` and `Arc` do with ref counting. It’s purely a tool the compiler can use +to uphold the relevant guarantees, by wrapping pointers in the type. + +Recalling that `await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll`, this starts +to explain the error message we saw above—but that was in terms of `Unpin`, not +`Pin`. So what exactly are `Pin` and `Unpin`, how do they relate, and why does +`Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? + +In the “”ur First Async Program” section of this chapter on page XX, we +described how a series of await points in a future get compiled into a state +machine—and noted how the compiler helps make sure that state machine follows +all of Rust’s normal rules around safety, including borrowing and ownership. To +make that work, Rust looks at what data is needed between each await point and +the next await point or the end of the async block. It then creates a +corresponding variant in the state machine it creates. Each variant gets the +access it needs to the data that will be used in that section of the source +code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by getting a mutable or +immutable reference to it. + +So far so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a +given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around +the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to +`join_all`, the way we did back in—things get trickier. + +When we move a future—whether by pushing into a data structure to use as an +iterator with `join_all`, or returning them from a function—that actually means +moving the state machine Rust creates for us. And unlike most other types in +Rust, the futures Rust creates for async blocks can end up with references to +themselves in the fields of any given variant, as in Figure 17-4 (a simplified +illustration to help you get a feel for the idea, rather than digging into what +are often fairly complicated details). + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-04.svg" /> + +Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type. + +By default, though, any object which has a reference to itself is unsafe to +move, because references always point to the actual memory address of the thing +they refer to. If you move the data structure itself, those internal references +will be left pointing to the old location. However, that memory location is now +invalid. For one thing, its value will not be updated when you make changes to +the data structure. For another—and more importantly!—the computer is now free +to reuse that memory for other things! You could end up reading completely +unrelated data later. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-05.svg" /> + +Figure 17-5: The unsafe result of moving a self-referential data type. + +In principle, the Rust compiler could try to update every reference to an object +every time it gets moved. That would potentially be a lot of performance +overhead, especially given there can be a whole web of references that need +updating. On the other hand, if we could make sure the data structure in +question *doesn’t move in memory*, we don’t have to update any references. +This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker requires: you can’t move an item +which has any active references to it using safe code. + +`Pin` builds on that to give us the exact guarantee we need. When we *pin* a +value by wrapping a pointer to that value in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, +if you have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, *not* +the `Box` pointer. Figure 17-6 illustrates this: + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-06.svg" /> + +Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type. + +In fact, the `Box` pointer can still move around freely. Remember: we care about +making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in its place. If a +pointer moves around, but the data it points to is in the same place, as in +Figure 17-7, there’s no potential problem. (How you would do this with a `Pin` +wrapping a `Box` is more than we’ll get into in this particular discussion, +but it would make for a good exercise! If you look at the docs for the types as +well as the `std::pin` module, you might be able to work out how you would do +that.) The key is that the self-referential type itself cannot move, because it +is still pinned. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-07.svg" /> + +Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type. + +However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to +be behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have +internal references. Primitive values such as numbers and booleans don’t have +any internal references, so they’re obviously safe. Neither do most types you +normally work with in Rust. A `Vec`, for example, doesn’t have any internal +references it needs to keep up to date this way, so you can move it around +without worrying. If you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything +via the safe but restrictive APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a +`Vec<String>` is always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We +need a way to tell the compiler that it’s actually just fine to move items +around in cases such as these. For that, we have `Unpin`. + +`Unpin` is a marker trait, similar to the `Send` and `Sync` traits we saw in the +“Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits” section of Chapter +16 on page XX. Recall that marker traits have no functionality of their own. +They exist only to tell the compiler that it’s safe to use the type which +implements a given trait in a particular context. `Unpin` informs the compiler +that a given type does *not* need to uphold any particular guarantees about +whether the value in question can be moved. + +Just as with `Send` and `Sync`, the compiler implements `Unpin` automatically +for all types where it can prove it is safe. The special case, again similar to +`Send` and `Sync`, is the case where `Unpin` is *not* implemented for a type. +The notation for this is `impl !Unpin for SomeType`, where `SomeType` is the +name of a type which *does* need to uphold those guarantees to be safe whenever +a pointer to that type it is used in a `Pin`. + +In other words, there are two things to keep in mind about the relationship +between `Pin` and `Unpin`. First, `Unpin` is the “normal” case, and `!Unpin` is +the special case. Second, whether a type implements `Unpin` or `!Unpin` *only* +matters when using a pinned pointer to that type like `Pin<&mut SomeType>`. + +To make that concrete, think about a `String`: it has a length and the Unicode +characters which make it up. We can wrap a `String` in `Pin`, as seen in Figure +17-8. However, `String` automatically implements `Unpin`, the same as most other +types in Rust. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" /> + +Figure 17-8: Pinning a String, with a dotted line indicating that the String +implements the `Unpin` trait, so it is not pinned. + +As a result, we can do things which would be illegal if `String` implemented +`!Unpin` instead, such as replace one string with another at the exact same +location in memory as in Figure 17-9. This doesn’t violate the `Pin` contract, +because `String` has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around! +That is precisely why it implements `Unpin` rather than `!Unpin`. + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" /> + +Figure 17-9: Replacing the String with an entirely different String in memory. + +Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call +from back in Listing 17-17. We originally tried to move the futures produced by +async blocks into a `Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we’ve seen, +those futures may have internal references, so they don’t automatically +implement `Unpin`. Once we pin them, we can pass the resulting `Pin` type into +the `Vec`, confident that the underlying data in the futures will *not* be +moved. + +`Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or +when you’re building a runtime itself, rather than for day to day Rust code. +When you see these traits in error messages, though, now you’ll have a better +idea of how to fix the code! + +> Note: This combination of `Pin` and `Unpin` allows a whole class of complex +> types to be safe in Rust which are otherwise difficult to implement because +> they’re self-referential. Types which require `Pin` show up *most* commonly +> in async Rust today, but you might—very rarely!—see it in other contexts, too. +> +> The specifics of how `Pin` and `Unpin` work, and the rules they’re required +> to uphold, are covered extensively in the API documentation for `std::pin`, so +> if you’d like to understand them more deeply, that’s a great place to start. +> +> If you want to understand how things work “under the hood” in even more +> detail, the official *Asynchronous Programming in Rust* book available at +> *https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/* has you covered: +> +> * Chapter 2: Under the Hood: Executing Futures and Tasks +> * Chapter 4: Pinning + +### The Stream Trait + +Now that we have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we +can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As described in the section +introducing streams, streams are similar to asynchronous iterators. Unlike +`Iterator` and `Future`, there is no definition of a `Stream` trait in the +standard library as of the time of writing, but there *is* a very common +definition from the `futures` crate used throughout the ecosystem. + +Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits, so we can +build up to how a `Stream` trait that merges them together might look. From +`Iterator`, we have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items which become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait which puts those +features together: + +``` +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_> + ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>; } +``` -pub struct PendingReviewPost { - content: String, +The `Stream` trait defines an associated type `Item` for the type of the items +produced by the stream. This is similar to `Iterator`: there may be zero to +many of these, and unlike `Future`, where there is always a single `Output` +(even if it’s the unit type `()`). + +`Stream` also defines a method to get those items. We call it `poll_next`, to +make it clear that it polls in the same way `Future::poll` does and produces a +sequence of items in the same way `Iterator::next` does. Its return type +combines `Poll` with `Option`. The outer type is `Poll`, because it has to be +checked for readiness, just as a future does. The inner type is `Option`, +because it needs to signal whether there are more messages, just as an iterator +does. + +Something very similar to this will likely end up standardized as part of Rust’s +standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover below should generally apply! + +In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we didn’t use +`poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* +work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` +state machines, of course, just as we *could* work with futures directly via +their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, so the `StreamExt` +trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that. + +``` +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... } +``` + +> Note: The actual definition we used earlier in the chapter looks slightly +> different than this, because it supports versions of Rust which did not yet +> support using async functions in traits. As a result, it looks like this: +> +> ``` +> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin; +> ``` +> +> That `Next` type is a `struct` which implements `Future` and gives a way to +> name the lifetime of the reference to `self` with `Next<'_, Self>`, so that +> `await` can work with this method! + +The `StreamExt` trait is also the home of all the interesting methods available +to use with streams. `StreamExt` is automatically implemented for every type +which implements `Stream`, but these traits are defined separately so that the +community can iterate on the foundational trait distinctly from the convenience +APIs. + +In the version of `StreamExt` used in the `trpl` crate, the trait not only +defines the `next` method, it also supplies an implementation of `next`, which +correctly handles the details of calling `Stream::poll_next`. This means that +even when you need to write your own streaming data type, you *only* have to +implement `Stream`, and then anyone who uses your data type can use `StreamExt` +and its methods with it automatically. + +That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. To +wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all +fit together! + +## Futures, Tasks, and Threads + +As we saw in the “Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously” section of Chapter +16 on page XX, threads provide one approach to concurrency. We’ve seen another +approach to concurrency in this chapter, using async with futures and streams. +You might be wondering why you would choose one or the other. The answer is: it +depends! And in many cases, the choice isn’t threads *or* async but rather +threads *and* async. + +Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for +decades now, and many programming languages have support for them as a result. +However, they are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they +use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for +starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your +operating system and hardware support them! Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile +computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also don’t +have threads! + +The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of +tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations don’t require their own +threads. Instead, they can run on tasks, as when we used `trpl::spawn_task` to +kick off work from a synchronous function throughout the streams section. A task +is similar to a thread, but instead of being managed by the operating system, +it’s managed by library-level code: the runtime. + +In the previous section, we saw that we could build a `Stream` by using an async +channel and spawning an async task which we could call from synchronous code. We +could do the exact same thing with a thread! In Listing 17-40, we used +`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with +the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the +`get_intervals` function. -impl PendingReviewPost { - pub fn approve(self) -> Post { - Post { - content: self.content, +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream<Item = u32> { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // This is *not* `trpl::spawn` but `std::thread::spawn`! + thread::spawn(move || { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + // Likewise, this is *not* `trpl::sleep` but `std::thread::sleep`! + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)); + count += 1; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(count) { + eprintln!("Could not send interval {count}: {send_error}"); + break; + }; } - } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) } ``` -Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling -`request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a -`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post` - -The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus -consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming -them into a `PendingReviewPost` and a published `Post`, respectively. This way, -we won’t have any lingering `DraftPost` instances after we’ve called -`request_review` on them, and so forth. The `PendingReviewPost` struct doesn’t -have a `content` method defined on it, so attempting to read its content -results in a compiler error, as with `DraftPost`. Because the only way to get a -published `Post` instance that does have a `content` method defined is to call -the `approve` method on a `PendingReviewPost`, and the only way to get a -`PendingReviewPost` is to call the `request_review` method on a `DraftPost`, -we’ve now encoded the blog post workflow into the type system. - -But we also have to make some small changes to `main`. The `request_review` and -`approve` methods return new instances rather than modifying the struct they’re -called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save -the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and -pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t -compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. -The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21: +Listing 17-41: Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs +for the `get_intervals` function + +If you run this, the output is identical. And notice how little changes here +from the perspective of the calling code! What’s more, even though one of our +functions spawned an async task on the runtime and the other spawned an +OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the differences. + +Despite the similarities, these two approaches behave very differently, although +we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We could +spawn millions of async tasks on any modern personal computer. If we tried to do +that with threads, we would literally run out of memory! + +However, there’s a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary +for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible *between* threads. +Tasks act as a boundary for sets of *asynchronous* operations; concurrency is +possible both *between* and *within* tasks, because a task can switch between +futures in its body. Finally, futures are Rust’s most granular unit of +concurrency, and each future may represent a tree of other futures. The +runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, and tasks manage futures. In +that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, runtime-managed threads with +added capabilities that come from being managed by a runtime instead of by the +operating system. + +This doesn’t mean that async tasks are always better than threads, any more than +that threads are always better than tasks. + +Concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming model than +concurrency with `async`. That can be a strength or a weakness. Threads are +somewhat “fire and forget,” they have no native equivalent to a future, so they +simply run to completion, without interruption except by the operating system +itself. That is, they have no built-in support for *intra-task concurrency* the +way futures do. Threads in Rust also have no mechanisms for cancellation—a +subject we haven’t covered in depth in this chapter, but which is implicit in +the fact that whenever we ended a future, its state got cleaned up correctly. + +These limitations also make threads harder to compose than futures. It’s much +more difficult, for example, to use threads to build helpers such as the +`timeout` we built in the “Building Our Own Async Abstractions” section of this +chapter on page XX or the `throttle` method we used with streams in the +“Composing Streams” section of this chapter on page XX. The fact that futures +are richer data structures means they can be composed together more naturally, +as we have seen. + +Tasks then give *additional* control over futures, allowing you to choose where +and how to group the futures. And it turns out that threads and tasks often +work very well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved +around between threads. We haven’t mentioned it up until now, but under the +hood the `Runtime` we have been using, including the `spawn_blocking` and +`spawn_task` functions, is multithreaded by default! Many runtimes use an +approach called *work stealing* to transparently move tasks around between +threads based on the current utilization of the threads, with the aim of +improving the overall performance of the system. To build that actually requires +threads *and* tasks, and therefore futures. + +As a default way of thinking about which to use when: + +* If the work is *very parallelizable*, such as processing a bunch of data where + each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. +* If the work is *very concurrent*, such as handling messages from a bunch of + different sources which may come in a different intervals or different rates, + async is a better choice. + +And if you need some mix of parallelism and concurrency, you don’t have to +choose between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +one serve the part it is best at. For example, Listing 17-42 shows a fairly +common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use blog::Post; +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; fn main() { - let mut post = Post::new(); - - post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); - - let post = post.request_review(); + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); - let post = post.approve(); + thread::spawn(move || { + for i in 1..11 { + tx.send(i).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); + } + }); - assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); + trpl::run(async { + while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); } ``` -Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the -blog post workflow - -The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this -implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: -the transformations between the states are no longer encapsulated entirely -within the `Post` implementation. However, our gain is that invalid states are -now impossible because of the type system and the type checking that happens at -compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of -an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. - -Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it -is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version -of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this -design. -<!-- above: should this be 17-21? /LC --> -<!-- Yes, great catch! /Carol --> - -We’ve seen that even though Rust is capable of implementing object-oriented -design patterns, other patterns, such as encoding state into the type system, -are also available in Rust. These patterns have different trade-offs. Although -you might be very familiar with object-oriented patterns, rethinking the -problem to take advantage of Rust’s features can provide benefits, such as -preventing some bugs at compile time. Object-oriented patterns won’t always be -the best solution in Rust due to certain features, like ownership, that -object-oriented languages don’t have. +Listing 17-42: Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the +messages in an async block + +We begin by creating an async channel. Then we spawn a thread which takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the +numbers 1 through 10, and sleep for a second in between each. Finally, we run a +future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just as we have +throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just as in +the other message-passing examples we have seen. + +To return to the examples we opened the chapter with: you could imagine running +a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread, because video encoding +is compute bound, but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an +async channel. Examples of this kind of mix abound! ## Summary -No matter whether or not you think Rust is an object-oriented language after -reading this chapter, you now know that you can use trait objects to get some -object-oriented features in Rust. Dynamic dispatch can give your code some -flexibility in exchange for a bit of runtime performance. You can use this -flexibility to implement object-oriented patterns that can help your code’s -maintainability. Rust also has other features, like ownership, that -object-oriented languages don’t have. An object-oriented pattern won’t always -be the best way to take advantage of Rust’s strengths, but is an available -option. - -Next, we’ll look at patterns, which are another of Rust’s features that enable -lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but -haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in +Chapter 21 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation +than the smaller examples discussed here—and compare more directly what it looks +like to solve these kinds of problems with threading vs. with tasks and futures. + +Whether with threads, with futures and tasks, or with the combination of them +all, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent +code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. + +Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions +as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms +relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. diff --git a/nostarch/chapter18.md b/nostarch/chapter18.md index 28810162da..946d20a112 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter18.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter18.md @@ -6,1250 +6,1228 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Patterns and Matching - -*Patterns* are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of -types, both complex and simple. Using patterns in conjunction with `match` -expressions and other constructs gives you more control over a program’s -control flow. A pattern consists of some combination of the following: - -* Literals -* Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples -* Variables -* Wildcards -* Placeholders - -These components describe the shape of the data we’re working with, which we -then match against values to determine whether our program has the correct data -to continue running a particular piece of code. -<!-- is there some generic pattern we can show as an example, early on, or -is it too dependent on where the pattern is used? /LC --> -<!-- Yeah, if a pattern is out of context, it doesn't look special. Like `3` -can be a pattern. /Carol --> - -To use a pattern, we compare it to some value. If the pattern matches the -value, we use the value parts in our code. Recall the `match` expressions in -Chapter 6 that used patterns, such as the coin-sorting machine example. If the -value fits the shape of the pattern, we can use the named pieces. If it -doesn’t, the code associated with the pattern won’t run. - -This chapter is a reference on all things related to patterns. We’ll cover the -valid places to use patterns, the difference between refutable and irrefutable -patterns, and the different kinds of pattern syntax that you might see. By the -end of the chapter, you’ll know how to use patterns to express many concepts in -a clear way. - -## All the Places Patterns Can Be Used - -Patterns pop up in a number of places in Rust, and you’ve been using them a lot -without realizing it! This section discusses all the places where patterns are -valid. - -### `match` Arms - -As discussed in Chapter 6, we use patterns in the arms of `match` expressions. -Formally, `match` expressions are defined as the keyword `match`, a value to -match on, and one or more match arms that consist of a pattern and an -expression to run if the value matches that arm’s pattern, like this: - -``` -match VALUE { - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, - PATTERN => EXPRESSION, +# Object-Oriented Programming Features + +Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of modeling programs. Objects as a +programmatic concept were introduced in the programming language Simula in the +1960s. Those objects influenced Alan Kay’s programming architecture in which +objects pass messages to each other. To describe this architecture, he coined +the term *object-oriented programming* in 1967. Many competing definitions +describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object oriented +but by others it is not. In this chapter, we’ll explore certain characteristics +that are commonly considered object oriented and how those characteristics +translate to idiomatic Rust. We’ll then show you how to implement an +object-oriented design pattern in Rust and discuss the trade-offs of doing so +versus implementing a solution using some of Rust’s strengths instead. + +## Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages + +There is no consensus in the programming community about what features a +language must have to be considered object oriented. Rust is influenced by many +programming paradigms, including OOP; for example, we explored the features +that came from functional programming in Chapter 13. Arguably, OOP languages +share certain common characteristics, namely objects, encapsulation, and +inheritance. Let’s look at what each of those characteristics means and whether +Rust supports it. + +### Objects Contain Data and Behavior + +The book *Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software* by +Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides (Addison-Wesley, +1994), colloquially referred to as *The Gang of Four* book, is a catalog of +object-oriented design patterns. It defines OOP in this way: + +Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An *object* packages both data +and the procedures that operate on that data. The procedures are typically +called *methods* or *operations*. + +Using this definition, Rust is object oriented: structs and enums have data, +and `impl` blocks provide methods on structs and enums. Even though structs and +enums with methods aren’t *called* objects, they provide the same +functionality, according to the Gang of Four’s definition of objects. + +### Encapsulation That Hides Implementation Details + +Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of *encapsulation*, +which means that the implementation details of an object aren’t accessible to +code using that object. Therefore, the only way to interact with an object is +through its public API; code using the object shouldn’t be able to reach into +the object’s internals and change data or behavior directly. This enables the +programmer to change and refactor an object’s internals without needing to +change the code that uses the object. + +We discussed how to control encapsulation in Chapter 7: we can use the `pub` +keyword to decide which modules, types, functions, and methods in our code +should be public, and by default everything else is private. For example, we +can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector +of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of +the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed on +demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will +cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the +`AveragedCollection` struct. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct AveragedCollection { + list: Vec<i32>, + average: f64, } ``` -For example, here's the `match` expression from Listing 6-5 that matches on an -`Option<i32>` value in the variable `x`: - -``` -match x { - None => None, - Some(i) => Some(i + 1), -} -``` +Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers +and the average of the items in the collection -The patterns in this `match` expression are the `None` and `Some(i)` on the -left of each arrow. -<!-- and maybe a quick example of an actual match block here would be useful, -so we can see what counts as a pattern /LC --> -<!-- Done! /Carol --> -One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be *exhaustive* in -the sense that all possibilities for the value in the `match` expression must -be accounted for. One way to ensure you’ve covered every possibility is to have -a catchall pattern for the last arm: for example, a variable name matching any -value can never fail and thus covers every remaining case. - -The particular pattern `_` will match anything, but it never binds to a -variable, so it’s often used in the last match arm. The `_` pattern can be -useful when you want to ignore any value not specified, for example. We’ll -cover the `_` pattern in more detail in the “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” -section later in this chapter. - -### Conditional `if let` Expressions - -In Chapter 6 we discussed how to use `if let` expressions mainly as a shorter -way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. -Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if -the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. - -Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else -if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a -`match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the -patterns. Also, Rust doesn't require that the conditions in a series of `if -let`, `else if`, `else if let` arms relate to each other. - -The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on -a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created -variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user -input. +The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within +the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to +ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is +also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods +on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn main() { - let favorite_color: Option<&str> = None; - let is_tuesday = false; - let age: Result<u8, _> = "34".parse(); - - [1] if let Some(color) = favorite_color { - [2] println!("Using your favorite color, {}, as the background", color); - [3] } else if is_tuesday { - [4] println!("Tuesday is green day!"); - [5]} else if let Ok(age) = age { - [6] if age > 30 { - [7] println!("Using purple as the background color"); - } else { - [8] println!("Using orange as the background color"); - } - [9] } else { - [10] println!("Using blue as the background color"); +impl AveragedCollection { + pub fn add(&mut self, value: i32) { + self.list.push(value); + self.update_average(); } -} -``` - -Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else` - -If the user specifies a favorite color [1], that color is used as the -background [2]. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday [3], the -background color is green [4]. Otherwise, if the user specifies their age as a -string and we can parse it as a number successfully [5], the color is either -purple [7] or orange [8] depending on the value of the number [6]. If none of -these conditions apply [9], the background color is blue. - -This conditional structure lets us support complex requirements. With the -hardcoded values we have here, this example will print `Using purple as the -background color`. - -You can see that `if let` can also introduce shadowed variables in the same way -that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` [5] introduces a new -shadowed `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant. This -means we need to place the `if age > 30` condition [6] within that block: we -can’t combine these two conditions into `if let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The -shadowed `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t valid until the new scope starts -with the curly bracket. -The downside of using `if let` expressions is that the compiler doesn’t check -for exhaustiveness, whereas with `match` expressions it does. If we omitted the -last `else` block [9] and therefore missed handling some cases, the compiler -would not alert us to the possible logic bug. - -### `while let` Conditional Loops - -Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a -`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing -18-2 we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the -values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. - -``` -let mut stack = Vec::new(); + pub fn remove(&mut self) -> Option<i32> { + let result = self.list.pop(); + match result { + Some(value) => { + self.update_average(); + Some(value) + } + None => None, + } + } -stack.push(1); -stack.push(2); -stack.push(3); + pub fn average(&self) -> f64 { + self.average + } -while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { - println!("{}", top); + fn update_average(&mut self) { + let total: i32 = self.list.iter().sum(); + self.average = total as f64 / self.list.len() as f64; + } } ``` -Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as -`stack.pop()` returns `Some` - -This example prints 3, 2, and then 1. The `pop` method takes the last element -out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, `pop` -returns `None`. The `while` loop continues running the code in its block as -long as `pop` returns `Some`. When `pop` returns `None`, the loop stops. We can -use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. - -### `for` Loops - -In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a -pattern. For example, in `for x in y` the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 -demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure, or break -apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. - -``` -let v = vec!['a', 'b', 'c']; - -for (index, value) in v.iter().enumerate() { - println!("{} is at index {}", value, index); +Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and +`average` on `AveragedCollection` + +The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access +or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added to +`list` using the `add` method or removed using the `remove` method, the +implementations of each call the private `update_average` method that handles +updating the `average` field as well. + +We leave the `list` and `average` fields private so there is no way for +external code to add or remove items to or from the `list` field directly; +otherwise, the `average` field might become out of sync when the `list` +changes. The `average` method returns the value in the `average` field, +allowing external code to read the `average` but not modify it. + +Because we’ve encapsulated the implementation details of the struct +`AveragedCollection`, we can easily change aspects, such as the data structure, +in the future. For instance, we could use a `HashSet<i32>` instead of a +`Vec<i32>` for the `list` field. As long as the signatures of the `add`, +`remove`, and `average` public methods stayed the same, code using +`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change. If we made `list` public instead, +this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and `Vec<i32>` have +different methods for adding and removing items, so the external code would +likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. + +If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered object +oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or not for +different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. + +### Inheritance as a Type System and as Code Sharing + +*Inheritance* is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from +another object’s definition, thus gaining the parent object’s data and behavior +without you having to define them again. + +If a language must have inheritance to be object oriented, then Rust is not +such a language. There is no way to define a struct that inherits the parent +struct’s fields and method implementations without using a macro. + +However, if you’re used to having inheritance in your programming toolbox, you +can use other solutions in Rust, depending on your reason for reaching for +inheritance in the first place. + +You would choose inheritance for two main reasons. One is for reuse of code: +you can implement particular behavior for one type, and inheritance enables you +to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can do this in a limited +way in Rust code using default trait method implementations, which you saw in +Listing 10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method +on the `Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have +the `summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is +similar to a parent class having an implementation of a method and an +inheriting child class also having the implementation of the method. We can +also override the default implementation of the `summarize` method when we +implement the `Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the +implementation of a method inherited from a parent class. + +The other reason to use inheritance relates to the type system: to enable a +child type to be used in the same places as the parent type. This is also +called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for +each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. + +> ### Polymorphism +> +> To many people, polymorphism is synonymous with inheritance. But it’s +actually a more general concept that refers to code that can work with data of +multiple types. For inheritance, those types are generally subclasses. +> +> Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and +trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is +sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. + +Inheritance has recently fallen out of favor as a programming design solution +in many programming languages because it’s often at risk of sharing more code +than necessary. Subclasses shouldn’t always share all characteristics of their +parent class but will do so with inheritance. This can make a program’s design +less flexible. It also introduces the possibility of calling methods on +subclasses that don’t make sense or that cause errors because the methods don’t +apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow single +inheritance (meaning a subclass can only inherit from one class), further +restricting the flexibility of a program’s design. + +For these reasons, Rust takes the different approach of using trait objects +instead of inheritance. Let’s look at how trait objects enable polymorphism in +Rust. + +## Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types + +In Chapter 8, we mentioned that one limitation of vectors is that they can +store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-9 where +we defined a `SpreadsheetCell` enum that had variants to hold integers, floats, +and text. This meant we could store different types of data in each cell and +still have a vector that represented a row of cells. This is a perfectly good +solution when our interchangeable items are a fixed set of types that we know +when our code is compiled. + +However, sometimes we want our library user to be able to extend the set of +types that are valid in a particular situation. To show how we might achieve +this, we’ll create an example graphical user interface (GUI) tool that iterates +through a list of items, calling a `draw` method on each one to draw it to the +screen—a common technique for GUI tools. We’ll create a library crate called +`gui` that contains the structure of a GUI library. This crate might include +some types for people to use, such as `Button` or `TextField`. In addition, +`gui` users will want to create their own types that can be drawn: for +instance, one programmer might add an `Image` and another might add a +`SelectBox`. + +We won’t implement a full-fledged GUI library for this example but will show +how the pieces would fit together. At the time of writing the library, we can’t +know and define all the types other programmers might want to create. But we do +know that `gui` needs to keep track of many values of different types, and it +needs to call a `draw` method on each of these differently typed values. It +doesn’t need to know exactly what will happen when we call the `draw` method, +just that the value will have that method available for us to call. + +To do this in a language with inheritance, we might define a class named +`Component` that has a method named `draw` on it. The other classes, such as +`Button`, `Image`, and `SelectBox`, would inherit from `Component` and thus +inherit the `draw` method. They could each override the `draw` method to define +their custom behavior, but the framework could treat all of the types as if +they were `Component` instances and call `draw` on them. But because Rust +doesn’t have inheritance, we need another way to structure the `gui` library to +allow users to extend it with new types. + +### Defining a Trait for Common Behavior + +To implement the behavior we want `gui` to have, we’ll define a trait named +`Draw` that will have one method named `draw`. Then we can define a vector that +takes a *trait object*. A trait object points to both an instance of a type +implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on +that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of +pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` +keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason +trait objects must use a pointer in “Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized +Trait” on page XX.) We can use trait objects in place of a generic or concrete +type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system will ensure at compile +time that any value used in that context will implement the trait object’s +trait. Consequently, we don’t need to know all the possible types at compile +time. + +We’ve mentioned that, in Rust, we refrain from calling structs and enums +“objects” to distinguish them from other languages’ objects. In a struct or +enum, the data in the struct fields and the behavior in `impl` blocks are +separated, whereas in other languages, the data and behavior combined into one +concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects *are* more like +objects in other languages in the sense that they combine data and behavior. +But trait objects differ from traditional objects in that we can’t add data to +a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other +languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common +behavior. + +Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named +`draw`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub trait Draw { + fn draw(&self); } ``` -Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple +Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait -The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: +This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits +in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named +`Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type +`Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside a +`Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. -``` -a is at index 0 -b is at index 1 -c is at index 2 -``` - -We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and -the index for that value, placed into a tuple. The first value produced is the -tuple `(0, 'a')`. When this value is matched to the pattern `(index, value)`, -`index` will be `0` and `value` will be `'a'`, printing the first line of the -output. - -### `let` Statements - -Prior to this chapter, we had only explicitly discussed using patterns with -`match` and `if let`, but in fact, we’ve used patterns in other places as well, -including in `let` statements. For example, consider this straightforward -variable assignment with `let`: - -``` -let x = 5; -``` - -Every time you've used a `let` statement like this you've been using patterns, -although you might not have realized it! More formally, a `let` statement looks -like this: +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let PATTERN = EXPRESSION; -``` - -In statements like `let x = 5;` with a variable name in the `PATTERN` slot, the -variable name is just a particularly simple form of a pattern. Rust compares -the expression against the pattern and assigns any names it finds. So in the -`let x = 5;` example, `x` is a pattern that means “bind what matches here to -the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern -effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” - -To see the pattern matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing -18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. - -``` -let (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3); -``` - -Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables -at once - -Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` -to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, so Rust -<!-- when you say "the value matches the pattern", do you mean it sees that -the number of elements in both the value and pattern are the same? /LC --> -<!-- Yes, and that the pattern is a tuple and the value is a tuple /Carol --> -binds `1` to `x`, `2` to `y`, and `3` to `z`. You can think of this tuple -pattern as nesting three individual variable patterns inside it. - -If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements -in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For -example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three -elements into two variables, which won’t work. - -``` -let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); -``` - -Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match -the number of elements in the tuple - -Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: - -``` -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/main.rs:2:9 - | -2 | let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); - | ^^^^^^ --------- this expression has type `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` - | | - | expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements - | - = note: expected tuple `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` - found tuple `(_, _)` +pub struct Screen { + pub components: Vec<Box<dyn Draw>>, +} ``` -To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using -`_` or `..`, as you’ll see in the “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” section. If -the problem is that we have too many variables in the pattern, the solution is -to make the types match by removing variables so the number of variables equals -the number of elements in the tuple. +Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field +holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait -### Function Parameters +On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the +`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5. -Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which -declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type -`i32`, should by now look familiar. +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn foo(x: i32) { - // code goes here +impl Screen { + pub fn run(&self) { + for component in self.components.iter() { + component.draw(); + } + } } ``` -Listing 18-6: A function signature uses patterns in the parameters +Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each +component -The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a -function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple -as we pass it to a function. +This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type +parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted +with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple +concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we +could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound, +as in Listing 17-6. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn print_coordinates(&(x, y): &(i32, i32)) { - println!("Current location: ({}, {})", x, y); +pub struct Screen<T: Draw> { + pub components: Vec<T>, } -fn main() { - let point = (3, 5); - print_coordinates(&point); +impl<T> Screen<T> +where + T: Draw, +{ + pub fn run(&self) { + for component in self.components.iter() { + component.draw(); + } + } } ``` -Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure a tuple - -This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the -pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. - -We can also use patterns in closure parameter lists in the same way as in -function parameter lists, because closures are similar to functions, as -discussed in Chapter 13. - -At this point, you’ve seen several ways of using patterns, but patterns don’t -work the same in every place we can use them. In some places, the patterns must -be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss -these two concepts next. - -## Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match - -Patterns come in two forms: refutable and irrefutable. Patterns that will match -for any possible value passed are *irrefutable*. An example would be `x` in the -statement `let x = 5;` because `x` matches anything and therefore cannot fail -to match. Patterns that can fail to match for some possible value are -*refutable*. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = -a_value` because if the value in the `a_value` variable is `None` rather than -`Some`, the `Some(x)` pattern will not match. - -Function parameters, `let` statements, and `for` loops can only accept -irrefutable patterns, because the program cannot do anything meaningful when -values don’t match. The `if let` and `while let` expressions accept -refutable and irrefutable patterns, but the compiler warns against -irrefutable patterns because by definition they’re intended to handle possible -failure: the functionality of a conditional is in its ability to perform -differently depending on success or failure. - -In general, you shouldn’t have to worry about the distinction between refutable -and irrefutable patterns; however, you do need to be familiar with the concept -of refutability so you can respond when you see it in an error message. In -those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’re -using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. - -Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern -where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a -`let` statement, but for the pattern we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable -pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. +Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` +method using generics and trait bounds -``` -let Some(x) = some_option_value; -``` +This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of +type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous +collections, using generics and trait bounds is preferable because the +definitions will be monomorphized at compile time to use the concrete types. -Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let` +On the other hand, with the method using trait objects, one `Screen` instance +can hold a `Vec<T>` that contains a `Box<Button>` as well as a +`Box<TextField>`. Let’s look at how this works, and then we’ll talk about the +runtime performance implications. -If `some_option_value` was a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern -`Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can -only accept an irrefutable pattern because there is nothing valid the code can -do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried to -use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: +### Implementing the Trait -``` -error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding: `None` not covered - --> src/main.rs:3:9 - | -3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; - | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered - | - = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or an `enum` with only one variant - = note: for more information, visit https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html - = note: the matched value is of type `Option<i32>` -help: you might want to use `if let` to ignore the variant that isn't matched - | -3 | if let Some(x) = some_option_value { /* */ } - | -``` +Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the +`Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope +of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its +body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct +might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7. -Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the -pattern `Some(x)`, Rust rightfully produces a compiler error. - -If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can -fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we -can use `if let`. Then if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip -the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing -18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -if let Some(x) = some_option_value { - println!("{}", x); +pub struct Button { + pub width: u32, + pub height: u32, + pub label: String, } -``` - -Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of -`let` - -We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid, although it means we -cannot use an irrefutable pattern without receiving an error. If we give `if -let` a pattern that will always match, such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, -the compiler will give a warning. - -``` -if let x = 5 { - println!("{}", x); -}; -``` - -Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let` - -Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable -pattern: - -``` -warning: irrefutable `if let` pattern - --> src/main.rs:2:8 - | -2 | if let x = 5 { - | ^^^^^^^^^ - | - = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default - = note: this pattern will always match, so the `if let` is useless - = help: consider replacing the `if let` with a `let` -``` - -For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last -arm, which should match any remaining values with an irrefutable pattern. Rust -allows us to use an irrefutable pattern in a `match` with only one arm, but -this syntax isn’t particularly useful and could be replaced with a simpler -`let` statement. - -Now that you know where to use patterns and the difference between refutable -and irrefutable patterns, let’s cover all the syntax we can use to create -patterns. - -## Pattern Syntax - -In this section, we gather all the syntax valid in patterns and discuss why and -when you might want to use each one. - -### Matching Literals - -As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The -following code gives some examples: - -``` -let x = 1; -match x { - 1 => println!("one"), - 2 => println!("two"), - 3 => println!("three"), - _ => println!("anything"), +impl Draw for Button { + fn draw(&self) { + // code to actually draw a button + } } ``` -This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is 1. This syntax is useful -when you want your code to take an action if it gets a particular concrete -value. +Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait -### Matching Named Variables +The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the +fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those +same fields plus a `placeholder` field. Each of the types we want to draw on +the screen will implement the `Draw` trait but will use different code in the +`draw` method to define how to draw that particular type, as `Button` has here +(without the actual GUI code, as mentioned). The `Button` type, for instance, +might have an additional `impl` block containing methods related to what +happens when a user clicks the button. These kinds of methods won’t apply to +types like `TextField`. -Named variables are irrefutable patterns that match any value, and we’ve used -them many times in the book. However, there is a complication when you use -named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, -variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will -shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case -with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the -value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a -`match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and -`println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before -running this code or reading further. +If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has +`width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they would implement the `Draw` trait +on the `SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - [1] let x = Some(5); - [2] let y = 10; - - match x { - [3] Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - [4] Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {:?}", y), - [5] _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), - } +use gui::Draw; - [6] println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {:?}", x, y); +struct SelectBox { + width: u32, + height: u32, + options: Vec<String>, } -``` - -Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a shadowed -variable `y` - -Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern -in the first match arm [3] doesn’t match the defined value of `x` [1], so the -code continues. - -The pattern in the second match arm [4] introduces a new variable named `y` -that will match any value inside a `Some` value. Because we’re in a new scope -inside the `match` expression, this is a new `y` variable, not the `y` we -declared at the beginning with the value 10 [2]. This new `y` binding will -match any value inside a `Some`, which is what we have in `x`. Therefore, this -new `y` binds to the inner value of the `Some` in `x`. That value is `5`, so -the expression for that arm executes and prints `Matched, y = 5`. - -If `x` had been a `None` value instead of `Some(5)`, the patterns in the first -two arms wouldn’t have matched, so the value would have matched to the -underscore [5]. We didn’t introduce the `x` variable in the pattern of the -underscore arm, so the `x` in the expression is still the outer `x` that hasn’t -been shadowed. In this hypothetical case, the `match` would print `Default -case, x = None`. - -When the `match` expression is done, its scope ends, and so does the scope of -the inner `y`. The last `println!` [6] produces `at the end: x = Some(5), y = -10`. - -To create a `match` expression that compares the values of the outer `x` and -`y`, rather than introducing a shadowed variable, we would need to use a match -guard conditional instead. We’ll talk about match guards later in the “Extra -Conditionals with Match Guards” section. - -### Multiple Patterns - -In `match` expressions, you can match multiple patterns using the `|` syntax, -which is the pattern *or* operator. For example, in the following code we match -the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an *or* option, -meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that -arm’s code will run: - -``` -let x = 1; -match x { - 1 | 2 => println!("one or two"), - 3 => println!("three"), - _ => println!("anything"), -} -``` - -This code prints `one or two`. - -### Matching Ranges of Values with `..=` - -The `..=` syntax allows us to match to an inclusive range of values. In the -following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given -range, that arm will execute: - -``` -let x = 5; - -match x { - 1..=5 => println!("one through five"), - _ => println!("something else"), +impl Draw for SelectBox { + fn draw(&self) { + // code to actually draw a select box + } } ``` -If `x` is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, the first arm will match. This syntax is more -convenient for multiple match values than using the `|` operator to express the -same idea; if we were to use `|` we would have to specify `1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5`. -Specifying a range is much shorter, especially if we want to match, say, any -number between 1 and 1,000! +Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a +`SelectBox` struct -The compiler checks that the range isn’t empty at compile time, and because the -only types for which Rust can tell if a range is empty or not are `char` and -numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. +Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` +instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` +by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the +`run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the +components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation. -Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let x = 'c'; +use gui::{Button, Screen}; -match x { - 'a'..='j' => println!("early ASCII letter"), - 'k'..='z' => println!("late ASCII letter"), - _ => println!("something else"), +fn main() { + let screen = Screen { + components: vec![ + Box::new(SelectBox { + width: 75, + height: 10, + options: vec![ + String::from("Yes"), + String::from("Maybe"), + String::from("No"), + ], + }), + Box::new(Button { + width: 50, + height: 10, + label: String::from("OK"), + }), + ], + }; + + screen.run(); } ``` -Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early -ASCII letter`. +Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of different types that +implement the same trait -### Destructuring to Break Apart Values +When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the +`SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the +new type and draw it because `SelectBox` implements the `Draw` trait, which +means it implements the `draw` method. -We can also use patterns to destructure structs, enums, and tuples to use -different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. +This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to +rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck +typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks like +a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` in +Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each +component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` +or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By +specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` +vector, we’ve defined `Screen` to need values that we can call the `draw` +method on. -#### Destructuring Structs +The advantage of using trait objects and Rust’s type system to write code +similar to code using duck typing is that we never have to check whether a +value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors +if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile +our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. -Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can -break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. +For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` +with a `String` as a component. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} +use gui::Screen; fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; + let screen = Screen { + components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], + }; - let Point { x: a, y: b } = p; - assert_eq!(0, a); - assert_eq!(7, b); + screen.run(); } ``` -Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables - -This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` -and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the -variables in the pattern don’t have to match the field names of the struct. -However, it’s common to match the variable names to the field names to make it -easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this -common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a -lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: -you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created -from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same -way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` -pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. +Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t implement the trait +object’s trait -Filename: src/main.rs +We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: ``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} +error[E0277]: the trait bound `String: Draw` is not satisfied + --> src/main.rs:5:26 + | +5 | components: vec![Box::new(String::from("Hi"))], + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Draw` is +not implemented for `String` + | + = note: required for the cast to the object type `dyn Draw` +``` + +This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` that we +didn’t mean to pass and so should pass a different type, or we should implement +`Draw` on `String` so that `Screen` is able to call `draw` on it. + +### Trait Objects Perform Dynamic Dispatch + +Recall in “Performance of Code Using Generics” on page XX our discussion on the +monomorphization process performed by the compiler when we use trait bounds on +generics: the compiler generates nongeneric implementations of functions and +methods for each concrete type that we use in place of a generic type +parameter. The code that results from monomorphization is doing *static +dispatch*, which is when the compiler knows what method you’re calling at +compile time. This is opposed to *dynamic dispatch*, which is when the compiler +can’t tell at compile time which method you’re calling. In dynamic dispatch +cases, the compiler emits code that at runtime will figure out which method to +call. + +When we use trait objects, Rust must use dynamic dispatch. The compiler doesn’t +know all the types that might be used with the code that’s using trait objects, +so it doesn’t know which method implemented on which type to call. Instead, at +runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to +call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static +dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a +method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get +extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to +support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. + +## Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern + +The *state pattern* is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the +pattern is that we define a set of states a value can have internally. The +states are represented by a set of *state objects*, and the value’s behavior +changes based on its state. We’re going to work through an example of a blog +post struct that has a field to hold its state, which will be a state object +from the set “draft,” “review,” or “published.” + +The state objects share functionality: in Rust, of course, we use structs and +traits rather than objects and inheritance. Each state object is responsible +for its own behavior and for governing when it should change into another +state. The value that holds a state object knows nothing about the different +behavior of the states or when to transition between states. + +The advantage of using the state pattern is that, when the business +requirements of the program change, we won’t need to change the code of the +value holding the state or the code that uses the value. We’ll only need to +update the code inside one of the state objects to change its rules or perhaps +add more state objects. + +First we’re going to implement the state pattern in a more traditional +object-oriented way, then we’ll use an approach that’s a bit more natural in +Rust. Let’s dig in to incrementally implement a blog post workflow using the +state pattern. + +The final functionality will look like this: + +1. A blog post starts as an empty draft. +1. When the draft is done, a review of the post is requested. +1. When the post is approved, it gets published. +1. Only published blog posts return content to print, so unapproved posts can’t +accidentally be published. + +Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we +try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post +should remain an unpublished draft. + +Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the +API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet +because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; +Filename: src/main.rs - let Point { x, y } = p; - assert_eq!(0, x); - assert_eq!(7, y); -} ``` +use blog::Post; -Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand - -This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields -of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the -values from the `p` struct. - -We can also destructure with literal values as part of the struct pattern -rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test -some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to -destructure the other fields. - -In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values -into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when -`y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or neither. +fn main() { + 1 let mut post = Post::new(); -Filename: src/main.rs + 2 post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); + 3 assert_eq!("", post.content()); -``` -fn main() { - let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; + 4 post.request_review(); + 5 assert_eq!("", post.content()); - match p { - Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {}", x), - Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {}", y), - Point { x, y } => println!("On neither axis: ({}, {})", x, y), - } + 6 post.approve(); + 7 assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); } ``` -Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern +Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` +crate to have -The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that -the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still -creates an `x` variable that we can use in the code for this arm. +We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new` [1]. +We want to allow text to be added to the blog post [2]. If we try to get the +post’s content immediately, before approval, we shouldn’t get any text because +the post is still a draft. We’ve added `assert_eq!` in the code for +demonstration purposes [3]. An excellent unit test for this would be to assert +that a draft blog post returns an empty string from the `content` method, but +we’re not going to write tests for this example. -Similarly, the second arm matches any point on the `y` axis by specifying that -the `x` field matches if its value is `0` and creates a variable `y` for the -value of the `y` field. The third arm doesn’t specify any literals, so it -matches any other `Point` and creates variables for both the `x` and `y` fields. +Next, we want to enable a request for a review of the post [4], and we want +`content` to return an empty string while waiting for the review [5]. When the +post receives approval [6], it should get published, meaning the text of the +post will be returned when `content` is called [7]. -In this example, the value `p` matches the second arm by virtue of `x` -containing a 0, so this code will print `On the y axis at 7`. +Notice that the only type we’re interacting with from the crate is the `Post` +type. This type will use the state pattern and will hold a value that will be +one of three state objects representing the various states a post can be +in—draft, review, or published. Changing from one state to another will be +managed internally within the `Post` type. The states change in response to the +methods called by our library’s users on the `Post` instance, but they don’t +have to manage the state changes directly. Also, users can’t make a mistake +with the states, such as publishing a post before it’s reviewed. -#### Destructuring Enums +### Defining Post and Creating a New Instance in the Draft State -We've destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5 in Chapter 6), -but haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum -corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an -example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write -a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. +Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a +public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the +definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an +instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private +`State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` +must have. -Filename: src/main.rs +Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` +in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the +`Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. + +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), +pub struct Post { + state: Option<Box<dyn State>>, + content: String, } -fn main() { - [1] let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); - - match msg { - [2] Message::Quit => { - println!("The Quit variant has no data to destructure.") - } - [3] Message::Move { x, y } => { - println!( - "Move in the x direction {} and in the y direction {}", - x, y - ); +impl Post { + pub fn new() -> Post { + Post { + 1 state: Some(Box::new(Draft {})), + 2 content: String::new(), } - [4] Message::Write(text) => println!("Text message: {}", text), - [5] Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!( - "Change the color to red {}, green {}, and blue {}", - r, g, b - ), } } -``` -Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values +trait State {} -This code will print `Change the color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try -changing the value of `msg` [1] to see the code from the other arms run. +struct Draft {} -For enum variants without any data, like `Message::Quit` [2], we can’t -destructure the value any further. We can only match on the literal -`Message::Quit` value, and no variables are in that pattern. +impl State for Draft {} +``` -For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move` [3], we can use a -pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant -name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we -break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the -shorthand form as we did in Listing 18-13. +Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates +a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct -For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one -element [4] and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements -[5], the pattern is similar to the pattern we specify to match tuples. The -number of variables in the pattern must match the number of elements in the -variant we’re matching. +The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The +state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all +implement the `State` trait. For now, the trait doesn’t have any methods, and +we’ll start by defining just the `Draft` state because that is the state we +want a post to start in. -#### Destructuring Nested Structs and Enums +When we create a new `Post`, we set its `state` field to a `Some` value that +holds a `Box` [1]. This `Box` points to a new instance of the `Draft` struct. +This ensures that whenever we create a new instance of `Post`, it will start +out as a draft. Because the `state` field of `Post` is private, there is no way +to create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the +`content` field to a new, empty `String` [2]. -So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, -but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the -code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` -message, as shown in Listing 18-16. +### Storing the Text of the Post Content -``` -enum Color { - Rgb(i32, i32, i32), - Hsv(i32, i32, i32), -} +We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named +`add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the +blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` +field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how +the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty +straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl +Post` block. -enum Message { - Quit, - Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, - Write(String), - ChangeColor(Color), -} +Filename: src/lib.rs -fn main() { - let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); - - match msg { - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => println!( - "Change the color to red {}, green {}, and blue {}", - r, g, b - ), - Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => println!( - "Change the color to hue {}, saturation {}, and value {}", - h, s, v - ), - _ => (), +``` +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { + self.content.push_str(text); } } ``` -Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums +Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s +`content` -The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a -`Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then -the pattern binds to the three inner `i32` values. The pattern of the second -arm also matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant, but the inner enum -matches `Color::Hsv` instead. We can specify these complex conditions in one -`match` expression, even though two enums are involved. +The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self` because we’re +changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call +`push_str` on the `String` in `content` and pass the `text` argument to add to +the saved `content`. This behavior doesn’t depend on the state the post is in, +so it’s not part of the state pattern. The `add_text` method doesn’t interact +with the `state` field at all, but it is part of the behavior we want to +support. -#### Destructuring Structs and Tuples +### Ensuring the Content of a Draft Post Is Empty -We can mix, match, and nest destructuring patterns in even more complex ways. -The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and -tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: +Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still +want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is +still in the draft state, as shown at [3] in Listing 17-11. For now, let’s +implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this +requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later +once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. +So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always +be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation. + +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let ((feet, inches), Point { x, y }) = ((3, 10), Point { x: 3, y: -10 }); +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + "" + } +} ``` -This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use -the values we’re interested in separately. - -Destructuring with patterns is a convenient way to use pieces of values, such -as the value from each field in a struct, separately from each other. +Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on +`Post` that always returns an empty string slice -### Ignoring Values in a Pattern +With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to the line at +[3] works as intended. -You’ve seen that it’s sometimes useful to ignore values in a pattern, such as -in the last arm of a `match`, to get a catchall that doesn’t actually do -anything but does account for all remaining possible values. There are a few -ways to ignore entire values or parts of values in a pattern: using the `_` -pattern (which you’ve seen), using the `_` pattern within another pattern, -using a name that starts with an underscore, or using `..` to ignore remaining -parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. +### Requesting a Review Changes the Post’s State -#### Ignoring an Entire Value with `_` +Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should +change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code. -We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but -not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` -expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function -parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. - -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { - println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {}", y); +impl Post { + --snip-- + 1 pub fn request_review(&mut self) { + 2 if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { + 3 self.state = Some(s.request_review()) + } + } } -fn main() { - foo(3, 4); +trait State { + 4 fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; } -``` - -Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature -This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, -and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. +struct Draft {} -In most cases when you no longer need a particular function parameter, you -would change the signature so it doesn’t include the unused parameter. Ignoring -a function parameter can be especially useful in cases when, for example, -you're implementing a trait when you need a certain type signature but the -function body in your implementation doesn’t need one of the parameters. You -then avoid getting a compiler warning about unused function parameters, as you -would if you used a name instead. - -#### Ignoring Parts of a Value with a Nested `_` - -We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for -example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the -other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code -responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that -the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a -setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. +impl State for Draft { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 5 Box::new(PendingReview {}) + } +} -``` -let mut setting_value = Some(5); -let new_setting_value = Some(10); +struct PendingReview {} -match (setting_value, new_setting_value) { - (Some(_), Some(_)) => { - println!("Can't overwrite an existing customized value"); - } - _ => { - setting_value = new_setting_value; +impl State for PendingReview { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 6 self } } - -println!("setting is {:?}", setting_value); ``` -Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants -when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some` - -This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then -`setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use -the values inside either `Some` variant, but we do need to test for the case -when `setting_value` and `new_setting_value` are the `Some` variant. In that -case, we print the reason for not changing `setting_value`, and it doesn’t get -changed. - -In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` are -`None`) expressed by the `_` pattern in the second arm, we want to allow -`new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. +Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` +trait + +We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable +reference to `self` [1]. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on +the current state of `Post` [3], and this second `request_review` method +consumes the current state and returns a new state. + +We add the `request_review` method to the `State` trait [4]; all types that +implement the trait will now need to implement the `request_review` method. +Note that rather than having `self`, `&self`, or `&mut self` as the first +parameter of the method, we have `self: Box<Self>`. This syntax means the +method is only valid when called on a `Box` holding the type. This syntax takes +ownership of `Box<Self>`, invalidating the old state so the state value of the +`Post` can transform into a new state. + +To consume the old state, the `request_review` method needs to take ownership +of the state value. This is where the `Option` in the `state` field of `Post` +comes in: we call the `take` method to take the `Some` value out of the `state` +field and leave a `None` in its place because Rust doesn’t let us have +unpopulated fields in structs [2]. This lets us move the `state` value out of +`Post` rather than borrowing it. Then we’ll set the post’s `state` value to the +result of this operation. + +We need to set `state` to `None` temporarily rather than setting it directly +with code like `self.state = self.state.request_review();` to get ownership of +the `state` value. This ensures `Post` can’t use the old `state` value after +we’ve transformed it into a new state. + +The `request_review` method on `Draft` returns a new, boxed instance of a new +`PendingReview` struct [5], which represents the state when a post is waiting +for a review. The `PendingReview` struct also implements the `request_review` +method but doesn’t do any transformations. Rather, it returns itself [6] +because when we request a review on a post already in the `PendingReview` +state, it should stay in the `PendingReview` state. + +Now we can start seeing the advantages of the state pattern: the +`request_review` method on `Post` is the same no matter its `state` value. Each +state is responsible for its own rules. + +We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string +slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the +`Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. +Listing 17-11 now works up to the line at [5]! + +### Adding approve to Change the Behavior of content + +The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will +set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that +state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn approve(&mut self) { + if let Some(s) = self.state.take() { + self.state = Some(s.approve()) + } + } +} -We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore -particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and -fourth values in a tuple of five items. +trait State { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State>; +} -``` -let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); +struct Draft {} -match numbers { - (first, _, third, _, fifth) => { - println!("Some numbers: {}, {}, {}", first, third, fifth) +impl State for Draft { + --snip-- + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 1 self } } -``` -Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple +struct PendingReview {} -This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values 4 and 16 will be -ignored. - -#### Ignoring an Unused Variable by Starting Its Name with `_` +impl State for PendingReview { + --snip-- + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + 2 Box::new(Published {}) + } +} -If you create a variable but don’t use it anywhere, Rust will usually issue a -warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s -useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re -prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust -not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable -with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when -we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. +struct Published {} -Filename: src/main.rs +impl State for Published { + fn request_review(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + self + } -``` -fn main() { - let _x = 5; - let y = 10; + fn approve(self: Box<Self>) -> Box<dyn State> { + self + } } ``` -Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an -underscore to avoid getting unused variable warnings - -Here we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a -warning about not using `_x`. +Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait -Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name -that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the -variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this -distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. - -``` -let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); +We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that +implements `State`, the `Published` state. -if let Some(_s) = s { - println!("found a string"); -} - -println!("{:?}", s); -``` +Similar to the way `request_review` on `PendingReview` works, if we call the +`approve` method on a `Draft`, it will have no effect because `approve` will +return `self` [1]. When we call `approve` on `PendingReview`, it returns a new, +boxed instance of the `Published` struct [2]. The `Published` struct implements +the `State` trait, and for both the `request_review` method and the `approve` +method, it returns itself because the post should stay in the `Published` state +in those cases. -Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the -value, which might take ownership of the value +Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value +returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we’re +going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, +as shown in Listing 17-17. -We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, -which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself -doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors -because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); - -if let Some(_) = s { - println!("found a string"); +impl Post { + --snip-- + pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + self.state.as_ref().unwrap().content(self) + } + --snip-- } - -println!("{:?}", s); ``` -Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the value +Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a +`content` method on `State` -This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. +Because the goal is to keep all of these rules inside the structs that +implement `State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass +the post instance (that is, `self`) as an argument. Then we return the value +that’s returned from using the `content` method on the `state` value. -#### Ignoring Remaining Parts of a Value with `..` +We call the `as_ref` method on the `Option` because we want a reference to the +value inside the `Option` rather than ownership of the value. Because `state` +is an `Option<Box<dyn State>>`, when we call `as_ref`, an `Option<&Box<dyn +State>>` is returned. If we didn’t call `as_ref`, we would get an error because +we can’t move `state` out of the borrowed `&self` of the function parameter. -With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific -parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each -ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t -explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a -`Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the -`match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore -the values in the `y` and `z` fields. +We then call the `unwrap` method, which we know will never panic because we +know the methods on `Post` ensure that `state` will always contain a `Some` +value when those methods are done. This is one of the cases we talked about in +“Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler” on page XX when we +know that a `None` value is never possible, even though the compiler isn’t able +to understand that. -``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, - z: i32, -} +At this point, when we call `content` on the `&Box<dyn State>`, deref coercion +will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will +ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means +we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where +we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we +have, as shown in Listing 17-18. -let origin = Point { x: 0, y: 0, z: 0 }; +Filename: src/lib.rs -match origin { - Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {}", x), -} ``` +trait State { + --snip-- + fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { + 1 "" + } +} -Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..` - -We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker -than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with -structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are -relevant. - -The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 -shows how to use `..` with a tuple. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); +--snip-- +struct Published {} - match numbers { - (first, .., last) => { - println!("Some numbers: {}, {}", first, last); - } +impl State for Published { + --snip-- + fn content<'a>(&self, post: &'a Post) -> &'a str { + 2 &post.content } } ``` -Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring -all other values - -In this code, the first and last value are matched with `first` and `last`. The -`..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. - -However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are -intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. -Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not -compile. +Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait + +We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty +string slice [1]. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the +`Draft` and `PendingReview` structs. The `Published` struct will override the +`content` method and return the value in `post.content` [2]. + +Note that we need lifetime annotations on this method, as we discussed in +Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning a +reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is +related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. + +And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state +pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the +rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. + +> ### Why Not An Enum? +> +> You may have been wondering why we didn’t use an `enum` with the different +possible post states as variants. That’s certainly a possible solution; try it +and compare the end results to see which you prefer! One disadvantage of using +an enum is that every place that checks the value of the enum will need a +`match` expression or similar to handle every possible variant. This could get +more repetitive than this trait object solution. + +### Trade-offs of the State Pattern + +We’ve shown that Rust is capable of implementing the object-oriented state +pattern to encapsulate the different kinds of behavior a post should have in +each state. The methods on `Post` know nothing about the various behaviors. The +way we organized the code, we have to look in only one place to know the +different ways a published post can behave: the implementation of the `State` +trait on the `Published` struct. + +If we were to create an alternative implementation that didn’t use the state +pattern, we might instead use `match` expressions in the methods on `Post` or +even in the `main` code that checks the state of the post and changes behavior +in those places. That would mean we would have to look in several places to +understand all the implications of a post being in the published state! This +would only increase the more states we added: each of those `match` expressions +would need another arm. + +With the state pattern, the `Post` methods and the places we use `Post` don’t +need `match` expressions, and to add a new state, we would only need to add a +new struct and implement the trait methods on that one struct. + +The implementation using the state pattern is easy to extend to add more +functionality. To see the simplicity of maintaining code that uses the state +pattern, try a few of these suggestions: + +* Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back +to `Draft`. +* Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. +* Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. +Hint: have the state object responsible for what might change about the content +but not responsible for modifying the `Post`. + +One downside of the state pattern is that, because the states implement the +transitions between states, some of the states are coupled to each other. If we +add another state between `PendingReview` and `Published`, such as `Scheduled`, +we would have to change the code in `PendingReview` to transition to +`Scheduled` instead. It would be less work if `PendingReview` didn’t need to +change with the addition of a new state, but that would mean switching to +another design pattern. + +Another downside is that we’ve duplicated some logic. To eliminate some of the +duplication, we might try to make default implementations for the +`request_review` and `approve` methods on the `State` trait that return `self`. +However, this wouldn’t work: when using `State` as a trait object, the trait +doesn’t know what the concrete `self` will be exactly, so the return type isn’t +known at compile time. + +Other duplication includes the similar implementations of the `request_review` +and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of +the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new +value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` +that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the +repetition (see “Macros” on page XX). + +By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented +languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. +Let’s look at some changes we can make to the `blog` crate that can make +invalid states and transitions into compile-time errors. + +#### Encoding States and Behavior as Types + +We’ll show you how to rethink the state pattern to get a different set of +trade-offs. Rather than encapsulating the states and transitions completely so +outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different +types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use +draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. + +Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + let mut post = Post::new(); - match numbers { - (.., second, ..) => { - println!("Some numbers: {}", second) - }, - } + post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); + assert_eq!("", post.content()); } ``` -Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way +We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` +and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a +`content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so +draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get +a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method +doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally +display draft post content in production because that code won’t even compile. +Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, +as well as methods on each. -When we compile this example, we get this error: +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -error: `..` can only be used once per tuple pattern - --> src/main.rs:5:22 - | -5 | (.., second, ..) => { - | -- ^^ can only be used once per tuple pattern - | | - | previously used here -``` - -It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore -before matching a value with `second` and then how many further values to -ignore thereafter. This code could mean that we want to ignore `2`, bind -`second` to `4`, and then ignore `8`, `16`, and `32`; or that we want to ignore -`2` and `4`, bind `second` to `8`, and then ignore `16` and `32`; and so forth. -The variable name `second` doesn’t mean anything special to Rust, so we get a -compiler error because using `..` in two places like this is ambiguous. - -### Extra Conditionals with Match Guards +pub struct Post { + content: String, +} -A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in -a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are -useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. +pub struct DraftPost { + content: String, +} -The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a -`match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match -guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be true if the number is even). +impl Post { + 1 pub fn new() -> DraftPost { + DraftPost { + content: String::new(), + } + } -``` -let num = Some(4); + 2 pub fn content(&self) -> &str { + &self.content + } +} -match num { - Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {} is even", x), - Some(x) => println!("The number {} is odd", x), - None => (), +impl DraftPost { + 3 pub fn add_text(&mut self, text: &str) { + self.content.push_str(text); + } } ``` -Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern +Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a `DraftPost` without a +`content` method -This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the -pattern in the first arm, it matches, because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then -the match guard checks whether the remainder of dividing `x` by 2 is equal to -0, and because it is, the first arm is selected. +Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that +stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because +we’re moving the encoding of the state to the types of the structs. The `Post` +struct will represent a published post, and it has a `content` method that +returns the `content` [2]. -If `num` had been `Some(5)` instead, the match guard in the first arm would -have been false because the remainder of 5 divided by 2 is 1, which is not -equal to 0. Rust would then go to the second arm, which would match because the -second arm doesn’t have a match guard and therefore matches any `Some` variant. +We still have a `Post::new` function, but instead of returning an instance of +`Post`, it returns an instance of `DraftPost` [1]. Because `content` is private +and there aren’t any functions that return `Post`, it’s not possible to create +an instance of `Post` right now. -There is no way to express the `if x % 2 == 0` condition within a pattern, so -the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of -this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn't try to check for -exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. +The `DraftPost` struct has an `add_text` method, so we can add text to +`content` as before [3], but note that `DraftPost` does not have a `content` +method defined! So now the program ensures all posts start as draft posts, and +draft posts don’t have their content available for display. Any attempt to get +around these constraints will result in a compiler error. -In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our -pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the -pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the -`match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the -outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this -problem. +#### Implementing Transitions as Transformations into Different Types -Filename: src/main.rs +So how do we get a published post? We want to enforce the rule that a draft +post has to be reviewed and approved before it can be published. A post in the +pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement +these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the +`request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost` and +defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as +shown in Listing 17-20. -``` -fn main() { - let x = Some(5); - let y = 10; +Filename: src/lib.rs - match x { - Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), - Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {}", n), - _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), +``` +impl DraftPost { + --snip-- + pub fn request_review(self) -> PendingReviewPost { + PendingReviewPost { + content: self.content, + } } - - println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {}", x, y); } -``` -Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable - -This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second -match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, -meaning we can use the outer `y` in the match guard. Instead of specifying the -pattern as `Some(y)`, which would have shadowed the outer `y`, we specify -`Some(n)`. This creates a new variable `n` that doesn’t shadow anything because -there is no `n` variable outside the `match`. - -The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce -new variables. This `y` *is* the outer `y` rather than a new shadowed `y`, and -we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing -`n` to `y`. - -You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple -patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing -18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match -guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard -applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only -applies to `6`. - -``` -let x = 4; -let y = false; +pub struct PendingReviewPost { + content: String, +} -match x { - 4 | 5 | 6 if y => println!("yes"), - _ => println!("no"), +impl PendingReviewPost { + pub fn approve(self) -> Post { + Post { + content: self.content, + } + } } ``` -Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match guard - -The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is -equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the -pattern of the first arm matches because `x` is `4`, but the match guard `if y` -is false, so the first arm is not chosen. The code moves on to the second arm, -which does match, and this program prints `no`. The reason is that the `if` -condition applies to the whole pattern `4 | 5 | 6`, not only to the last value -`6`. In other words, the precedence of a match guard in relation to a pattern -behaves like this: +Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling +`request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a +`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post` + +The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus +consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming +them into a `PendingReviewPost` and a published `Post`, respectively. This way, +we won’t have any lingering `DraftPost` instances after we’ve called +`request_review` on them, and so forth. The `PendingReviewPost` struct doesn’t +have a `content` method defined on it, so attempting to read its content +results in a compiler error, as with `DraftPost`. Because the only way to get a +published `Post` instance that does have a `content` method defined is to call +the `approve` method on a `PendingReviewPost`, and the only way to get a +`PendingReviewPost` is to call the `request_review` method on a `DraftPost`, +we’ve now encoded the blog post workflow into the type system. + +But we also have to make some small changes to `main`. The `request_review` and +`approve` methods return new instances rather than modifying the struct they’re +called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save +the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and +pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t +compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. +The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21. -``` -(4 | 5 | 6) if y => ... -``` - -rather than this: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -4 | 5 | (6 if y) => ... -``` +use blog::Post; -After running the code, the precedence behavior is evident: if the match guard -were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the -`|` operator, the arm would have matched and the program would have printed -`yes`. - -### `@` Bindings +fn main() { + let mut post = Post::new(); -The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same -time as we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want -to test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also -want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the -code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the -field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. + post.add_text("I ate a salad for lunch today"); -``` -enum Message { - Hello { id: i32 }, -} + let post = post.request_review(); -let msg = Message::Hello { id: 5 }; + let post = post.approve(); -match msg { - Message::Hello { - id: id_variable @ 3..=7, - } => println!("Found an id in range: {}", id_variable), - Message::Hello { id: 10..=12 } => { - println!("Found an id in another range") - } - Message::Hello { id } => println!("Found some other id: {}", id), + assert_eq!("I ate a salad for lunch today", post.content()); } ``` -Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it - -This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable -@` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range -while also testing that the value matched the range pattern. +Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the +blog post workflow -In the second arm, where we only have a range specified in the pattern, the code -associated with the arm doesn’t have a variable that contains the actual value -of the `id` field. The `id` field’s value could have been 10, 11, or 12, but -the code that goes with that pattern doesn’t know which it is. The pattern code -isn’t able to use the value from the `id` field, because we haven’t saved the -`id` value in a variable. +The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this +implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: +the transformations between the states are no longer encapsulated entirely +within the `Post` implementation. However, our gain is that invalid states are +now impossible because of the type system and the type checking that happens at +compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of +an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. -In the last arm, where we’ve specified a variable without a range, we do have -the value available to use in the arm’s code in a variable named `id`. The -reason is that we’ve used the struct field shorthand syntax. But we haven’t -applied any test to the value in the `id` field in this arm, as we did with the -first two arms: any value would match this pattern. +Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it +is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version +of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this +design. -Using `@` lets us test a value and save it in a variable within one pattern. +We’ve seen that even though Rust is capable of implementing object-oriented +design patterns, other patterns, such as encoding state into the type system, +are also available in Rust. These patterns have different trade-offs. Although +you might be very familiar with object-oriented patterns, rethinking the +problem to take advantage of Rust’s features can provide benefits, such as +preventing some bugs at compile time. Object-oriented patterns won’t always be +the best solution in Rust due to certain features, like ownership, that +object-oriented languages don’t have. ## Summary -Rust’s patterns are very useful in distinguishing between different kinds of -data. When used in `match` expressions, Rust ensures your patterns cover every -possible value, or your program won’t compile. Patterns in `let` statements and -function parameters make those constructs more useful, enabling the -destructuring of values into smaller parts at the same time as assigning to -variables. We can create simple or complex patterns to suit our needs. +Regardless of whether you think Rust is an object-oriented language after +reading this chapter, you now know that you can use trait objects to get some +object-oriented features in Rust. Dynamic dispatch can give your code some +flexibility in exchange for a bit of runtime performance. You can use this +flexibility to implement object-oriented patterns that can help your code’s +maintainability. Rust also has other features, like ownership, that +object-oriented languages don’t have. An object-oriented pattern won’t always +be the best way to take advantage of Rust’s strengths, but it is an available +option. + +Next, we’ll look at patterns, which are another of Rust’s features that enable +lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but +haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! -Next, for the penultimate chapter of the book, we’ll look at some advanced -aspects of a variety of Rust’s features. diff --git a/nostarch/chapter19.md b/nostarch/chapter19.md index 762f2fb0c8..40c7f10a1c 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter19.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter19.md @@ -6,2285 +6,1287 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Advanced Features - -By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming -language. Before we do one more project in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few -aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not -use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter -any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. -Although you might not reach for them often, we want to make sure you have a -grasp of all the features Rust has to offer. - -In this chapter, we’ll cover: - -* Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take - responsibility for manually upholding those guarantees -* Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified - syntax, supertraits, and the newtype pattern in relation to traits -* Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, - and dynamically sized types -* Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures -* Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time - -It’s a panoply of Rust features with something for everyone! Let’s dive in! - -## Unsafe Rust - -All the code we’ve discussed so far has had Rust’s memory safety guarantees -enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hidden inside it -that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called *unsafe Rust* -and works just like regular Rust, but gives us extra superpowers. - -Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When -the compiler tries to determine whether or not code upholds the guarantees, -it’s better for it to reject some valid programs than to accept some invalid -programs. Although the code *might* be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have -enough information to be confident, it will reject the code. In these cases, -you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “Trust me, I know what I’m -doing.” Be warned, however, that you use unsafe Rust at your own risk: if you -use unsafe code incorrectly, problems can occur due to memory unsafety, such as -null pointer dereferencing. - -Another reason Rust has an unsafe alter ego is that the underlying computer -hardware is inherently unsafe. If Rust didn’t let you do unsafe operations, you -couldn’t do certain tasks. Rust needs to allow you to do low-level systems -programming, such as directly interacting with the operating system or even -writing your own operating system. Working with low-level systems programming -is one of the goals of the language. Let’s explore what we can do with unsafe -Rust and how to do it. - -### Unsafe Superpowers - -To switch to unsafe Rust, use the `unsafe` keyword and then start a new block -that holds the unsafe code. You can take five actions in unsafe Rust that you -can’t in safe Rust, which we call *unsafe superpowers*. Those superpowers -include the ability to: - -* Dereference a raw pointer -* Call an unsafe function or method -* Access or modify a mutable static variable -* Implement an unsafe trait -* Access fields of `union`s - -It’s important to understand that `unsafe` doesn’t turn off the borrow checker -or disable any other of Rust’s safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe -code, it will still be checked. The `unsafe` keyword only gives you access to -these five features that are then not checked by the compiler for memory -safety. You’ll still get some degree of safety inside of an unsafe block. - -In addition, `unsafe` does not mean the code inside the block is necessarily -dangerous or that it will definitely have memory safety problems: the intent is -that as the programmer, you’ll ensure the code inside an `unsafe` block will -access memory in a valid way. - -People are fallible, and mistakes will happen, but by requiring these five -unsafe operations to be inside blocks annotated with `unsafe` you’ll know that -any errors related to memory safety must be within an `unsafe` block. Keep -`unsafe` blocks small; you’ll be thankful later when you investigate memory -bugs. - -To isolate unsafe code as much as possible, it’s best to enclose unsafe code -within a safe abstraction and provide a safe API, which we’ll discuss later in -the chapter when we examine unsafe functions and methods. Parts of the standard -library are implemented as safe abstractions over unsafe code that has been -audited. Wrapping unsafe code in a safe abstraction prevents uses of `unsafe` -from leaking out into all the places that you or your users might want to use -the functionality implemented with `unsafe` code, because using a safe -abstraction is safe. - -Let’s look at each of the five unsafe superpowers in turn. We’ll also look at -some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code. - -### Dereferencing a Raw Pointer - -In Chapter 4, in the “Dangling References” section, we mentioned that the -compiler ensures references are always valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types -called *raw pointers* that are similar to references. As with references, raw -pointers can be immutable or mutable and are written as `*const T` and `*mut -T`, respectively. The asterisk isn’t the dereference operator; it’s part of the -type name. In the context of raw pointers, *immutable* means that the pointer -can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced. - -Different from references and smart pointers, raw pointers: - -* Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and - mutable pointers or multiple mutable pointers to the same location -* Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory -* Are allowed to be null -* Don’t implement any automatic cleanup +# Patterns and Matching -By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up -guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to -interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. +*Patterns* are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of +types, both complex and simple. Using patterns in conjunction with `match` +expressions and other constructs gives you more control over a program’s +control flow. A pattern consists of some combination of the following: -Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from -references. - -``` -let mut num = 5; - -let r1 = &num as *const i32; -let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; -``` +* Literals +* Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples +* Variables +* Wildcards +* Placeholders -Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references +Some example patterns include `x`, `(a, 3)`, and `Some(Color::Red)`. In the +contexts in which patterns are valid, these components describe the shape of +data. Our program then matches values against the patterns to determine whether +it has the correct shape of data to continue running a particular piece of code. -Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create -raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an -unsafe block, as you’ll see in a bit. +To use a pattern, we compare it to some value. If the pattern matches the +value, we use the value parts in our code. Recall the `match` expressions in +Chapter 6 that used patterns, such as the coin-sorting machine example. If the +value fits the shape of the pattern, we can use the named pieces. If it +doesn’t, the code associated with the pattern won’t run. -We’ve created raw pointers by using `as` to cast an immutable and a mutable -reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. Because we created them -directly from references guaranteed to be valid, we know these particular raw -pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw -pointer. +This chapter is a reference on all things related to patterns. We’ll cover the +valid places to use patterns, the difference between refutable and irrefutable +patterns, and the different kinds of pattern syntax that you might see. By the +end of the chapter, you’ll know how to use patterns to express many concepts in +a clear way. -To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be -so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary -location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be -data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code -so there is no memory access, or the program might error with a segmentation -fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, but it is -possible. +## All the Places Patterns Can Be Used -``` -let address = 0x012345usize; -let r = address as *const i32; -``` +Patterns pop up in a number of places in Rust, and you’ve been using them a lot +without realizing it! This section discusses all the places where patterns are +valid. -Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address +### match Arms -Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* -raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the -dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. +As discussed in Chapter 6, we use patterns in the arms of `match` expressions. +Formally, `match` expressions are defined as the keyword `match`, a value to +match on, and one or more match arms that consist of a pattern and an +expression to run if the value matches that arm’s pattern, like this: ``` -let mut num = 5; - -let r1 = &num as *const i32; -let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; - -unsafe { - println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); - println!("r2 is: {}", *r2); +match VALUE { + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, + PATTERN => EXPRESSION, } ``` -Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block +For example, here’s the `match` expression from Listing 6-5 that matches on an +`Option<i32>` value in the variable `x`: -Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that -it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. +``` +match x { + None => None, + Some(i) => Some(i + 1), +} +``` -Note also that in Listing 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut i32` -raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is -stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to -`num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t -allow a mutable reference at the same time as any immutable references. With -raw pointers, we can create a mutable pointer and an immutable pointer to the -same location and change data through the mutable pointer, potentially creating -a data race. Be careful! +The patterns in this `match` expression are the `None` and `Some(i)` to the +left of each arrow. -With all of these dangers, why would you ever use raw pointers? One major use -case is when interfacing with C code, as you’ll see in the next section, -“Calling an Unsafe Function or Method.” Another case is when building up safe -abstractions that the borrow checker doesn’t understand. We’ll introduce unsafe -functions and then look at an example of a safe abstraction that uses unsafe -code. +One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be *exhaustive* in +the sense that all possibilities for the value in the `match` expression must +be accounted for. One way to ensure you’ve covered every possibility is to have +a catchall pattern for the last arm: for example, a variable name matching any +value can never fail and thus covers every remaining case. -### Calling an Unsafe Function or Method +The particular pattern `_` will match anything, but it never binds to a +variable, so it’s often used in the last match arm. The `_` pattern can be +useful when you want to ignore any value not specified, for example. We’ll +cover the `_` pattern in more detail in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page +XX. -The second type of operation you can perform in an unsafe block is calling -unsafe functions. Unsafe functions and methods look exactly like regular -functions and methods, but they have an extra `unsafe` before the rest of the -definition. The `unsafe` keyword in this context indicates the function has -requirements we need to uphold when we call this function, because Rust can’t -guarantee we’ve met these requirements. By calling an unsafe function within an -`unsafe` block, we’re saying that we’ve read this function’s documentation and -take responsibility for upholding the function’s contracts. +### Conditional if let Expressions -Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its -body: +In Chapter 6, we discussed how to use `if let` expressions mainly as a shorter +way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. +Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if +the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. -``` -unsafe fn dangerous() {} +Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else +if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a +`match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the +patterns. Also, Rust doesn’t require that the conditions in a series of `if +let`, `else if`, and `else if let` arms relate to each other. -unsafe { - dangerous(); -} -``` +The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on +a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created +variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user +input. -We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we -try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires unsafe function or block - --> src/main.rs:4:5 - | -4 | dangerous(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^ call to unsafe function - | - = note: consult the function's documentation for information on how to avoid undefined behavior +fn main() { + let favorite_color: Option<&str> = None; + let is_tuesday = false; + let age: Result<u8, _> = "34".parse(); + + 1 if let Some(color) = favorite_color { + 2 println!( + "Using your favorite, {color}, as the background" + ); + 3 } else if is_tuesday { + 4 println!("Tuesday is green day!"); + 5 } else if let Ok(age) = age { + 6 if age > 30 { + 7 println!("Using purple as the background color"); + } else { + 8 println!("Using orange as the background color"); + } + 9 } else { + 10 println!("Using blue as the background color"); + } +} ``` -With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s -documentation, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that -we’re fulfilling the contract of the function. - -Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively `unsafe` blocks, so to perform other -unsafe operations within an unsafe function, we don’t need to add another -`unsafe` block. +Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else` -#### Creating a Safe Abstraction over Unsafe Code +If the user specifies a favorite color [1], that color is used as the +background [2]. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday [3], the +background color is green [4]. Otherwise, if the user specifies their age as a +string and we can parse it as a number successfully [5], the color is either +purple [7] or orange [8] depending on the value of the number [6]. If none of +these conditions apply [9], the background color is blue [10]. -Just because a function contains unsafe code doesn’t mean we need to mark the -entire function as unsafe. In fact, wrapping unsafe code in a safe function is -a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function -from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how -we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes -one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an -argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. +This conditional structure lets us support complex requirements. With the +hardcoded values we have here, this example will print `Using purple as the +background color`. -``` -let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]; - -let r = &mut v[..]; +You can see that `if let` can also introduce shadowed variables in the same way +that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` [5] introduces a new +shadowed `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant. This +means we need to place the `if age > 30` condition [6] within that block: we +can’t combine these two conditions into `if let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The +shadowed `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t valid until the new scope starts +with the curly bracket. -let (a, b) = r.split_at_mut(3); +The downside of using `if let` expressions is that the compiler doesn’t check +for exhaustiveness, whereas with `match` expressions it does. If we omitted the +last `else` block [9] and therefore missed handling some cases, the compiler +would not alert us to the possible logic bug. -assert_eq!(a, &mut [1, 2, 3]); -assert_eq!(b, &mut [4, 5, 6]); -``` +### while let Conditional Loops -Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` function +Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a +`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing +18-2, we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the +values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. -We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look -something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll -implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices -of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn split_at_mut(values: &mut [i32], mid: usize) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { - let len = values.len(); +let mut stack = Vec::new(); - assert!(mid <= len); +stack.push(1); +stack.push(2); +stack.push(3); - (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) +while let Some(top) = stack.pop() { + println!("{top}"); } ``` -Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust - -This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that -the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s -less than or equal to the length. The assertion means that if we pass an index -that is greater than the length to split the slice at, the function will panic -before it attempts to use that index. - -Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the -original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the -slice. +Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as +`stack.pop()` returns `Some` -When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error: +This example prints `3`, `2`, and then `1`. The `pop` method takes the last +element out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, +`pop` returns `None`. The `while` loop continues running the code in its block +as long as `pop` returns `Some`. When `pop` returns `None`, the loop stops. We +can use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. -``` -error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time - --> src/main.rs:6:31 - | -1 | fn split_at_mut(values: &mut [i32], mid: usize) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { - | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'1` -... -6 | (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) - | --------------------------^^^^^^-------- - | | | | - | | | second mutable borrow occurs here - | | first mutable borrow occurs here - | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` -``` +### for Loops -Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of -the slice; it only knows that we’re borrowing from the same slice twice. -Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two -slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we -know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. +In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a +pattern. For example, in `for x in y`, the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 +demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to *destructure*, or break +apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. -Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls -to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::slice; - -fn split_at_mut(values: &mut [i32], mid: usize) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { - [1] let len = values.len(); - [2] let ptr = values.as_mut_ptr(); - - [3] assert!(mid <= len); +let v = vec!['a', 'b', 'c']; - [4] unsafe { - ( - [5] slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid), - [6] slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.add(mid), len - mid), - ) - } +for (index, value) in v.iter().enumerate() { + println!("{value} is at index {index}"); } ``` -Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` -function - +Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple -Recall from “The Slice Type” section in Chapter 4 that a slice is a pointer to -some data and the length of the slice. We use the `len` method to get the -length of a slice [1] and the `as_mut_ptr` method to access the raw pointer of -a slice [2]. In this case, because we have a mutable slice to `i32` values, -`as_mut_ptr` returns a raw pointer with the type `*mut i32`, which we’ve stored -in the variable `ptr`. +The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: -We keep the assertion that the `mid` index is within the slice [3]. Then we get -to the unsafe code [4]: the `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` function takes a raw -pointer and a length, and it creates a slice. We use it to create a slice that -starts from `ptr` and is `mid` items long [5]. Then we call the `add` method on -`ptr` with `mid` as an argument to get a raw pointer that starts at `mid`, and -we create a slice using that pointer and the remaining number of items after -`mid` as the length [6]. +``` +a is at index 0 +b is at index 1 +c is at index 2 +``` -The function `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` is unsafe because it takes a raw -pointer and must trust that this pointer is valid. The `add` method on raw -pointers is also unsafe, because it must trust that the offset location is also -a valid pointer. Therefore, we had to put an `unsafe` block around our calls to -`slice::from_raw_parts_mut` and `add` so we could call them. By looking at -the code and by adding the assertion that `mid` must be less than or equal to -`len`, we can tell that all the raw pointers used within the `unsafe` block -will be valid pointers to data within the slice. This is an acceptable and -appropriate use of `unsafe`. +We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and +the index for that value, placed into a tuple. The first value produced is the +tuple `(0, 'a')`. When this value is matched to the pattern `(index, value)`, +`index` will be `0` and `value` will be `'a'`, printing the first line of the +output. -Note that we don’t need to mark the resulting `split_at_mut` function as -`unsafe`, and we can call this function from safe Rust. We’ve created a safe -abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses -`unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the -data this function has access to. +### let Statements -In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would -likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory -location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. +Prior to this chapter, we had only explicitly discussed using patterns with +`match` and `if let`, but in fact, we’ve used patterns in other places as well, +including in `let` statements. For example, consider this straightforward +variable assignment with `let`: ``` -use std::slice; +let x = 5; +``` -let address = 0x01234usize; -let r = address as *mut i32; +Every time you’ve used a `let` statement like this you’ve been using patterns, +although you might not have realized it! More formally, a `let` statement looks +like this: -let values: &[i32] = unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts_mut(r, 10000) }; +``` +let PATTERN = EXPRESSION; ``` -Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location +In statements like `let x = 5;` with a variable name in the PATTERN slot, the +variable name is just a particularly simple form of a pattern. Rust compares +the expression against the pattern and assigns any names it finds. So, in the +`let x = 5;` example, `x` is a pattern that means “bind what matches here to +the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern +effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” -We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee -that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use -`values` as though it’s a valid slice results in undefined behavior. +To see the pattern-matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing +18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. -#### Using `extern` Functions to Call External Code +``` +let (x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3); +``` -Sometimes, your Rust code might need to interact with code written in another -language. For this, Rust has the keyword `extern` that facilitates the creation -and use of a *Foreign Function Interface (FFI)*. An FFI is a way for a -programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) -programming language to call those functions. +Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables +at once -Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function -from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are -always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t -enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so -responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. +Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` +to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, in that +it sees that the number of elements is the same in both, so Rust binds `1` to +`x`, `2` to `y`, and `3` to `z`. You can think of this tuple pattern as nesting +three individual variable patterns inside it. -Filename: src/main.rs +If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements +in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For +example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three +elements into two variables, which won’t work. ``` -extern "C" { - fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; -} - -fn main() { - unsafe { - println!("Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", abs(-3)); - } -} +let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); ``` -Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another -language - -Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external -functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which -*application binary interface (ABI)* the external function uses: the ABI -defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The `"C"` ABI is the -most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. - -> #### Calling Rust Functions from Other Languages -> -> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages -> to call Rust functions. Instead of an creating a whole `extern` block, we add -> the `extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword -> for the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[no_mangle]` annotation to -> tell the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. *Mangling* is -> when a compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name -> that contains more information for other parts of the compilation process to -> consume but is less human readable. Every programming language compiler -> mangles names slightly differently, so for a Rust function to be nameable by -> other languages, we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. -> -> In the following example, we make the `call_from_c` function accessible from -> C code, after it’s compiled to a shared library and linked from C: -> -> ``` -> #[no_mangle] -> pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { -> println!("Just called a Rust function from C!"); -> } -> ``` -> -> This usage of `extern` does not require `unsafe`. - -### Accessing or Modifying a Mutable Static Variable - -In this book, we’ve not yet talked about *global variables*, which Rust does -support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are -accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. - -In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an -example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a -value. +Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match +the number of elements in the tuple -Filename: src/main.rs +Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: ``` -static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; - -fn main() { - println!("name is: {}", HELLO_WORLD); -} +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:2:9 + | +2 | let (x, y) = (1, 2, 3); + | ^^^^^^ --------- this expression has type `({integer}, {integer}, +{integer})` + | | + | expected a tuple with 3 elements, found one with 2 elements + | + = note: expected tuple `({integer}, {integer}, {integer})` + found tuple `(_, _)` ``` -Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static variable - -Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in the -“Differences Between Variables and Constants” section in Chapter 3. The names -of static variables are in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` by convention. Static -variables can only store references with the `'static` lifetime, which means -the Rust compiler can figure out the lifetime and we aren’t required to -annotate it explicitly. Accessing an immutable static variable is safe. +To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using +`_` or `..`, as you’ll see in “Ignoring Values in a Pattern” on page XX. If the +problem is that we have too many variables in the pattern, the solution is to +make the types match by removing variables so the number of variables equals +the number of elements in the tuple. -A subtle difference between constants and immutable static variables is that -values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value -will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to -duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static -variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is -*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable -static variable named `COUNTER`. +### Function Parameters -Filename: src/main.rs +Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which +declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type +`i32`, should by now look familiar. ``` -static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; - -fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { - unsafe { - COUNTER += inc; - } -} - -fn main() { - add_to_count(3); - - unsafe { - println!("COUNTER: {}", COUNTER); - } +fn foo(x: i32) { + // code goes here } ``` -Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe - -As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any -code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This -code compiles and prints `COUNTER: 3` as we would expect because it’s single -threaded. Having multiple threads access `COUNTER` would likely result in data -races. - -With mutable data that is globally accessible, it’s difficult to ensure there -are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be -unsafe. Where possible, it’s preferable to use the concurrency techniques and -thread-safe smart pointers we discussed in Chapter 16 so the compiler checks -that data accessed from different threads is done safely. +Listing 18-6: A function signature using patterns in the parameters -### Implementing an Unsafe Trait +The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a +function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple +as we pass it to a function. -We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at -least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We -declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` -and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in -Listing 19-11. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -unsafe trait Foo { - // methods go here +fn print_coordinates(&(x, y): &(i32, i32)) { + println!("Current location: ({x}, {y})"); } -unsafe impl Foo for i32 { - // method implementations go here +fn main() { + let point = (3, 5); + print_coordinates(&point); } - -fn main() {} ``` -Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe trait - -By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that -the compiler can’t verify. - -As an example, recall the `Sync` and `Send` marker traits we discussed in the -“Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits” section in Chapter -16: the compiler implements these traits automatically if our types are -composed entirely of `Send` and `Sync` types. If we implement a type that -contains a type that is not `Send` or `Sync`, such as raw pointers, and we want -to mark that type as `Send` or `Sync`, we must use `unsafe`. Rust can’t verify -that our type upholds the guarantees that it can be safely sent across threads -or accessed from multiple threads; therefore, we need to do those checks -manually and indicate as such with `unsafe`. - -### Accessing Fields of a Union +Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure a tuple -The final action that works only with `unsafe` is accessing fields of a -*union*. A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is -used in a particular instance at one time. Unions are primarily used to -interface with unions in C code. Accessing union fields is unsafe because Rust -can’t guarantee the type of the data currently being stored in the union -instance. You can learn more about unions in the Rust Reference at -*https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/unions.html*. +This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the +pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. -### When to Use Unsafe Code +We can also use patterns in closure parameter lists in the same way as in +function parameter lists because closures are similar to functions, as +discussed in Chapter 13. -Using `unsafe` to use one of the five superpowers just discussed isn’t wrong or -even frowned upon, but it is trickier to get `unsafe` code correct because the -compiler can’t help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use -`unsafe` code, you can do so, and having the explicit `unsafe` annotation makes -it easier to track down the source of problems when they occur. +At this point, you’ve seen several ways to use patterns, but patterns don’t +work the same in every place we can use them. In some places, the patterns must +be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss +these two concepts next. -## Advanced Traits +## Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match -We first covered traits in the “Traits: Defining Shared Behavior” section of -Chapter 10, but we didn’t discuss the more advanced details. Now that you know -more about Rust, we can get into the nitty-gritty. +Patterns come in two forms: refutable and irrefutable. Patterns that will match +for any possible value passed are *irrefutable*. An example would be `x` in the +statement `let x = 5;` because `x` matches anything and therefore cannot fail +to match. Patterns that can fail to match for some possible value are +*refutable*. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = +a_value` because if the value in the `a_value` variable is `None` rather than +`Some`, the `Some(x)` pattern will not match. -### Specifying Placeholder Types in Trait Definitions with Associated Types +Function parameters, `let` statements, and `for` loops can only accept +irrefutable patterns because the program cannot do anything meaningful when +values don’t match. The `if let` and `while let` expressions accept refutable +and irrefutable patterns, but the compiler warns against irrefutable patterns +because, by definition, they’re intended to handle possible failure: the +functionality of a conditional is in its ability to perform differently +depending on success or failure. -*Associated types* connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait -method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The -implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used instead of the -placeholder type for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a -trait that uses some types without needing to know exactly what those types are -until the trait is implemented. +In general, you shouldn’t have to worry about the distinction between refutable +and irrefutable patterns; however, you do need to be familiar with the concept +of refutability so you can respond when you see it in an error message. In +those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’re +using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. -We’ve described most of the advanced features in this chapter as being rarely -needed. Associated types are somewhere in the middle: they’re used more rarely -than features explained in the rest of the book but more commonly than many of -the other features discussed in this chapter. - -One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the -standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in -for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is -iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing -19-12. +Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern +where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a +`let` statement, but for the pattern, we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable +pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. ``` -pub trait Iterator { - type Item; - - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>; -} +let Some(x) = some_option_value; ``` -Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated -type `Item` - -The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that -it will return values of type `Option<Self::Item>`. Implementors of the -`Iterator` trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` -method will return an `Option` containing a value of that concrete type. - -Associated types might seem like a similar concept to generics, in that the -latter allow us to define a function without specifying what types it can -handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an -implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies -the `Item` type is `u32`: - -<!-- Liz: This example was referencing an example from Chapter 13 that I cut. -I've changed this to just be a small standalone example, do you think it needs -more introduction than what's here because it's no longer referencing something -from earlier? /Carol --> +Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let` -Filename: src/lib.rs +If `some_option_value` were a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern +`Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can +only accept an irrefutable pattern because there is nothing valid the code can +do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried to +use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: ``` -impl Iterator for Counter { - type Item = u32; - - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> { - // --snip-- +error[E0005]: refutable pattern in local binding: `None` not covered + --> src/main.rs:3:9 + | +3 | let Some(x) = some_option_value; + | ^^^^^^^ pattern `None` not covered + | + = note: `let` bindings require an "irrefutable pattern", like a `struct` or +an `enum` with only one variant + = note: for more information, visit +https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch18-02-refutability.html + = note: the matched value is of type `Option<i32>` +help: you might want to use `if let` to ignore the variant that isn't matched + | +3 | let x = if let Some(x) = some_option_value { x } else { todo!() }; + | ++++++++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++ ``` -This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the -`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? +Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the +pattern `Some(x)`, Rust rightfully produces a compiler error. + +If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can +fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we +can use `if let`. Then, if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip +the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing +18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. ``` -pub trait Iterator<T> { - fn next(&mut self) -> Option<T>; +if let Some(x) = some_option_value { + println!("{x}"); } ``` -Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics - -The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must -annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement -`Iterator<String> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple -implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a -generic parameter, it can be implemented for a type multiple times, changing -the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the -`next` method on `Counter`, we would have to provide type annotations to -indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. +Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of +`let` -With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t -implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the -definition that uses associated types, we can only choose what the type of -`Item` will be once, because there can only be one `impl Iterator for Counter`. -We don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere -that we call `next` on `Counter`. +We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid, although it means we +cannot use an irrefutable pattern without receiving an error. If we give `if +let` a pattern that will always match, such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, +the compiler will give a warning. -### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading - -When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for -the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to -specify a concrete type if the default type works. You specify a default type -when declaring a generic type with the `<PlaceholderType=ConcreteType>` syntax. - -A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with *operator -overloading*, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) -in particular situations. +``` +if let x = 5 { + println!("{x}"); +}; +``` -Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary -operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed -in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For -example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` -instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` -struct: +Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let` -Filename: src/main.rs +Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable +pattern: ``` -use std::ops::Add; +warning: irrefutable `if let` pattern + --> src/main.rs:2:8 + | +2 | if let x = 5 { + | ^^^^^^^^^ + | + = note: `#[warn(irrefutable_let_patterns)]` on by default + = note: this pattern will always match, so the `if let` is +useless + = help: consider replacing the `if let` with a `let` +``` -#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)] -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, -} +For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last +arm, which should match any remaining values with an irrefutable pattern. Rust +allows us to use an irrefutable pattern in a `match` with only one arm, but +this syntax isn’t particularly useful and could be replaced with a simpler +`let` statement. -impl Add for Point { - type Output = Point; +Now that you know where to use patterns and the difference between refutable +and irrefutable patterns, let’s cover all the syntax we can use to create +patterns. - fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point { - Point { - x: self.x + other.x, - y: self.y + other.y, - } - } -} +## Pattern Syntax -fn main() { - assert_eq!( - Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 }, - Point { x: 3, y: 3 } - ); -} -``` +In this section, we gather all the syntax that is valid in patterns and discuss +why and when you might want to use each one. -Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for -`Point` instances +### Matching Literals -The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` -values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an -associated type named `Output` that determines the type returned from the `add` -method. +As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The +following code gives some examples: -The default generic type in this code is within the `Add` trait. Here is its -definition: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -trait Add<Rhs=Self> { - type Output; +let x = 1; - fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output; +match x { + 1 => println!("one"), + 2 => println!("two"), + 3 => println!("three"), + _ => println!("anything"), } ``` -This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an -associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called *default -type parameters*. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right hand -side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t -specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type -of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing -`Add` on. +This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is `1`. This syntax is useful +when you want your code to take an action if it gets a particular concrete +value. -When we implemented `Add` for `Point`, we used the default for `Rhs` because we -wanted to add two `Point` instances. Let’s look at an example of implementing -the `Add` trait where we want to customize the `Rhs` type rather than using the -default. +### Matching Named Variables -We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different -units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the -*newtype pattern*, which we describe in more detail in the “Using the Newtype -Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types” section. We want to add -values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of `Add` -do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` with -`Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. +Named variables are irrefutable patterns that match any value, and we’ve used +them many times in this book. However, there is a complication when you use +named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, +variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will +shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case +with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the +value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a +`match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and +`println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before +running this code or reading further. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::ops::Add; - -struct Millimeters(u32); -struct Meters(u32); - -impl Add<Meters> for Millimeters { - type Output = Millimeters; +fn main() { + 1 let x = Some(5); + 2 let y = 10; - fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters { - Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000)) + match x { + 3 Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + 4 Some(y) => println!("Matched, y = {y}"), + 5 _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), } + + 6 println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); } ``` -Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add -`Millimeters` to `Meters` +Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a shadowed +variable `y` -To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add<Meters>` to set the -value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. +Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern +in the first match arm [3] doesn’t match the defined value of `x` [1], so the +code continues. -You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways: +The pattern in the second match arm [4] introduces a new variable named `y` +that will match any value inside a `Some` value. Because we’re in a new scope +inside the `match` expression, this is a new `y` variable, not the `y` we +declared at the beginning with the value `10` [2]. This new `y` binding will +match any value inside a `Some`, which is what we have in `x`. Therefore, this +new `y` binds to the inner value of the `Some` in `x`. That value is `5`, so +the expression for that arm executes and prints `Matched, y = 5`. -* To extend a type without breaking existing code -* To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need +If `x` had been a `None` value instead of `Some(5)`, the patterns in the first +two arms wouldn’t have matched, so the value would have matched to the +underscore [5]. We didn’t introduce the `x` variable in the pattern of the +underscore arm, so the `x` in the expression is still the outer `x` that hasn’t +been shadowed. In this hypothetical case, the `match` would print `Default +case, x = None`. -The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: -usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to -customize beyond that. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait -definition means you don’t have to specify the extra parameter most of the -time. In other words, a bit of implementation boilerplate isn’t needed, making -it easier to use the trait. +When the `match` expression is done, its scope ends, and so does the scope of +the inner `y`. The last `println!` [6] produces `at the end: x = Some(5), y = +10`. -The first purpose is similar to the second but in reverse: if you want to add a -type parameter to an existing trait, you can give it a default to allow -extension of the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing -implementation code. +To create a `match` expression that compares the values of the outer `x` and +`y`, rather than introducing a shadowed variable, we would need to use a match +guard conditional instead. We’ll talk about match guards in “Extra Conditionals +with Match Guards” on page XX. -### Fully Qualified Syntax for Disambiguation: Calling Methods with the Same Name +### Multiple Patterns -Nothing in Rust prevents a trait from having a method with the same name as -another trait’s method, nor does Rust prevent you from implementing both traits -on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type with -the same name as methods from traits. - -When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you -want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, -`Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement -both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented -on it. Each `fly` method does something different. +In `match` expressions, you can match multiple patterns using the `|` syntax, +which is the pattern *or* operator. For example, in the following code we match +the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an *or* option, +meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that +arm’s code will run: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -trait Pilot { - fn fly(&self); -} - -trait Wizard { - fn fly(&self); -} - -struct Human; - -impl Pilot for Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("This is your captain speaking."); - } -} - -impl Wizard for Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("Up!"); - } -} +let x = 1; -impl Human { - fn fly(&self) { - println!("*waving arms furiously*"); - } +match x { + 1 | 2 => println!("one or two"), + 3 => println!("three"), + _ => println!("anything"), } ``` -Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` method and are -implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` -directly +This code prints `one or two`. -When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling -the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. +### Matching Ranges of Values with ..= + +The `..=` syntax allows us to match to an inclusive range of values. In the +following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given +range, that arm will execute: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let person = Human; - person.fly(); +let x = 5; + +match x { + 1..=5 => println!("one through five"), + _ => println!("something else"), } ``` -Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human` +If `x` is `1`, `2`, `3`, `4`, or `5`, the first arm will match. This syntax is +more convenient for multiple match values than using the `|` operator to +express the same idea; if we were to use `|`, we would have to specify `1 | 2 | +3 | 4 | 5`. Specifying a range is much shorter, especially if we want to match, +say, any number between 1 and 1,000! -Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust -called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. +The compiler checks that the range isn’t empty at compile time, and because the +only types for which Rust can tell if a range is empty or not are `char` and +numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. -To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, -we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. -Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. +Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn main() { - let person = Human; - Pilot::fly(&person); - Wizard::fly(&person); - person.fly(); +let x = 'c'; + +match x { + 'a'..='j' => println!("early ASCII letter"), + 'k'..='z' => println!("late ASCII letter"), + _ => println!("something else"), } ``` -Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call - -Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which -implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write -`Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used -in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to -disambiguate. +Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early +ASCII letter`. -Running this code prints the following: +### Destructuring to Break Apart Values -``` -$ cargo run - Compiling traits-example v0.1.0 (file:///projects/traits-example) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.46s - Running `target/debug/traits-example` -This is your captain speaking. -Up! -*waving arms furiously* -``` +We can also use patterns to destructure structs, enums, and tuples to use +different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. -Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that -both implement one *trait*, Rust could figure out which implementation of a -trait to use based on the type of `self`. +#### Destructuring Structs -However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` -parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method -functions with the same function name, Rust doesn't always know which type you -mean unless you use *fully qualified syntax*. For example, in Listing 19-19 we -create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs *Spot*. -We make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. -The `Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also -provide an associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. +Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can +break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -trait Animal { - fn baby_name() -> String; -} - -struct Dog; - -impl Dog { - fn baby_name() -> String { - String::from("Spot") - } -} - -impl Animal for Dog { - fn baby_name() -> String { - String::from("puppy") - } +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, } fn main() { - println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name()); + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; + + let Point { x: a, y: b } = p; + assert_eq!(0, a); + assert_eq!(7, b); } ``` -Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a type with an -associated function of the same name that also implements the trait - -We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated -function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait -`Animal`, which describes characteristics that all animals have. Baby dogs are -called puppies, and that is expressed in the implementation of the `Animal` -trait on `Dog` in the `baby_name` function associated with the `Animal` trait. - -In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated -function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: - -``` -A baby dog is called a Spot -``` +Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables -This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that -is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints -`A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that -we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in -Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. +This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` +and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the +variables in the pattern don’t have to match the field names of the struct. +However, it’s common to match the variable names to the field names to make it +easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this +common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a +lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: +you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created +from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same +way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` +pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. Filename: src/main.rs ``` +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} + fn main() { - println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; + + let Point { x, y } = p; + assert_eq!(0, x); + assert_eq!(7, y); } ``` -Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` -trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use +Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand -Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be -other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which -implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: +This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields +of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the +values from the `p` struct. -``` -error[E0283]: type annotations needed - --> src/main.rs:20:43 - | -20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer type - | - = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal` -``` +We can also destructure with literal values as part of the struct pattern +rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test +some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to +destructure the other fields. -To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of -`Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other -type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to -use fully qualified syntax. +In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values +into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when +`y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or on neither axis. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - println!("A baby dog is called a {}", <Dog as Animal>::baby_name()); -} -``` - -Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the -`baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog` - -We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which -indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as -implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an -`Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: + let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 }; + match p { + Point { x, y: 0 } => println!("On the x axis at {x}"), + Point { x: 0, y } => println!("On the y axis at {y}"), + Point { x, y } => { + println!("On neither axis: ({x}, {y})"); + } + } +} ``` -A baby dog is called a puppy -``` - -In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: - -``` -<Type as Trait>::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...); -``` - -For associated functions that aren’t methods, there would not be a `receiver`: -there would only be the list of other arguments. You could use fully qualified -syntax everywhere that you call functions or methods. However, you’re allowed -to omit any part of this syntax that Rust can figure out from other information -in the program. You only need to use this more verbose syntax in cases where -there are multiple implementations that use the same name and Rust needs help -to identify which implementation you want to call. -### Using Supertraits to Require One Trait’s Functionality Within Another Trait +Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern -Sometimes, you might write a trait definition that depends on another trait: -for a type to implement the first trait, you want to require that type to also -implement the second trait. You would do this so that your trait definition can -make use of the associated items of the second trait. The trait your trait -definition is relying on is called a *supertrait* of your trait. +The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that +the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still +creates an `x` variable that we can use in the code for this arm. -<!-- the trait you whose functionality your using is the supertrait? just to be -clear! /LC --> -<!-- I've tried to reword the above paragraph, is it better? /Carol --> +Similarly, the second arm matches any point on the `y` axis by specifying that +the `x` field matches if its value is `0` and creates a variable `y` for the +value of the `y` field. The third arm doesn’t specify any literals, so it +matches any other `Point` and creates variables for both the `x` and `y` fields. -For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an -`outline_print` method that will print a given value formatted so that it's -framed in asterisks. That is, -<!-- is Display a built in trait? /LC --> -<!-- It's defined in the standard library but not implemented for types by -default, which was covered in chapter 5. /Carol --> -given a `Point` struct that implements `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we -call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for -`y`, it should print the following: +In this example, the value `p` matches the second arm by virtue of `x` +containing a `0`, so this code will print `On the y axis at 7`. -``` -********** -* * -* (1, 3) * -* * -********** -``` +Remember that a `match` expression stops checking arms once it has found the +first matching pattern, so even though `Point { x: 0, y: 0}` is on the `x` axis +and the `y` axis, this code would only print `On the x axis at 0`. -<!-- interesting, so it's not that one trait will inherit, so to speak, from -another, but rather than we make the second trait require that anything it's -used on also implements the first (super)trait? /LC --> -<!-- Yep, you've got it! /Carol --> +#### Destructuring Enums -In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the -`Display` trait’s functionality. Therefore, we need to specify that the -`OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and -provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the -trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is -similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an -implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. +We’ve destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5), but we +haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum +corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an +example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write +a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; - -trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { - fn outline_print(&self) { - let output = self.to_string(); - let len = output.len(); - println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); - println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("* {} *", output); - println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); - println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); - } +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32), } -``` - -Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the -functionality from `Display` -Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we -can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type -that implements `Display`. If we tried to use `to_string` without adding a -colon and specifying the `Display` trait after the trait name, we’d get an -error saying that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in -the current scope. - -Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that -doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: - -Filename: src/main.rs +fn main() { + 1 let msg = Message::ChangeColor(0, 160, 255); -``` -struct Point { - x: i32, - y: i32, + match msg { + 2 Message::Quit => { + println!( + "The Quit variant has no data to destructure." + ); + } + 3 Message::Move { x, y } => { + println!( + "Move in the x dir {x}, in the y dir {y}" + ); + } + 4 Message::Write(text) => { + println!("Text message: {text}"); + } + 5 Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!( + "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" + ), + } } - -impl OutlinePrint for Point {} ``` -We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: +Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values -``` -error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` - --> src/main.rs:20:6 - | -20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter - | - = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` - = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for pretty-print) instead -note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` - --> src/main.rs:3:21 - | -3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` -``` +This code will print `Change color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try +changing the value of `msg` [1] to see the code from the other arms run. -To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that -`OutlinePrint` requires, like so: +For enum variants without any data, like `Message::Quit` [2], we can’t +destructure the value any further. We can only match on the literal +`Message::Quit` value, and no variables are in that pattern. -Filename: src/main.rs +For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move` [3], we can use a +pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant +name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we +break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the +shorthand form as we did in Listing 18-13. -``` -use std::fmt; +For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one +element [4] and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements +[5], the pattern is similar to the pattern we specify to match tuples. The +number of variables in the pattern must match the number of elements in the +variant we’re matching. -impl fmt::Display for Point { - fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { - write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y) - } -} -``` +#### Destructuring Nested Structs and Enums -Then implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile -successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display -it within an outline of asterisks. - -### Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types - -In Chapter 10 in the “Implementing a Trait on a Type” section, we mentioned the -orphan rule that states we’re only allowed to implement a trait on a type if -either the trait or the type are local to our crate. -<!-- I wasn't clear this was a restriction, you mean "we’re allowed to -implement a trait on a type only if either the trait or the type are local to -our crate."? /LC --> -<!-- Yes, was it the lack of the word "only" that was the problem? I've added -it above, is that better? /Carol --> -It’s possible to get -around this restriction using the *newtype pattern*, which involves creating a -new type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in the “Using Tuple -Structs without Named Fields to Create Different Types” section of Chapter 5.) -The tuple struct will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type we -want to implement a trait for. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and -we can implement the trait on the wrapper. *Newtype* is a term that originates -from the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty -for using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time. - -As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec<T>`, which the -orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the -`Vec<T>` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct -that holds an instance of `Vec<T>`; then we can implement `Display` on -`Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. +So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, +but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the +code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` +message, as shown in Listing 18-16. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; - -struct Wrapper(Vec<String>); +enum Color { + Rgb(i32, i32, i32), + Hsv(i32, i32, i32), +} -impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { - fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { - write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", ")) - } +enum Message { + Quit, + Move { x: i32, y: i32 }, + Write(String), + ChangeColor(Color), } fn main() { - let w = Wrapper(vec![String::from("hello"), String::from("world")]); - println!("w = {}", w); + let msg = Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(0, 160, 255)); + + match msg { + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Rgb(r, g, b)) => println!( + "Change color to red {r}, green {g}, and blue {b}" + ), + Message::ChangeColor(Color::Hsv(h, s, v)) => println!( + "Change color to hue {h}, saturation {s}, value {v}" + ), + _ => (), + } } ``` -Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec<String>` to implement -`Display` - -The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec<T>`, -because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec<T>` is the item at index 0 in the -tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`. - -The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it -doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement -all the methods of `Vec<T>` directly on `Wrapper` such that the methods -delegate to `self.0`, which would allow us to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a -`Vec<T>`. If we wanted the new type to have every method the inner type has, -implementing the `Deref` trait (discussed in Chapter 15 in the “Treating Smart -Pointers Like Regular References with the `Deref` Trait” section) on the -`Wrapper` to return the inner type would be a solution. If we don’t want the -`Wrapper` type to have all the methods of the inner type—for example, to -restrict the `Wrapper` type’s behavior—we would have to implement just the -methods we do want manually. - -This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s -switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. - -## Advanced Types - -The Rust type system has some features that we’ve so far mentioned but haven’t -yet discussed. We’ll start by discussing newtypes in general as we examine why -newtypes are useful as types. Then we’ll move on to type aliases, a feature -similar to newtypes but with slightly different semantics. We’ll also discuss -the `!` type and dynamically sized types. - -### Using the Newtype Pattern for Type Safety and Abstraction - -> Note: This section assumes you’ve read the earlier section “Using the -> Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits on External -> Types.” - -The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so -far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and -indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to -indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` -structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a -parameter of type `Millimeters`, we couldn’t compile a program that -accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a -plain `u32`. +Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums -We can also use the newtype pattern to abstract away some implementation -details of a type: the new type can expose a public API that is different from -the API of the private inner type. +The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a +`Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then +the pattern binds to the three inner `i32` values. The pattern of the second +arm also matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant, but the inner enum +matches `Color::Hsv` instead. We can specify these complex conditions in one +`match` expression, even though two enums are involved. -Newtypes can also hide internal implementation. For example, we could provide a -`People` type to wrap a `HashMap<i32, String>` that stores a person’s ID -associated with their name. Code using `People` would only interact with the -public API we provide, such as a method to add a name string to the `People` -collection; that code wouldn’t need to know that we assign an `i32` ID to names -internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation -to hide implementation details, which we discussed in the “Encapsulation that -Hides Implementation Details” section of Chapter 17. +#### Destructuring Structs and Tuples -### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases - -Rust provides the ability to declare a *type alias* to give an existing type -another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create -the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: +We can mix, match, and nest destructuring patterns in even more complex ways. +The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and +tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: ``` -type Kilometers = i32; +let ((feet, inches), Point { x, y }) = + ((3, 10), Point { x: 3, y: -10 }); ``` -Now, the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` -and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, -new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as -values of type `i32`: - -``` -type Kilometers = i32; +This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use +the values we’re interested in separately. -let x: i32 = 5; -let y: Kilometers = 5; +Destructuring with patterns is a convenient way to use pieces of values, such +as the value from each field in a struct, separately from each other. -println!("x + y = {}", x + y); -``` +### Ignoring Values in a Pattern -Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both -types and we can pass `Kilometers` values to functions that take `i32` -parameters. However, using this method, we don’t get the type checking benefits -that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. +You’ve seen that it’s sometimes useful to ignore values in a pattern, such as +in the last arm of a `match`, to get a catchall that doesn’t actually do +anything but does account for all remaining possible values. There are a few +ways to ignore entire values or parts of values in a pattern: using the `_` +pattern (which you’ve seen), using the `_` pattern within another pattern, +using a name that starts with an underscore, or using `..` to ignore remaining +parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. -The main use case for type synonyms is to reduce repetition. For example, we -might have a lengthy type like this: +#### An Entire Value with _ -``` -Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> -``` +We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but +not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` +expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function +parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. -Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all -over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of -code like that in Listing 19-24. +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let f: Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> = Box::new(|| println!("hi")); - -fn takes_long_type(f: Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static>) { - // --snip-- +fn foo(_: i32, y: i32) { + println!("This code only uses the y parameter: {y}"); } -fn returns_long_type() -> Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> { - // --snip-- +fn main() { + foo(3, 4); } ``` -Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places - -A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In -Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and -can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. - -``` -type Thunk = Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static>; - -let f: Thunk = Box::new(|| println!("hi")); +Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature -fn takes_long_type(f: Thunk) { - // --snip-- -} +This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, +and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. -fn returns_long_type() -> Thunk { - // --snip-- -} -``` +In most cases when you no longer need a particular function parameter, you +would change the signature so it doesn’t include the unused parameter. Ignoring +a function parameter can be especially useful in cases when, for example, +you’re implementing a trait when you need a certain type signature but the +function body in your implementation doesn’t need one of the parameters. You +then avoid getting a compiler warning about unused function parameters, as you +would if you used a name instead. -Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition +#### Parts of a Value with a Nested _ -This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a -type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code -to be evaluated at a later time, so it’s an appropriate name for a closure that -gets stored). +We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for +example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the +other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code +responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that +the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a +setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. -Type aliases are also commonly used with the `Result<T, E>` type for reducing -repetition. Consider the `std::io` module in the standard library. I/O -operations often return a `Result<T, E>` to handle situations when operations -fail to work. This library has a `std::io::Error` struct that represents all -possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning -`Result<T, E>` where the `E` is `std::io::Error`, such as these functions in -the `Write` trait: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::fmt; -use std::io::Error; - -pub trait Write { - fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize, Error>; - fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<(), Error>; +let mut setting_value = Some(5); +let new_setting_value = Some(10); - fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<(), Error>; - fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments) -> Result<(), Error>; +match (setting_value, new_setting_value) { + (Some(_), Some(_)) => { + println!("Can't overwrite an existing customized value"); + } + _ => { + setting_value = new_setting_value; + } } -``` -The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type -alias declaration: - -``` -type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T, std::io::Error>; +println!("setting is {:?}", setting_value); ``` -Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully -qualified alias `std::io::Result<T>`; that is, a `Result<T, E>` with the `E` -filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up -looking like this: - -``` -pub trait Write { - fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<usize>; - fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>; +Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants +when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some` - fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()>; - fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments) -> Result<()>; -} -``` +This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then +`setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use +the values inside either `Some` variant, but we do need to test for the case +when `setting_value` and `new_setting_value` are the `Some` variant. In that +case, we print the reason for not changing `setting_value`, and it doesn’t get +changed. -The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives -us a consistent interface across all of `std::io`. Because it’s an alias, it’s -just another `Result<T, E>`, which means we can use any methods that work on -`Result<T, E>` with it, as well as special syntax like the `?` operator. +In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` is `None`) +expressed by the `_` pattern in the second arm, we want to allow +`new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. -### The Never Type that Never Returns +We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore +particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and +fourth values in a tuple of five items. -Rust has a special type named `!` that’s known in type theory lingo as the -*empty type* because it has no values. We prefer to call it the *never type* -because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never -return. Here is an example: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn bar() -> ! { - // --snip-- +let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); + +match numbers { + (first, _, third, _, fifth) => { + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {third}, {fifth}"); + } } ``` -This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return -never are called *diverging functions*. We can’t create values of the type `!` -so `bar` can never possibly return. +Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple -But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from -Listing 2-5, part of the number guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it -here in Listing 19-26. +This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values `4` and `16` will +be ignored. -``` -let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(num) => num, - Err(_) => continue, -}; -``` +#### An Unused Variable by Starting Its Name with _ -Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue` +If you create a variable but don’t use it anywhere, Rust will usually issue a +warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s +useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re +prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust +not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable +with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when +we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. -At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In Chapter 6 in “The -`match` Control Flow Operator” section, we discussed that `match` arms must all -return the same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: - -``` -let guess = match guess.trim().parse() { - Ok(_) => 5, - Err(_) => "hello", -}; -``` - -The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, -and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` -return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm -that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? - -As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust -computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a -value of `u32` and the latter with a `!` value. Because `!` can never have a -value, Rust decides that the type of `guess` is `u32`. - -The formal way of describing this behavior is that expressions of type `!` can -be coerced into any other type. We’re allowed to end this `match` arm with -`continue` because `continue` doesn’t return a value; instead, it moves control -back to the top of the loop, so in the `Err` case, we never assign a value to -`guess`. - -The never type is useful with the `panic!` macro as well. Recall the `unwrap` -function that we call on `Option<T>` values to produce a value or panic with -this definition: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl<T> Option<T> { - pub fn unwrap(self) -> T { - match self { - Some(val) => val, - None => panic!("called `Option::unwrap()` on a `None` value"), - } - } +fn main() { + let _x = 5; + let y = 10; } ``` -In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust -sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result -of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` -doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be -returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. +Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an underscore to avoid getting +unused variable warnings -One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: +Here, we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a +warning about not using `_x`. -``` -print!("forever "); +Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name +that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the +variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this +distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. -loop { - print!("and ever "); -} -``` +Filename: src/main.rs -Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this -wouldn’t be true if we included a `break`, because the loop would terminate -when it got to the `break`. - -### Dynamically Sized Types and the `Sized` Trait - -Rust needs to know certain details about its types, such as how much space to -allocate for a value of a particular type. This leaves one corner of its type -system a little confusing at first: the concept of *dynamically sized types*. -Sometimes referred to as *DSTs* or *unsized types*, these types let us write -code using values whose size we can know only at runtime. - -Let’s dig into the details of a dynamically sized type called `str`, which -we’ve been using throughout the book. That’s right, not `&str`, but `str` on -its own, is a DST. We can’t know how long the string is until runtime, meaning -we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type -`str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: - -``` -let s1: str = "Hello there!"; -let s2: str = "How's it going?"; -``` - -Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular -type, and all values of a type must use the same amount of memory. If Rust -allowed us to write this code, these two `str` values would need to take up the -same amount of space. But they have different lengths: `s1` needs 12 bytes of -storage and `s2` needs 15. This is why it’s not possible to create a variable -holding a dynamically sized type. - -So what do we do? In this case, you already know the answer: we make the types -of `s1` and `s2` a `&str` rather than a `str`. Recall from the “String Slices” -section of Chapter 4 that the slice data structure just stores the starting -position and the length of the slice. So although a `&T` is a single value that -stores the memory address of where the `T` is located, a `&str` is *two* -values: the address of the `str` and its length. As such, we can know the size -of a `&str` value at compile time: it’s twice the length of a `usize`. That is, -we always know the size of a `&str`, no matter how long the string it refers to -is. In general, this is the way in which dynamically sized types are used in -Rust: they have an extra bit of metadata that stores the size of the dynamic -information. The golden rule of dynamically sized types is that we must always -put values of dynamically sized types behind a pointer of some kind. - -We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box<str>` or -`Rc<str>`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically -sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by -using the name of the trait. In Chapter 17 in the “Using Trait Objects That -Allow for Values of Different Types” section, we mentioned that to use traits -as trait objects, we must put them behind a pointer, such as `&dyn Trait` or -`Box<dyn Trait>` (`Rc<dyn Trait>` would work too). - -To work with DSTs, Rust provides the `Sized` trait to determine whether or not -a type’s size is known at compile time. This trait is automatically implemented -for everything whose size is known at compile time. In addition, Rust -implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a -generic function definition like this: - -``` -fn generic<T>(t: T) { - // --snip-- -} ``` +let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); -is actually treated as though we had written this: - -``` -fn generic<T: Sized>(t: T) { - // --snip-- +if let Some(_s) = s { + println!("found a string"); } -``` - -By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at -compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this -restriction: +println!("{:?}", s); ``` -fn generic<T: ?Sized>(t: &T) { - // --snip-- -} -``` - -A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this -notation overrides the default that generic types must have a known size at -compile time. The `?Trait` syntax with this meaning is only available for -`Sized`, not any other traits. - -Also note that we switched the type of the `t` parameter from `T` to `&T`. -Because the type might not be `Sized`, we need to use it behind some kind of -pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. - -Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! - -## Advanced Functions and Closures -This section explores some advanced features related to functions and closures, -including function pointers and returning closures. +Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the +value, which might take ownership of the value. -### Function Pointers - -We’ve talked about how to pass closures to functions; you can also pass regular -functions to functions! This technique is useful when you want to pass a -function you’ve already defined rather than defining a new closure. Functions -coerce to the type `fn` (with a lowercase f), not to be confused with the `Fn` -closure trait. The `fn` type is called a *function pointer*. Passing functions -with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments to other -functions. - -The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to -that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function -`add_one` that adds one to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two -parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter -and returns an `i32`, and one `i32 value`. The `do_twice` function calls the -function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call -results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments -`add_one` and `5`. - -<!--Can you give a high level overview of what the code is doing -- adding one -twice by passing the add_one function? /LC --> -<!-- Done! /Carol --> +We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, +which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself +doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors +because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 { - x + 1 -} +let s = Some(String::from("Hello!")); -fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) -> i32 { - f(arg) + f(arg) +if let Some(_) = s { + println!("found a string"); } -fn main() { - let answer = do_twice(add_one, 5); - - println!("The answer is: {}", answer); -} +println!("{:?}", s); ``` -Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument - -This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in -`do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an -`i32`. We can then call `f` in the body of `do_twice`. In `main`, we can pass -the function name `add_one` as the first argument to `do_twice`. - -Unlike closures, `fn` is a type rather than a trait, so we specify `fn` as the -parameter type directly rather than declaring a generic type parameter with one -of the `Fn` traits as a trait bound. +Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the value. -Function pointers implement all three of the closure traits (`Fn`, `FnMut`, and -`FnOnce`), meaning you can always pass a function pointer as an argument for a -function that expects a closure. It’s best to write functions using a generic -type and one of the closure traits so your functions can accept either -functions or closures. +This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. -That said, one example of where you would want to only accept `fn` and not -closures is when interfacing with external code that doesn’t have closures: C -functions can accept functions as arguments, but C doesn’t have closures. +#### Remaining Parts of a Value with .. -As an example of where you could use either a closure defined inline or a named -function, let’s look at a use of the `map` method provided by the `Iterator` -trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a -<!-- is map an inbuilt function? (I think we've seen it before, but I think it's -worth a reminder) /LC --> -<!-- I've clarified! --> -vector of numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: - -``` -let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; -let list_of_strings: Vec<String> = - list_of_numbers.iter().map(|i| i.to_string()).collect(); -``` +With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific +parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each +ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t +explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a +`Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the +`match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore +the values in the `y` and `z` fields. -Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, -like this: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; -let list_of_strings: Vec<String> = - list_of_numbers.iter().map(ToString::to_string).collect(); -``` - -Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about earlier -in the “Advanced Traits” section because there are multiple functions available -named `to_string`. -<!-- ooh, a good mix of the concepts! /LC --> -Here, we’re using the `to_string` function defined in the -`ToString` trait, which the standard library has implemented for any type that -implements `Display`. +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, + z: i32, +} -Recall from the “Enum values” section of Chapter 6 that the name of each enum -variant that we define also becomes an initializer function. We can use these -initializer functions as function pointers that implement the closure traits, -which means we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods -that take closures, like so: +let origin = Point { x: 0, y: 0, z: 0 }; -``` -enum Status { - Value(u32), - Stop, +match origin { + Point { x, .. } => println!("x is {x}"), } - -let list_of_statuses: Vec<Status> = (0u32..20).map(Status::Value).collect(); ``` -Here we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range -that `map` is called on by using the initializer function of `Status::Value`. -Some people prefer this style, and some people prefer to use closures. They -compile to the same code, so use whichever style is clearer to you. - -### Returning Closures +Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..` -Closures are represented by traits, which means you can’t return closures -directly. In most cases where you might want to return a trait, you can instead -use the concrete type that implements the trait as the return value of the -function. However, you can’t do that with closures because they don’t have a -concrete type that is returnable; you’re not allowed to use the function -pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. +We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker +than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with +structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are +relevant. -The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: +The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 +shows how to use `..` with a tuple. -``` -fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - |x| x + 1 -} -``` - -The compiler error is as follows: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object - --> src/lib.rs:1:25 - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at compile-time - | - = note: for information on `impl Trait`, see <https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch10-02-traits.html#returning-types-that-implement-traits> -help: use `impl Fn(i32) -> i32` as the return type, as all return paths are of type `[closure@src/lib.rs:2:5: 2:14]`, which implements `Fn(i32) -> i32` - | -1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { - | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -``` - -The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space -it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. -We can use a trait object: +fn main() { + let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); -``` -fn returns_closure() -> Box<dyn Fn(i32) -> i32> { - Box::new(|x| x + 1) + match numbers { + (first, .., last) => { + println!("Some numbers: {first}, {last}"); + } + } } ``` -This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to the -section “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” in -Chapter 17. - -Next, let’s look at macros! - -## Macros - -We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully -explored what a macro is and how it works. The term *macro* refers to a family -of features in Rust: *declarative* macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds -of *procedural* macros: - -* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute - used on structs and enums -* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item -* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens - specified as their argument - -We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even -need macros when we already have functions. - -### The Difference Between Macros and Functions - -Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which -is known as *metaprogramming*. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` -attribute, which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve -also used the `println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these -macros *expand* to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. - -Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and -maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have -some additional powers that functions don’t. - -A function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the -function has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of -parameters: we can call `println!("hello")` with one argument or -`println!("hello {}", name)` with two arguments. Also, macros are expanded -before the compiler interprets the meaning of the code, so a macro can, for -example, implement a trait on a given type. A function can’t, because it gets -called at runtime and a trait needs to be implemented at compile time. - -The downside to implementing a macro instead of a function is that macro -definitions are more complex than function definitions because you’re writing -Rust code that writes Rust code. Due to this indirection, macro definitions are -generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function -definitions. +Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring +all other values -Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must -define macros or bring them into scope *before* you call them in a file, as -opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere. +In this code, the first and last values are matched with `first` and `last`. +The `..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. -### Declarative Macros with `macro_rules!` for General Metaprogramming +However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are +intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. +Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not +compile. -The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the *declarative macro*. These -are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,” -or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write -something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6, -`match` expressions are control structures that take an expression, compare the -resulting value of the expression to patterns, and then run the code associated -with the matching pattern. Macros also compare a value to patterns that are -associated with particular code: in this situation, the value is the literal -Rust source code passed to the macro; the patterns are compared with the -structure of that source code; and the code associated with each pattern, when -matched, replaces the code passed to the macro. This all happens during -compilation. - -To define a macro, you use the `macro_rules!` construct. Let’s explore how to -use `macro_rules!` by looking at how the `vec!` macro is defined. Chapter 8 -covered how we can use the `vec!` macro to create a new vector with particular -values. For example, the following macro creates a new vector containing three -integers: - -``` -let v: Vec<u32> = vec![1, 2, 3]; -``` - -We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector -of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same -because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. - -Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[1] #[macro_export] -[2] macro_rules! vec { - [3] ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => { - { - let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); - [4] $( - [5] temp_vec.push($x [6]); - )* - [7] temp_vec - } - }; -} -``` +fn main() { + let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32); -Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition - -> Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library -> includes code to preallocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code -> is an optimization that we don’t include here to make the example simpler. - -The `#[macro_export]` annotation [1] indicates that this macro should be made -available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into -scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope. - -We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the -macro we’re defining *without* the exclamation mark [2]. The name, in this case -`vec`, is followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition. - -The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match` -expression. Here we have one arm with the pattern `( $( $x:expr ),* )`, -followed by `=>` and the block of code associated with this pattern [3]. If the -pattern matches, the associated block of code will be emitted. Given that this -is the only pattern in this macro, there is only one valid way to match; any -other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than -one arm. - -Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different than the pattern syntax -covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code -structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in -Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the Rust Reference -at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/macros-by-example.html*. - -First, we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a -dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain -the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a -macro variable as opposed to a regular Rust variable. -<!-- what does the dollar sign mean/do? /LC --> -<!-- Clarified! /Carol --> -Next comes a set of parentheses that captures values that match the -pattern within the parentheses for use in the replacement code. Within `$()` is -`$x:expr`, which matches any Rust expression and gives the expression the name -`$x`. - -The comma following `$()` indicates that a literal comma separator character -could optionally appear after the code that matches the code in `$()`. The `*` -specifies that the pattern matches zero or more of whatever precedes the `*`. - -When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the `$x` pattern matches three -times with the three expressions `1`, `2`, and `3`. - -Now let’s look at the pattern in the body of the code associated with this arm: -`temp_vec.push()` [5] within `$()*` [4][7] is generated for each part that -matches `$()` in the pattern zero or more times depending on how many times the -pattern matches. The `$x` [6] is replaced with each expression matched. When we -call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the code generated that replaces this -macro call will be the following: - -``` -{ - let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); - temp_vec.push(1); - temp_vec.push(2); - temp_vec.push(3); - temp_vec + match numbers { + (.., second, ..) => { + println!("Some numbers: {second}"); + }, + } } ``` -We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can -generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements. - -There are some strange edge cases with `macro_rules!`. In the future, Rust will -have a second kind of declarative macro that will work in a similar fashion but -fix some of these edge cases. After that update, `macro_rules!` will be -effectively deprecated. With this in mind, as well as the fact that most Rust -programmers will *use* macros more than *write* macros, we won’t discuss -`macro_rules!` any further. To learn more about how to write macros, consult -the online documentation or other resources, such as “The Little Book of Rust -Macros” at *https://veykril.github.io/tlborm/* started by Daniel Keep and continued by Lukas Wirth. - -### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes +Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way -The second form of macros is the *procedural macro*, which acts more like a -function (and is a type of procedure). Procedural macros accept some code as an -input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than -matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative -macros do. The three kinds of procedural macros are custom derive, -attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. - -When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate -with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope -to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a -procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific -macro variety. - -Filename: src/lib.rs +When we compile this example, we get this error: ``` -use proc_macro; - -#[some_attribute] -pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { -} +error: `..` can only be used once per tuple pattern + --> src/main.rs:5:22 + | +5 | (.., second, ..) => { + | -- ^^ can only be used once per tuple pattern + | | + | previously used here ``` -Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural macro - -The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input -and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by -the `proc_macro` crate that is included with Rust and represents a sequence of -tokens. This is the core of the macro: the source code that the macro is -operating on makes up the input `TokenStream`, and the code the macro produces -is the output `TokenStream`. The function also has an attribute attached to it -that specifies which kind of procedural macro we’re creating. We can have -multiple kinds of procedural macros in the same crate. +It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore +before matching a value with `second` and then how many further values to +ignore thereafter. This code could mean that we want to ignore `2`, bind +`second` to `4`, and then ignore `8`, `16`, and `32`; or that we want to ignore +`2` and `4`, bind `second` to `8`, and then ignore `16` and `32`; and so forth. +The variable name `second` doesn’t mean anything special to Rust, so we get a +compiler error because using `..` in two places like this is ambiguous. -Let’s look at the different kinds of procedural macros. We’ll start with a -custom derive macro and then explain the small dissimilarities that make the -other forms different. +### Extra Conditionals with Match Guards -### How to Write a Custom `derive` Macro +A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in +a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are +useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. -Let’s create a crate named `hello_macro` that defines a trait named -`HelloMacro` with one associated function named `hello_macro`. Rather than -making our users implement the `HelloMacro` trait for each of their types, -we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with -`#[derive(HelloMacro)]` to get a default implementation of the `hello_macro` -function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is -TypeName!` where `TypeName` is the name of the type on which this trait has -been defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another -programmer to write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. +The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a +`match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match +guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be `true` if the number is even). Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use hello_macro::HelloMacro; -use hello_macro_derive::HelloMacro; +let num = Some(4); -#[derive(HelloMacro)] -struct Pancakes; - -fn main() { - Pancakes::hello_macro(); +match num { + Some(x) if x % 2 == 0 => println!("The number {x} is even"), + Some(x) => println!("The number {x} is odd"), + None => (), } ``` -Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using -our procedural macro +Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern -This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The -first step is to make a new library crate, like this: +This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the +pattern in the first arm, it matches because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then +the match guard checks whether the remainder of dividing `x` by 2 is equal to +0, and because it is, the first arm is selected. -``` -$ cargo new hello_macro --lib -``` - -Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: +If `num` had been `Some(5)` instead, the match guard in the first arm would +have been `false` because the remainder of 5 divided by 2 is 1, which is not +equal to 0. Rust would then go to the second arm, which would match because the +second arm doesn’t have a match guard and therefore matches any `Some` variant. -Filename: src/lib.rs +There is no way to express the `if x % 2 == 0` condition within a pattern, so +the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of +this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn’t try to check for +exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. -``` -pub trait HelloMacro { - fn hello_macro(); -} -``` +In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our +pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the +pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the +`match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the +outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this +problem. -We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement -the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use hello_macro::HelloMacro; - -struct Pancakes; +fn main() { + let x = Some(5); + let y = 10; -impl HelloMacro for Pancakes { - fn hello_macro() { - println!("Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!"); + match x { + Some(50) => println!("Got 50"), + Some(n) if n == y => println!("Matched, n = {n}"), + _ => println!("Default case, x = {:?}", x), } -} -fn main() { - Pancakes::hello_macro(); + println!("at the end: x = {:?}, y = {y}", x); } ``` -However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they -wanted to use with `hello_macro`; we want to spare them from having to do this -work. - -Additionally, we can’t yet provide the `hello_macro` function with default -implementation that will print the name of the type the trait is implemented -on: Rust doesn’t have reflection capabilities, so it can’t look up the type’s -name at runtime. We need a macro to generate code at compile time. - -The next step is to define the procedural macro. At the time of this writing, -procedural macros need to be in their own crate. Eventually, this restriction -might be lifted. The convention for structuring crates and macro crates is as -follows: for a crate named `foo`, a custom derive procedural macro crate is -called `foo_derive`. Let’s start a new crate called `hello_macro_derive` inside -our `hello_macro` project: +Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable -``` -$ cargo new hello_macro_derive --lib -``` +This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second +match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, +meaning we can use the outer `y` in the match guard. Instead of specifying the +pattern as `Some(y)`, which would have shadowed the outer `y`, we specify +`Some(n)`. This creates a new variable `n` that doesn’t shadow anything because +there is no `n` variable outside the `match`. -Our two crates are tightly related, so we create the procedural macro crate -within the directory of our `hello_macro` crate. If we change the trait -definition in `hello_macro`, we’ll have to change the implementation of the -procedural macro in `hello_macro_derive` as well. The two crates will need to -be published separately, and programmers using these crates will need to add -both as dependencies and bring them both into scope. We could instead have the -`hello_macro` crate use `hello_macro_derive` as a dependency and re-export the -procedural macro code. However, the way we’ve structured the project makes it -possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the -`derive` functionality. +The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce +new variables. This `y` *is* the outer `y` rather than a new shadowed `y`, and +we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing +`n` to `y`. -We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate. -We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see -in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the -*Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: +You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple +patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing +18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match +guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard +applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only +applies to `6`. -Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[lib] -proc-macro = true +let x = 4; +let y = false; -[dependencies] -syn = "1.0" -quote = "1.0" +match x { + 4 | 5 | 6 if y => println!("yes"), + _ => println!("no"), +} ``` -To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into -your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code -won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. +Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match guard -Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs +The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is +equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the +pattern of the first arm matches because `x` is `4`, but the match guard `if y` +is `false`, so the first arm is not chosen. The code moves on to the second +arm, which does match, and this program prints `no`. The reason is that the +`if` condition applies to the whole pattern `4 | 5 | 6`, not just to the last +value `6`. In other words, the precedence of a match guard in relation to a +pattern behaves like this: ``` -use proc_macro::TokenStream; -use quote::quote; -use syn; - -#[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] -pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { - // Construct a representation of Rust code as a syntax tree - // that we can manipulate - let ast = syn::parse(input).unwrap(); - - // Build the trait implementation - impl_hello_macro(&ast) -} +(4 | 5 | 6) if y => ... ``` -Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to -process Rust code - -Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which -is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` -function, which is responsible for transforming the syntax tree: this makes -writing a procedural macro more convenient. The code in the outer function -(`hello_macro_derive` in this case) will be the same for almost every -procedural macro crate you see or create. The code you specify in the body of -the inner function (`impl_hello_macro` in this case) will be different -depending on your procedural macro’s purpose. - -We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, `syn` (available from -*https://crates.io/crates/syn*), and `quote` (available from -*https://crates.io/crates/quote*). The `proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so -we didn’t need to add that to the dependencies in *Cargo.toml*. The -`proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that allows us to read and manipulate -Rust code from our code. - -The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we -can perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back -into Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust -code we might want to handle: writing a full parser for Rust code is no simple -task. - -The `hello_macro_derive` function will be called when a user of our library -specifies `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` on a type. This is possible because we’ve -annotated the `hello_macro_derive` function here with `proc_macro_derive` and -specified the name `HelloMacro`, which matches our trait name; this is the -convention most procedural macros follow. - -The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a -`TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform -operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in -`syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the -parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` -struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string: - -``` -DeriveInput { - // --snip-- - - ident: Ident { - ident: "Pancakes", - span: #0 bytes(95..103) - }, - data: Struct( - DataStruct { - struct_token: Struct, - fields: Unit, - semi_token: Some( - Semi - ) - } - ) -} -``` +rather than this: -Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has -the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30 - -The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct -with the `ident` (identifier, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more -fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the `syn` -documentation for `DeriveInput` at -*https://docs.rs/syn/1.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html* for more information. - -Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build -the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output -for our derive macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is -added to the code that our crate users write, so when they compile their crate, -they’ll get the extra functionality that we provide in the modified -`TokenStream`. - -You might have noticed that we’re calling `unwrap` to cause the -`hello_macro_derive` function to panic if the call to the `syn::parse` function -fails here. It’s necessary for our procedural macro to panic on errors because -`proc_macro_derive` functions must return `TokenStream` rather than `Result` to -conform to the procedural macro API. We’ve simplified this example by using -`unwrap`; in production code, you should provide more specific error messages -about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. - -Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` -into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the -`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. - -Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs - -``` -fn impl_hello_macro(ast: &syn::DeriveInput) -> TokenStream { - let name = &ast.ident; - let gen = quote! { - impl HelloMacro for #name { - fn hello_macro() { - println!("Hello, Macro! My name is {}!", stringify!(#name)); - } - } - }; - gen.into() -} ``` - -Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code - -We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the -annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when -we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the -`ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus, -the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance -that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in -Listing 19-30. - -The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The -compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` -macro’s execution, so we need to convert it to a `TokenStream`. We do this by -calling the `into` method, which consumes this intermediate representation and -returns a value of the required `TokenStream` type. - -The `quote!` macro also provides some very cool templating mechanics: we can -enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable -`name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work. -Check out the `quote` crate’s docs at *https://docs.rs/quote* for a thorough -introduction. - -We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro` -trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The -trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains the -functionality we want to provide: printing `Hello, Macro! My name is` and then -the name of the annotated type. - -The `stringify!` macro used here is built into Rust. It takes a Rust -expression, such as `1 + 2`, and at compile time turns the expression into a -string literal, such as `"1 + 2"`. This is different than `format!` or -`println!`, macros which evaluate the expression and then turn the result into -a `String`. There is a possibility that the `#name` input might be an -expression to print literally, so we use `stringify!`. Using `stringify!` also -saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. - -At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` -and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing -19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in -your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add -`hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` -crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and -`hello_macro_derive` to *https://crates.io/*, they would be regular -dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: - -``` -[dependencies] -hello_macro = { path = "../hello_macro" } -hello_macro_derive = { path = "../hello_macro/hello_macro_derive" } +4 | 5 | (6 if y) => ... ``` -Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it -should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the -`HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the -`pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the -trait implementation. +After running the code, the precedence behavior is evident: if the match guard +were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the +`|` operator, the arm would have matched and the program would have printed +`yes`. -Next, let’s explore how the other kinds of procedural macros differ from custom -derive macros. +### @ Bindings -### Attribute-like macros +The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same +time we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want to +test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also +want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the +code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the +field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. -Attribute-like macros are similar to custom derive macros, but instead of -generating code for the `derive` attribute, they allow you to create new -attributes. They’re also more flexible: `derive` only works for structs and -enums; attributes can be applied to other items as well, such as functions. -Here’s an example of using an attribute-like macro: say you have an attribute -named `route` that annotates functions when using a web application framework: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -#[route(GET, "/")] -fn index() { -``` +enum Message { + Hello { id: i32 }, +} -This `#[route]` attribute would be defined by the framework as a procedural -macro. The signature of the macro definition function would look like this: +let msg = Message::Hello { id: 5 }; -``` -#[proc_macro_attribute] -pub fn route(attr: TokenStream, item: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { +match msg { + Message::Hello { + id: id_variable @ 3..=7, + } => println!("Found an id in range: {id_variable}"), + Message::Hello { id: 10..=12 } => { + println!("Found an id in another range") + } + Message::Hello { id } => println!("Some other id: {id}"), +} ``` -Here, we have two parameters of type `TokenStream`. The first is for the -contents of the attribute: the `GET, "/"` part. The second is the body of the -item the attribute is attached to: in this case, `fn index() {}` and the rest -of the function’s body. +Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it -Other than that, attribute-like macros work the same way as custom derive -macros: you create a crate with the `proc-macro` crate type and implement a -function that generates the code you want! +This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable +@` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range +while also testing that the value matched the range pattern. -### Function-like macros +In the second arm, where we only have a range specified in the pattern, the +code associated with the arm doesn’t have a variable that contains the actual +value of the `id` field. The `id` field’s value could have been 10, 11, or 12, +but the code that goes with that pattern doesn’t know which it is. The pattern +code isn’t able to use the value from the `id` field because we haven’t saved +the `id` value in a variable. -Function-like macros define macros that look like function calls. Similarly to -`macro_rules!` macros, they’re more flexible than functions; for example, they -can take an unknown number of arguments. However, `macro_rules!` macros can be -defined only using the match-like syntax we discussed in the section -“Declarative Macros with `macro_rules!` for General Metaprogramming” earlier. -Function-like macros take a `TokenStream` parameter and their definition -manipulates that `TokenStream` using Rust code as the other two types of -procedural macros do. An example of a function-like macro is an `sql!` macro -that might be called like so: - -``` -let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1); -``` +In the last arm, where we’ve specified a variable without a range, we do have +the value available to use in the arm’s code in a variable named `id`. The +reason is that we’ve used the struct field shorthand syntax. But we haven’t +applied any test to the value in the `id` field in this arm, as we did with the +first two arms: any value would match this pattern. -This macro would parse the SQL statement inside it and check that it’s -syntactically correct, which is much more complex processing than a -`macro_rules!` macro can do. The `sql!` macro would be defined like this: - -``` -#[proc_macro] -pub fn sql(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { -``` - -This definition is similar to the custom derive macro’s signature: we receive -the tokens that are inside the parentheses and return the code we wanted to -generate. +Using `@` lets us test a value and save it in a variable within one pattern. ## Summary -Whew! Now you have some Rust features in your toolbox that you likely won’t use -often, but you’ll know they’re available in very particular circumstances. -We’ve introduced several complex topics so that when you encounter them in -error message suggestions or in other peoples’ code, you’ll be able to -recognize these concepts and syntax. Use this chapter as a reference to guide -you to solutions. +Rust’s patterns are very useful in distinguishing between different kinds of +data. When used in `match` expressions, Rust ensures your patterns cover every +possible value, or your program won’t compile. Patterns in `let` statements and +function parameters make those constructs more useful, enabling the +destructuring of values into smaller parts at the same time as assigning to +variables. We can create simple or complex patterns to suit our needs. + +Next, for the penultimate chapter of the book, we’ll look at some advanced +aspects of a variety of Rust’s features. -Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice -and do one more project! diff --git a/nostarch/chapter20.md b/nostarch/chapter20.md index 5a0088d3e3..410e7eb62d 100644 --- a/nostarch/chapter20.md +++ b/nostarch/chapter20.md @@ -6,1910 +6,2291 @@ directory, so all fixes need to be made in `/src/`. [TOC] -# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server +# Advanced Features + +By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming +language. Before we do one more project, in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few +aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not +use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter +any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. +Although you might not reach for them often, we want to make sure you have a +grasp of all the features Rust has to offer. + +In this chapter, we’ll cover: + +* Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take +responsibility for manually upholding those guarantees +* Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified +syntax, supertraits, and the newtype pattern in relation to traits +* Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, +and dynamically sized types +* Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures +* Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time + +It’s a panoply of Rust features with something for everyone! Let’s dive in! + +## Unsafe Rust + +All the code we’ve discussed so far has had Rust’s memory safety guarantees +enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hidden inside it +that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called *unsafe Rust* +and works just like regular Rust, but gives us extra superpowers. + +Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When +the compiler tries to determine whether or not code upholds the guarantees, +it’s better for it to reject some valid programs than to accept some invalid +programs. Although the code *might* be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have +enough information to be confident, it will reject the code. In these cases, +you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “Trust me, I know what I’m +doing.” Be warned, however, that you use unsafe Rust at your own risk: if you +use unsafe code incorrectly, problems can occur due to memory unsafety, such as +null pointer dereferencing. + +Another reason Rust has an unsafe alter ego is that the underlying computer +hardware is inherently unsafe. If Rust didn’t let you do unsafe operations, you +couldn’t do certain tasks. Rust needs to allow you to do low-level systems +programming, such as directly interacting with the operating system or even +writing your own operating system. Working with low-level systems programming +is one of the goals of the language. Let’s explore what we can do with unsafe +Rust and how to do it. + +### Unsafe Superpowers + +To switch to unsafe Rust, use the `unsafe` keyword and then start a new block +that holds the unsafe code. You can take five actions in unsafe Rust that you +can’t in safe Rust, which we call *unsafe superpowers*. Those superpowers +include the ability to: + +1. Dereference a raw pointer +1. Call an unsafe function or method +1. Access or modify a mutable static variable +1. Implement an unsafe trait +1. Access fields of `union`s + +It’s important to understand that `unsafe` doesn’t turn off the borrow checker +or disable any of Rust’s other safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe +code, it will still be checked. The `unsafe` keyword only gives you access to +these five features that are then not checked by the compiler for memory +safety. You’ll still get some degree of safety inside an unsafe block. + +In addition, `unsafe` does not mean the code inside the block is necessarily +dangerous or that it will definitely have memory safety problems: the intent is +that as the programmer, you’ll ensure the code inside an `unsafe` block will +access memory in a valid way. + +People are fallible and mistakes will happen, but by requiring these five +unsafe operations to be inside blocks annotated with `unsafe`, you’ll know that +any errors related to memory safety must be within an `unsafe` block. Keep +`unsafe` blocks small; you’ll be thankful later when you investigate memory +bugs. + +To isolate unsafe code as much as possible, it’s best to enclose such code +within a safe abstraction and provide a safe API, which we’ll discuss later in +the chapter when we examine unsafe functions and methods. Parts of the standard +library are implemented as safe abstractions over unsafe code that has been +audited. Wrapping unsafe code in a safe abstraction prevents uses of `unsafe` +from leaking out into all the places that you or your users might want to use +the functionality implemented with `unsafe` code, because using a safe +abstraction is safe. + +Let’s look at each of the five unsafe superpowers in turn. We’ll also look at +some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code. + +### Dereferencing a Raw Pointer + +In “Dangling References” on page XX, we mentioned that the compiler ensures +references are always valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types called *raw +pointers* that are similar to references. As with references, raw pointers can +be immutable or mutable and are written as `*const T` and `*mut T`, +respectively. The asterisk isn’t the dereference operator; it’s part of the +type name. In the context of raw pointers, *immutable* means that the pointer +can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced. + +Different from references and smart pointers, raw pointers: + +* Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and +mutable pointers or multiple mutable pointers to the same location +* Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory +* Are allowed to be null +* Don’t implement any automatic cleanup -It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this -chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the -concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier -lessons. +By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up +guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to +interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. -For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like -Figure 20-1 in a web browser. +Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from +references. + +``` +let mut num = 5; -!hello from rust at *img/trpl20-01.png* +let r1 = &num as *const i32; +let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; +``` -Figure 20-1: Our final shared project +Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references -Here is the plan to build the web server: +Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create +raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an +unsafe block, as you’ll see in a bit. -1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. -2. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. -3. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. -4. Create a proper HTTP response. -5. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. +We’ve created raw pointers by using `as` to cast an immutable and a mutable +reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. Because we created them +directly from references guaranteed to be valid, we know these particular raw +pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw +pointer. -But before we get started, we should mention one detail: the method we’ll use -won’t be the best way to build a web server with Rust. A number of -production-ready crates are available on *https://crates.io/* that provide more -complete web server and thread pool implementations than we’ll build. +To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be +so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary +location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be +data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code +so there is no memory access, or the program might terminate with a +segmentation fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, +but it is possible. -However, our intention in this chapter is to help you learn, not to take the -easy route. Because Rust is a systems programming language, we can choose the -level of abstraction we want to work with and can go to a lower level than is -possible or practical in other languages. We’ll write the basic HTTP server and -thread pool manually so you can learn the general ideas and techniques behind -the crates you might use in the future. +``` +let address = 0x012345usize; +let r = address as *const i32; +``` -## Building a Single-Threaded Web Server +Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address -We’ll start by getting a single-threaded web server working. Before we begin, -let’s look at a quick overview of the protocols involved in building web -servers. The details of these protocols are beyond the scope of this book, but -a brief overview will give you the information you need. +Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* +raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the +dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. -The two main protocols involved in web servers are the *Hypertext Transfer -Protocol* *(HTTP)* and the *Transmission Control Protocol* *(TCP)*. Both -protocols are *request-response* protocols, meaning a *client* initiates -requests and a *server* listens to the requests and provides a response to the -client. The contents of those requests and responses are defined by the -protocols. +``` +let mut num = 5; -TCP is the lower-level protocol that describes the details of how information -gets from one server to another but doesn’t specify what that information is. -HTTP builds on top of TCP by defining the contents of the requests and -responses. It’s technically possible to use HTTP with other protocols, but in -the vast majority of cases, HTTP sends its data over TCP. We’ll work with the -raw bytes of TCP and HTTP requests and responses. +let r1 = &num as *const i32; +let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; -### Listening to the TCP Connection +unsafe { + println!("r1 is: {}", *r1); + println!("r2 is: {}", *r2); +} +``` -Our web server needs to listen to a TCP connection, so that’s the first part -we’ll work on. The standard library offers a `std::net` module that lets us do -this. Let’s make a new project in the usual fashion: +Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block -``` -$ cargo new hello - Created binary (application) `hello` project -$ cd hello -``` +Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that +it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. -Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will -listen at the address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it gets -an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. +Note also that in Listings 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut +i32` raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is +stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to +`num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t +allow a mutable reference at the same time as any immutable references. With +raw pointers, we can create a mutable pointer and an immutable pointer to the +same location and change data through the mutable pointer, potentially creating +a data race. Be careful! -Filename: src/main.rs +With all of these dangers, why would you ever use raw pointers? One major use +case is when interfacing with C code, as you’ll see in “Calling an Unsafe +Function or Method” on page XX. Another case is when building up safe +abstractions that the borrow checker doesn’t understand. We’ll introduce unsafe +functions and then look at an example of a safe abstraction that uses unsafe +code. -``` -use std::net::TcpListener; +### Calling an Unsafe Function or Method -fn main() { - [1] let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +The second type of operation you can perform in an unsafe block is calling +unsafe functions. Unsafe functions and methods look exactly like regular +functions and methods, but they have an extra `unsafe` before the rest of the +definition. The `unsafe` keyword in this context indicates the function has +requirements we need to uphold when we call this function, because Rust can’t +guarantee we’ve met these requirements. By calling an unsafe function within an +`unsafe` block, we’re saying that we’ve read this function’s documentation and +we take responsibility for upholding the function’s contracts. - [2] for stream in listener.incoming() { - [3] let stream = stream.unwrap(); +Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its +body: - [4] println!("Connection established!"); - } -} ``` +unsafe fn dangerous() {} -Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we -receive a stream - -Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address -`127.0.0.1:7878` [1]. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP -address representing your computer (this is the same on every computer and -doesn’t represent the authors’ computer specifically), and `7878` is the port. -We’ve chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this -port, and 7878 is *rust* typed on a telephone. - -The `bind` function in this scenario works like the `new` function in that it -will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The reason the function is called -`bind` is that in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as -“binding to a port.” - -The `bind` function returns a `Result<T, E>`, which indicates that binding -might fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires administrator -privileges (nonadministrators can listen only on ports higher than 1023), so if -we tried to connect to port 80 without being an administrator, binding wouldn’t -work. As another example, binding wouldn’t work if we ran two instances of our -program and so had two programs listening to the same port. Because we’re -writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we won’t worry about -handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to stop the program if -errors happen. - -The `incoming` method on `TcpListener` returns an iterator that gives us a -sequence of streams [2] (more specifically, streams of type `TcpStream`). A -single *stream* represents an open connection between the client and the -server. A *connection* is the name for the full request and response process in -which a client connects to the server, the server generates a response, and the -server closes the connection. As such, we will read from the `TcpStream` to see -what the client sent and then write our response to the stream to send data -back to the client. Overall, this `for` loop will process each connection in -turn and produce a series of streams for us to handle. - -For now, our handling of the stream consists of calling `unwrap` to terminate -our program if the stream has any errors [3]; if there aren’t any errors, the -program prints a message [4]. We’ll add more functionality for the success case -in the next listing. The reason we might receive errors from the `incoming` -method when a client connects to the server is that we’re not actually -iterating over connections. Instead, we’re iterating over *connection -attempts*. The connection might not be successful for a number of reasons, many -of them operating system specific. For example, many operating systems have a -limit to the number of simultaneous open connections they can support; new -connection attempts beyond that number will produce an error until some of the -open connections are closed. - -Let’s try running this code! Invoke `cargo run` in the terminal and then load -*127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser. The browser should show an error message -like “Connection reset,” because the server isn’t currently sending back any -data. But when you look at your terminal, you should see several messages that -were printed when the browser connected to the server! - -``` - Running `target/debug/hello` -Connection established! -Connection established! -Connection established! -``` - -Sometimes, you’ll see multiple messages printed for one browser request; the -reason might be that the browser is making a request for the page as well as a -request for other resources, like the *favicon.ico* icon that appears in the -browser tab. - -It could also be that the browser is trying to connect to the server multiple -times because the server isn’t responding with any data. When `stream` goes out -of scope and is dropped at the end of the loop, the connection is closed as -part of the `drop` implementation. Browsers sometimes deal with closed -connections by retrying, because the problem might be temporary. The important -factor is that we’ve successfully gotten a handle to a TCP connection! - -Remember to stop the program by pressing <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c -when you’re done running a particular version of the code. Then restart the -program by invoking the `cargo run` command after you’ve made each set of code -changes to make sure you’re running the newest code. - -### Reading the Request - -Let’s implement the functionality to read the request from the browser! To -separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action -with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In -this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and -print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to -look like Listing 20-2. +unsafe { + dangerous(); +} +``` -Filename: src/main.rs +We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we +try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: ``` -[1] use std::{ - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, -}; +error[E0133]: call to unsafe function is unsafe and requires +unsafe function or block + --> src/main.rs:4:5 + | +4 | dangerous(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^ call to unsafe function + | + = note: consult the function's documentation for information on +how to avoid undefined behavior +``` -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s +documentation, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that +we’re fulfilling the contract of the function. - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively `unsafe` blocks, so to perform other +unsafe operations within an unsafe function, we don’t need to add another +`unsafe` block. - [2] handle_connection(stream); - } -} +#### Creating a Safe Abstraction over Unsafe Code -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - [3] let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - [4] let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - [5] .lines() - [6] .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - [7] .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); - - [8] println!("Request: {:#?}", http_request); -} -``` - -Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data - -We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access -to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream [1]. In the -`for` loop in the `main` function, instead of printing a message that says we -made a connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass -the `stream` to it [2]. +Just because a function contains unsafe code doesn’t mean we need to mark the +entire function as unsafe. In fact, wrapping unsafe code in a safe function is +a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function +from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how +we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes +one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an +argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. -In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that -wraps a mutable reference to the `stream` [3]. `BufReader` adds buffering by -managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. +``` +let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]; + +let r = &mut v[..]; -We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request -the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these -lines in a vector by adding the `Vec<_>` type annotation [4]. +let (a, b) = r.split_at_mut(3); -`BufReader` implements the `std::io::BufRead` trait, which provides the `lines` -method [5]. The `lines` method returns an iterator of `Result<String, -std::io::Error>` by splitting the stream of data whenever it sees a newline -byte. To get each `String`, we map and `unwrap` each `Result` [6]. The `Result` -might be an error if the data isn’t valid UTF-8 or if there was a problem -reading from the stream. Again, a production program should handle these errors -more gracefully, but we’re choosing to stop the program in the error case for -simplicity. +assert_eq!(a, &mut [1, 2, 3]); +assert_eq!(b, &mut [4, 5, 6]); +``` -The browser signals the end of an HTTP request by sending two newline -characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines while -they’re not the empty string [7]. Once we’ve collected the lines into the -vector, we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting [8] so we can -take a look at the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. +Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` function -Let’s try this code! Start the program and make a request in a web browser -again. Note that we’ll still get an error page in the browser, but our -program’s output in the terminal will now look similar to this: +We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look +something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll +implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices +of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. ``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Request: [ - "GET / HTTP/1.1", - "Host: 127.0.0.1:7878", - "User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10.15; rv:99.0) Gecko/20100101 Firefox/99.0", - "Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/*;q=0.8", - "Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5", - "Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate, br", - "DNT: 1", - "Connection: keep-alive", - "Upgrade-Insecure-Requests: 1", - "Sec-Fetch-Dest: document", - "Sec-Fetch-Mode: navigate", - "Sec-Fetch-Site: none", - "Sec-Fetch-User: ?1", - "Cache-Control: max-age=0", -] +fn split_at_mut( + values: &mut [i32], + mid: usize, +) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { + let len = values.len(); + + assert!(mid <= len); + + (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) +} ``` -Depending on your browser, you might get slightly different output. Now that -we’re printing the request data, we can see why we get multiple connections -from one browser request by looking at the path after `GET` in the first line -of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting */*, we know the -browser is trying to fetch */* repeatedly because it’s not getting a response -from our program. +Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust -Let’s break down this request data to understand what the browser is asking of -our program. +This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that +the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s +less than or equal to the length. The assertion means that if we pass an index +that is greater than the length to split the slice at, the function will panic +before it attempts to use that index. -### A Closer Look at an HTTP Request +Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the +original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the +slice. -HTTP is a text-based protocol, and a request takes this format: +When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error: ``` -Method Request-URI HTTP-Version CRLF -headers CRLF -message-body +error[E0499]: cannot borrow `*values` as mutable more than once at a time + --> src/main.rs:9:31 + | +2 | values: &mut [i32], + | - let's call the lifetime of this reference `'1` +... +9 | (&mut values[..mid], &mut values[mid..]) + | --------------------------^^^^^^-------- + | | | | + | | | second mutable borrow occurs here + | | first mutable borrow occurs here + | returning this value requires that `*values` is borrowed for `'1` ``` -The first line is the *request line* that holds information about what the -client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the *method* -being used, such as `GET` or `POST`, which describes how the client is making -this request. Our client used a `GET` request. +Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of +the slice; it only knows that we’re borrowing from the same slice twice. +Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two +slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we +know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. -The next part of the request line is */*, which indicates the *Uniform Resource -Identifier* *(URI)* the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, -the same as a *Uniform Resource Locator* *(URL)*. The difference between URIs -and URLs isn’t important for our purposes in this chapter, but the HTTP spec -uses the term URI, so we can just mentally substitute URL for URI here. +Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls +to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. -The last part is the HTTP version the client uses, and then the request line -ends in a *CRLF sequence*. (CRLF stands for *carriage return* and *line feed*, -which are terms from the typewriter days!) The CRLF sequence can also be -written as `\r\n`, where `\r` is a carriage return and `\n` is a line feed. The -CRLF sequence separates the request line from the rest of the request data. -Note that when the CRLF is printed, we see a new line start rather than `\r\n`. +``` +use std::slice; -Looking at the request line data we received from running our program so far, -we see that `GET` is the method, */* is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the -version. +fn split_at_mut( + values: &mut [i32], + mid: usize, +) -> (&mut [i32], &mut [i32]) { + 1 let len = values.len(); + 2 let ptr = values.as_mut_ptr(); -After the request line, the remaining lines starting from `Host:` onward are -headers. `GET` requests have no body. + 3 assert!(mid <= len); -Try making a request from a different browser or asking for a different -address, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/test*, to see how the request data changes. + 4 unsafe { + ( + 5 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr, mid), + 6 slice::from_raw_parts_mut(ptr.add(mid), len - mid), + ) + } +} +``` -Now that we know what the browser is asking for, let’s send back some data! +Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` +function + +Recall from “The Slice Type” on page XX that a slice is a pointer to some data +and the length of the slice. We use the `len` method to get the length of a +slice [1] and the `as_mut_ptr` method to access the raw pointer of a slice [2]. +In this case, because we have a mutable slice to `i32` values, `as_mut_ptr` +returns a raw pointer with the type `*mut i32`, which we’ve stored in the +variable `ptr`. + +We keep the assertion that the `mid` index is within the slice [3]. Then we get +to the unsafe code [4]: the `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` function takes a raw +pointer and a length, and it creates a slice. We use it to create a slice that +starts from `ptr` and is `mid` items long [5]. Then we call the `add` method on +`ptr` with `mid` as an argument to get a raw pointer that starts at `mid`, and +we create a slice using that pointer and the remaining number of items after +`mid` as the length [6]. + +The function `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` is unsafe because it takes a raw +pointer and must trust that this pointer is valid. The `add` method on raw +pointers is also unsafe because it must trust that the offset location is also +a valid pointer. Therefore, we had to put an `unsafe` block around our calls to +`slice::from_raw_parts_mut` and `add` so we could call them. By looking at the +code and by adding the assertion that `mid` must be less than or equal to +`len`, we can tell that all the raw pointers used within the `unsafe` block +will be valid pointers to data within the slice. This is an acceptable and +appropriate use of `unsafe`. + +Note that we don’t need to mark the resultant `split_at_mut` function as +`unsafe`, and we can call this function from safe Rust. We’ve created a safe +abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses +`unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the +data this function has access to. + +In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would +likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory +location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. + +``` +use std::slice; + +let address = 0x01234usize; +let r = address as *mut i32; + +let values: &[i32] = unsafe { + slice::from_raw_parts_mut(r, 10000) +}; +``` -### Writing a Response +Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location -We’re going to implement sending data in response to a client request. -Responses have the following format: +We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee +that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use +`values` as though it’s a valid slice results in undefined behavior. -``` -HTTP-Version Status-Code Reason-Phrase CRLF -headers CRLF -message-body -``` +#### Using extern Functions to Call External Code + +Sometimes your Rust code might need to interact with code written in another +language. For this, Rust has the keyword `extern` that facilitates the creation +and use of a *Foreign Function Interface* *(FFI)*, which is a way for a +programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) +programming language to call those functions. -The first line is a *status line* that contains the HTTP version used in the -response, a numeric status code that summarizes the result of the request, and -a reason phrase that provides a text description of the status code. After the -CRLF sequence are any headers, another CRLF sequence, and the body of the -response. +Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function +from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are +always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t +enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so +responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. -Here is an example response that uses HTTP version 1.1, has a status code of -200, an OK reason phrase, no headers, and no body: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n +extern "C" { + fn abs(input: i32) -> i32; +} + +fn main() { + unsafe { + println!( + "Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", + abs(-3) + ); + } +} ``` -The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny -successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a -successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the -`println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in -Listing 20-3. +Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another +language + +Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external +functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which +*application binary interface* *(ABI)* the external function uses: the ABI +defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The `"C"` ABI is the +most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. + +> ### Calling Rust Functions from Other Languages +> +> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages +to call Rust functions. Instead of creating a whole `extern` block, we add the +`extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword for +the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[no_mangle]` annotation to tell +the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. *Mangling* is when a +compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name that +contains more information for other parts of the compilation process to consume +but is less human readable. Every programming language compiler mangles names +slightly differently, so for a Rust function to be nameable by other languages, +we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. +> +> In the following example, we make the `call_from_c` function accessible from +C code, after it’s compiled to a shared library and linked from C: +> +> ``` +> #[no_mangle] +> pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { +> println!("Just called a Rust function from C!"); +> } +> ``` +> +> This usage of `extern` does not require `unsafe`. + +### Accessing or Modifying a Mutable Static Variable + +In this book, we’ve not yet talked about global variables, which Rust does +support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are +accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. + +In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an +example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - .lines() - .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); - - [1] let response = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n"; +static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; - [2] stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()[3]).unwrap(); +fn main() { + println!("value is: {HELLO_WORLD}"); } ``` -Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream +Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static variable -The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success -message’s data [1]. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the -string data to bytes [3]. The `write_all` method on `stream` takes a `&[u8]` -and sends those bytes directly down the connection [2]. Because the `write_all` -operation could fail, we use `unwrap` on any error result as before. Again, in -a real application you would add error handling here. +Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in “Constants” on +page XX. The names of static variables are in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` by +convention. Static variables can only store references with the `'static` +lifetime, which means the Rust compiler can figure out the lifetime and we +aren’t required to annotate it explicitly. Accessing an immutable static +variable is safe. -With these changes, let’s run our code and make a request. We’re no longer -printing any data to the terminal, so we won’t see any output other than the -output from Cargo. When you load *127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser, you should -get a blank page instead of an error. You’ve just hand-coded receiving an HTTP -request and sending a response! +A subtle difference between constants and immutable static variables is that +values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value +will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to +duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static +variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is +*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable +static variable named `COUNTER`. -### Returning Real HTML +Filename: src/main.rs -Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create -a new file, *hello.html*, in the root of your project directory, not in the -*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one -possibility. +``` +static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0; -Filename: hello.html +fn add_to_count(inc: u32) { + unsafe { + COUNTER += inc; + } +} -``` -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html lang="en"> - <head> - <meta charset="utf-8"> - <title>Hello! - - -

Hello!

-

Hi from Rust

- - -``` +fn main() { + add_to_count(3); -Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a response + unsafe { + println!("COUNTER: {COUNTER}"); + } +} +``` -This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this -from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as -shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, -and send it. +Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe. -Filename: src/main.rs +As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any +code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This +code compiles and prints `COUNTER: 3` as we would expect because it’s single +threaded. Having multiple threads access `COUNTER` would likely result in data +races. -``` -use std::{ - [1] fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, -}; -// --snip-- +With mutable data that is globally accessible, it’s difficult to ensure there +are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be +unsafe. Where possible, it’s preferable to use the concurrency techniques and +thread-safe smart pointers we discussed in Chapter 16 so the compiler checks +that data access from different threads is done safely. -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader - .lines() - .map(|result| result.unwrap()) - .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) - .collect(); +### Implementing an Unsafe Trait - let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; - let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at +least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We +declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` +and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in +Listing 19-11. - [2] let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); +``` +unsafe trait Foo { + // methods go here +} - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +unsafe impl Foo for i32 { + // method implementations go here } ``` -Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response +Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe trait -We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s -filesystem module into scope [1]. The code for reading the contents of a file -to a string should look familiar; we used it in Chapter 12 when we read the -contents of a file for our I/O project in Listing 12-4. +By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that +the compiler can’t verify. -Next, we use `format!` to add the file’s contents as the body of the success -response [2]. To ensure a valid HTTP response, we add the `Content-Length` -header which is set to the size of our response body, in this case the size of -`hello.html`. +As an example, recall the `Send` and `Sync` marker traits we discussed in +“Extensible Concurrency with the Send and Sync Traits” on page XX: the compiler +implements these traits automatically if our types are composed entirely of +`Send` and `Sync` types. If we implement a type that contains a type that is +not `Send` or `Sync`, such as raw pointers, and we want to mark that type as +`Send` or `Sync`, we must use `unsafe`. Rust can’t verify that our type upholds +the guarantees that it can be safely sent across threads or accessed from +multiple threads; therefore, we need to do those checks manually and indicate +as such with `unsafe`. -Run this code with `cargo run` and load *127.0.0.1:7878* in your browser; you -should see your HTML rendered! +### Accessing Fields of a Union -Currently, we’re ignoring the request data in `http_request` and just sending -back the contents of the HTML file unconditionally. That means if you try -requesting *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else* in your browser, you’ll still get -back this same HTML response. Our server is very limited and is not what most -web servers do. We want to customize our responses depending on the request and -only send back the HTML file for a well-formed request to */*. +The final action that works only with `unsafe` is accessing fields of a union. +A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is used in a +particular instance at one time. Unions are primarily used to interface with +unions in C code. Accessing union fields is unsafe because Rust can’t guarantee +the type of the data currently being stored in the union instance. You can +learn more about unions in the Rust Reference at +*https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/unions.html**.* -### Validating the Request and Selectively Responding +### When to Use Unsafe Code -Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the -client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is -requesting */* before returning the HTML file and return an error if the -browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, -as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request -received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and -`else` blocks to treat requests differently. +Using `unsafe` to use one of the five superpowers just discussed isn’t wrong or +even frowned upon, but it is trickier to get `unsafe` code correct because the +compiler can’t help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use +`unsafe` code, you can do so, and having the explicit `unsafe` annotation makes +it easier to track down the source of problems when they occur. -Filename: src/main.rs +## Advanced Traits -``` -// --snip-- +We first covered traits in “Traits: Defining Shared Behavior” on page XX, but +we didn’t discuss the more advanced details. Now that you know more about Rust, +we can get into the nitty-gritty. -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); - [1] let request_line = buf_reader.lines().next().unwrap().unwrap(); +### Associated Types - [2] if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { - let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; - let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +*Associated types* connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait +method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The +implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used instead of the +placeholder type for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a +trait that uses some types without needing to know exactly what those types are +until the trait is implemented. - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}" - ); +We’ve described most of the advanced features in this chapter as being rarely +needed. Associated types are somewhere in the middle: they’re used more rarely +than features explained in the rest of the book but more commonly than many of +the other features discussed in this chapter. - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); - [3] } else { - // some other request - } +One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the +standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in +for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is +iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing +19-12. + +``` +pub trait Iterator { + type Item; + + fn next(&mut self) -> Option; } ``` -Listing 20-6: Looking at the request line and handling requests to */* -differently from other requests +Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated +type `Item` + +The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that +it will return values of type `Option`. Implementors of the +`Iterator` trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` +method will return an `Option` containing a value of that concrete type. + +Associated types might seem like a similar concept to generics, in that the +latter allow us to define a function without specifying what types it can +handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an +implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies +the `Item` type is `u32`: + +Filename: src/lib.rs -We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather -than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the -first item from the iterator [1]. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` -and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles -the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` -added in Listing 20-2. +``` +impl Iterator for Counter { + type Item = u32; -Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET -request to the */* path [2]. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of -our HTML file. + fn next(&mut self) -> Option { + --snip-- +``` -If the `request_line` does *not* equal the GET request to the */* path, it -means we’ve received some other request. We’ll add code to the `else` block [3] -in a moment to respond to all other requests. +This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the +`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? -Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in -*hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as -*127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you -saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. +``` +pub trait Iterator { + fn next(&mut self) -> Option; +} +``` -Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response -with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was -not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser -indicating the response to the end user. +Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics + +The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must +annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement +`Iterator<``String``> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple +implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a +generic parameter, it can be implemented for a type multiple times, changing +the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the +`next` method on `Counter`, we would have to provide type annotations to +indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. + +With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t +implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the +definition that uses associated types, we can choose what the type of `Item` +will be only once because there can be only one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We +don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere we +call `next` on `Counter`. + +Associated types also become part of the trait’s contract: implementors of the +trait must provide a type to stand in for the associated type placeholder. +Associated types often have a name that describes how the type will be used, +and documenting the associated type in the API documentation is a good practice. + +### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading + +When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for +the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to +specify a concrete type if the default type works. You specify a default type +when declaring a generic type with the `<`PlaceholderType`=`ConcreteType`>` +syntax. + +A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with *operator +overloading*, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) +in particular situations. + +Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary +operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed +in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For +example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` +instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` +struct. Filename: src/main.rs ``` - // --snip-- - } else { - [1] let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND"; - [2] let contents = fs::read_to_string("404.html").unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +use std::ops::Add; - let response = format!( - "{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}" - ); +#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)] +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} + +impl Add for Point { + type Output = Point; - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); + fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point { + Point { + x: self.x + other.x, + y: self.y + other.y, + } } +} + +fn main() { + assert_eq!( + Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 }, + Point { x: 3, y: 3 } + ); +} ``` -Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything -other than */* was requested +Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for +`Point` instances -Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase -`NOT FOUND` [1]. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file -*404.html* [1]. You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* -for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want or use the example -HTML in Listing 20-8. +The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` +values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an +associated type named `Output` that determines the type returned from the `add` +method. -Filename: 404.html +The default generic type in this code is within the `Add` trait. Here is its +definition: ``` - - - - - Hello! - - -

Oops!

-

Sorry, I don't know what you're asking for.

- - -``` +trait Add { + type Output; -Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response + fn add(self, rhs: Rhs) -> Self::Output; +} +``` -With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should -return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like -*127.0.0.1:7878/foo*, should return the error HTML from *404.html*. +This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an +associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called *default +type parameters*. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right-hand +side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t +specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type +of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing +`Add` on. -### A Touch of Refactoring +When we implemented `Add` for `Point`, we used the default for `Rhs` because we +wanted to add two `Point` instances. Let’s look at an example of implementing +the `Add` trait where we want to customize the `Rhs` type rather than using the +default. -At the moment the `if` and `else` blocks have a lot of repetition: they’re both -reading files and writing the contents of the files to the stream. The only -differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more -concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines -that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; -we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file -and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resulting code after replacing -the large `if` and `else` blocks. +We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different +units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the +*newtype pattern*, which we describe in more detail in “Using the Newtype +Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types” on page XX. We want to +add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of +`Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` +with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. -Filename: src/main.rs +Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -// --snip-- - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - // --snip-- - - let (status_line, filename) = if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } else { - ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") - }; +use std::ops::Add; - let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); - let length = contents.len(); +struct Millimeters(u32); +struct Meters(u32); - let response = - format!("{status_line}\r\nContent-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n{contents}"); +impl Add for Millimeters { + type Output = Millimeters; - stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); + fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters { + Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000)) + } } ``` -Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code -that differs between the two cases +Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add +`Millimeters` and `Meters` -Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the -status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these -two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` -statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. +To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add` to set the +value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. -The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and -uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see -the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to -update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing -work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in -Listing 20-8. +You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways: -Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code -that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other -requests with a 404 response. +1. To extend a type without breaking existing code +1. To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need -Currently, our server runs in a single thread, meaning it can only serve one -request at a time. Let’s examine how that can be a problem by simulating some -slow requests. Then we’ll fix it so our server can handle multiple requests at -once. +The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: +usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to +customize beyond that. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait +definition means you don’t have to specify the extra parameter most of the +time. In other words, a bit of implementation boilerplate isn’t needed, making +it easier to use the trait. -## Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server +The first purpose is similar to the second but in reverse: if you want to add a +type parameter to an existing trait, you can give it a default to allow +extension of the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing +implementation code. -Right now, the server will process each request in turn, meaning it won’t -process a second connection until the first is finished processing. If the -server received more and more requests, this serial execution would be less and -less optimal. If the server receives a request that takes a long time to -process, subsequent requests will have to wait until the long request is -finished, even if the new requests can be processed quickly. We’ll need to fix -this, but first, we’ll look at the problem in action. +### Disambiguating Between Methods with the Same Name -### Simulating a Slow Request in the Current Server Implementation +Nothing in Rust prevents a trait from having a method with the same name as +another trait’s method, nor does Rust prevent you from implementing both traits +on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type with +the same name as methods from traits. -We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to -our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request -to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep -for 5 seconds before responding. +When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you +want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, +`Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement +both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented +on it. Each `fly` method does something different. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use std::{ - fs, - io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, - net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, - thread, - time::Duration, -}; -// --snip-- - -fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { - // --snip-- +trait Pilot { + fn fly(&self); +} - let (status_line, filename) = [1] match &request_line[..] { - [2] "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), - [3] "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { - thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); - ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") - } - [4] _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), - }; +trait Wizard { + fn fly(&self); +} - // --snip-- -} -``` - -Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by recognizing */sleep* and sleeping -for 5 seconds - -We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases [1]. We need to -explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern match against the -string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and -dereferencing like the equality method does. - -The first arm [2] is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second -arm [3] matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the -server will sleep for 5 seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. The -third arm [4] is the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. - -You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the -recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! - -Start the server using `cargo run`. Then open two browser windows: one for -*http://127.0.0.1:7878/* and the other for *http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep*. If -you enter the */* URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. -But if you enter */sleep* and then load */*, you’ll see that */* waits until -`sleep` has slept for its full 5 seconds before loading. - -There are multiple ways we could change how our web server works to avoid -having more requests back up behind a slow request; the one we’ll implement is -a thread pool. - -### Improving Throughput with a Thread Pool - -A *thread pool* is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to -handle a task. When the program receives a new task, it assigns one of the -threads in the pool to the task, and that thread will process the task. The -remaining threads in the pool are available to handle any other tasks that come -in while the first thread is processing. When the first thread is done -processing its task, it’s returned to the pool of idle threads, ready to handle -a new task. A thread pool allows you to process connections concurrently, -increasing the throughput of your server. - -We’ll limit the number of threads in the pool to a small number to protect us -from Denial of Service (DoS) attacks; if we had our program create a new thread -for each request as it came in, someone making 10 million requests to our -server could create havoc by using up all our server’s resources and grinding -the processing of requests to a halt. - -Rather than spawning unlimited threads, we’ll have a fixed number of threads -waiting in the pool. As requests come in, they’ll be sent to the pool for -processing. The pool will maintain a queue of incoming requests. Each of the -threads in the pool will pop off a request from this queue, handle the request, -and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process -`N` requests concurrently, where `N` is the number of threads. If each thread -is responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still back up -in the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests we can -handle before reaching that point. - -This technique is just one of many ways to improve the throughput of a web -server. Other options you might explore are the fork/join model and the -single-threaded async I/O model. If you’re interested in this topic, you can -read more about other solutions and try to implement them; with a low-level -language like Rust, all of these options are possible. - -Before we begin implementing a thread pool, let’s talk about what using the -pool should look like. When you’re trying to design code, writing the client -interface first can help guide your design. Write the API of the code so it’s -structured in the way you want to call it; then implement the functionality -within that structure rather than implementing the functionality and then -designing the public API. - -Similar to how we used test-driven development in the project in Chapter 12, -we’ll use compiler-driven development here. We’ll write the code that calls the -functions we want, and then we’ll look at errors from the compiler to determine -what we should change next to get the code to work. - -#### Code Structure If We Could Spawn a Thread for Each Request - -First, let’s explore how our code might look if it did create a new thread for -every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the -problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a -starting point. Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a -new thread to handle each stream within the `for` loop. +struct Human; -Filename: src/main.rs - -``` -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); +impl Pilot for Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("This is your captain speaking."); + } +} - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +impl Wizard for Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("Up!"); + } +} - thread::spawn(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); +impl Human { + fn fly(&self) { + println!("*waving arms furiously*"); } } ``` -Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each stream - -As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then -run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load -*/sleep* in your browser, then */* in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see -that the requests to */* don’t have to wait for */sleep* to finish. But as we -mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making -new threads without any limit. - -#### Creating a Similar Interface for a Finite Number of Threads +Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` method and are +implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` +directly. -We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so switching from -threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that uses -our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` -struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. +When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling +the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. Filename: src/main.rs ``` fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - [1] let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - - for stream in listener.incoming() { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); - - [2] pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } + let person = Human; + person.fly(); } ``` -Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface +Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human` -We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number -of threads, in this case four [1]. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has -a similar interface as `thread::spawn` in that it takes a closure the pool -should run for each stream [2]. We need to implement `pool.execute` so it takes -the closure and gives it to a thread in the pool to run. This code won’t yet -compile, but we’ll try so the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. +Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust +called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. -#### Building the `ThreadPool` Struct Using Compiler Driven Development +To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, +we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. +Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. -Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the -compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first -error we get: +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` - --> src/main.rs:10:16 - | -10 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - | ^^^^^^^^^^ use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` +fn main() { + let person = Human; + Pilot::fly(&person); + Wizard::fly(&person); + person.fly(); +} ``` -Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll -build one now. Our `ThreadPool` implementation will be independent of the kind -of work our web server is doing. So, let’s switch the `hello` crate from a -binary crate to a library crate to hold our `ThreadPool` implementation. After -we change to a library crate, we could also use the separate thread pool -library for any work we want to do using a thread pool, not just for serving -web requests. +Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call -Create a *src/lib.rs* that contains the following, which is the simplest -definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: +Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which +implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write +`Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used +in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to +disambiguate. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Running this code prints the following: ``` -pub struct ThreadPool; +This is your captain speaking. +Up! +*waving arms furiously* ``` -Then edit *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library -crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: +Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that +both implement one *trait*, Rust could figure out which implementation of a +trait to use based on the type of `self`. + +However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` +parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method +functions with the same function name, Rust doesn’t always know which type you +mean unless you use fully qualified syntax. For example, in Listing 19-19 we +create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs Spot. We +make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. The +`Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also provide an +associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. Filename: src/main.rs ``` -use hello::ThreadPool; +trait Animal { + fn baby_name() -> String; +} + +struct Dog; + +impl Dog { + fn baby_name() -> String { + String::from("Spot") + } +} + +impl Animal for Dog { + fn baby_name() -> String { + String::from("puppy") + } +} + +fn main() { + println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Dog::baby_name()); +} ``` -This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that -we need to address: +Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a type with an +associated function of the same name that also implements the trait + +We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated +function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait +`Animal`, which describes characteristics that all animals have. Baby dogs are +called puppies, and that is expressed in the implementation of the `Animal` +trait on `Dog` in the `baby_name` function associated with the `Animal` trait. + +In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated +function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0599]: no function or associated item named `new` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the current scope - --> src/bin/main.rs:11:28 - | -11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); - | ^^^ function or associated item not found in `ThreadPool` +A baby dog is called a Spot ``` -This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named -`new` for `ThreadPool`. We also know that `new` needs to have one parameter -that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. -Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those -characteristics: +This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that +is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints +`A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that +we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in +Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub struct ThreadPool; - -impl ThreadPool { - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - ThreadPool - } +fn main() { + println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); } ``` -We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter, because we know that a -negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this -4 as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the -`usize` type is for, as discussed in the “Integer Types” section of Chapter 3. +Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` +trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use -Let’s check the code again: +Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be +other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which +implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0599]: no method named `execute` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the current scope - --> src/bin/main.rs:16:14 +error[E0283]: type annotations needed + --> src/main.rs:20:43 | -16 | pool.execute(|| { - | ^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` -``` - -Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. -Recall from the “Creating a Similar Interface for a Finite Number of -Threads” section that we decided our thread pool should have an interface -similar to `thread::spawn`. In addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function -so it takes the closure it’s given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool -to run. - -We’ll define the `execute` method on `ThreadPool` to take a closure as a -parameter. Recall from the “Moving Captured Values Out of the Closure and the -`Fn` Traits” section in Chapter 13 that we can take -closures as parameters with three different traits: `Fn`, `FnMut`, and -`FnOnce`. We need to decide which kind of closure to use here. We know we’ll -end up doing something similar to the standard library `thread::spawn` -implementation, so we can look at what bounds the signature of `thread::spawn` -has on its parameter. The documentation shows us the following: - -``` -pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle - where - F: FnOnce() -> T, - F: Send + 'static, - T: Send + 'static, -``` - -The `F` type parameter is the one we’re concerned with here; the `T` type -parameter is related to the return value, and we’re not concerned with that. We -can see that `spawn` uses `FnOnce` as the trait bound on `F`. This is probably -what we want as well, because we’ll eventually pass the argument we get in -`execute` to `spawn`. We can be further confident that `FnOnce` is the trait we -want to use because the thread for running a request will only execute that -request’s closure one time, which matches the `Once` in `FnOnce`. - -The `F` type parameter also has the trait bound `Send` and the lifetime bound -`'static`, which are useful in our situation: we need `Send` to transfer the -closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how long -the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on -`ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: +20 | println!("A baby dog is called a {}", Animal::baby_name()); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot infer +type + | + = note: cannot satisfy `_: Animal` +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of +`Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other +type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to +use fully qualified syntax. + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -impl ThreadPool { - // --snip-- - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() [1] + Send + 'static, - { - } +fn main() { + println!( + "A baby dog is called a {}", + ::baby_name() + ); } ``` -We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` [1] because this `FnOnce` represents a -closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like -function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but -even if we have no parameters, we still need the parentheses. +Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the +`baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog` -Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does -nothing, but we’re trying only to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: +We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which +indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as +implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an +`Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s +A baby dog is called a puppy ``` -It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the -browser, you’ll see the errors in the browser that we saw at the beginning of -the chapter. Our library isn’t actually calling the closure passed to `execute` -yet! +In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: -> Note: A saying you might hear about languages with strict compilers, such as -> Haskell and Rust, is “if the code compiles, it works.” But this saying is not -> universally true. Our project compiles, but it does absolutely nothing! If we -> were building a real, complete project, this would be a good time to start -> writing unit tests to check that the code compiles *and* has the behavior we -> want. +``` +::function(receiver_if_method, next_arg, ...); +``` -#### Validating the Number of Threads in `new` +For associated functions that aren’t methods, there would not be a `receiver`: +there would only be the list of other arguments. You could use fully qualified +syntax everywhere that you call functions or methods. However, you’re allowed +to omit any part of this syntax that Rust can figure out from other information +in the program. You only need to use this more verbose syntax in cases where +there are multiple implementations that use the same name and Rust needs help +to identify which implementation you want to call. -We aren’t doing anything with the parameters to `new` and `execute`. Let’s -implement the bodies of these functions with the behavior we want. To start, -let’s think about `new`. Earlier we chose an unsigned type for the `size` -parameter, because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. -However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly -valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before -we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a -zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. +### Using Supertraits -Filename: src/lib.rs +Sometimes you might write a trait definition that depends on another trait: for +a type to implement the first trait, you want to require that type to also +implement the second trait. You would do this so that your trait definition can +make use of the associated items of the second trait. The trait your trait +definition is relying on is called a *supertrait* of your trait. + +For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an +`outline_print` method that will print a given value formatted so that it’s +framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements the +standard library trait `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we call +`outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it +should print the following: ``` -impl ThreadPool { - /// Create a new ThreadPool. - /// - /// The size is the number of threads in the pool. - /// - [1] /// # Panics - /// - /// The `new` function will panic if the size is zero. - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - [2] assert!(size > 0); +********** +* * +* (1, 3) * +* * +********** +``` - ThreadPool - } +In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the +`Display` trait’s functionality. Therefore, we need to specify that the +`OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and +provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the +trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is +similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an +implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. + +Filename: src/main.rs - // --snip-- +``` +use std::fmt; + +trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + fn outline_print(&self) { + let output = self.to_string(); + let len = output.len(); + println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); + println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); + println!("* {} *", output); + println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2)); + println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4)); + } } ``` -Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero +Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the +functionality from `Display` -We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. -Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that -calls out the situations in which our function can panic [1], as discussed in -Chapter 14. Try running `cargo doc --open` and clicking the `ThreadPool` struct -to see what the generated docs for `new` look like! +Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we +can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type +that implements `Display`. If we tried to use `to_string` without adding a +colon and specifying the `Display` trait after the trait name, we’d get an +error saying that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in +the current scope. -Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here [2], we could make -`new` return a `Result` like we did with `Config::new` in the I/O project in -Listing 12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to create a thread -pool without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If you’re feeling -ambitious, try to write a version of `new` with the following signature to -compare both versions: +Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that +doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: + +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -pub fn new(size: usize) -> Result { -``` +struct Point { + x: i32, + y: i32, +} -#### Creating Space to Store the Threads +impl OutlinePrint for Point {} +``` -Now that we have a way to know we have a valid number of threads to store in -the pool, we can create those threads and store them in the `ThreadPool` struct -before returning it. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another look at -the `thread::spawn` signature: +We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: ``` -pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle - where - F: FnOnce() -> T, - F: Send + 'static, - T: Send + 'static, +error[E0277]: `Point` doesn't implement `std::fmt::Display` + --> src/main.rs:20:6 + | +20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {} + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter + | + = help: the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for `Point` + = note: in format strings you may be able to use `{:?}` (or {:#?} for +pretty-print) instead +note: required by a bound in `OutlinePrint` + --> src/main.rs:3:21 + | +3 | trait OutlinePrint: fmt::Display { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `OutlinePrint` ``` -The `spawn` function returns a `JoinHandle`, where `T` is the type that the -closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our -case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection -and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. +To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that +`OutlinePrint` requires, like so: -The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. -We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of -`thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of -`size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and -returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. - -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -[1] use std::thread; +use std::fmt; -pub struct ThreadPool { - [2] threads: Vec>, +impl fmt::Display for Point { + fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { + write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y) + } } +``` -impl ThreadPool { - // --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +Then, implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile +successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display +it within an outline of asterisks. - [3] let mut threads = Vec::with_capacity(size); +### Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits - for _ in 0..size { - // create some threads and store them in the vector - } +In “Implementing a Trait on a Type” on page XX, we mentioned the orphan rule +that states we’re only allowed to implement a trait on a type if either the +trait or the type, or both, are local to our crate. It’s possible to get around +this restriction using the *newtype pattern*, which involves creating a new +type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in “Using Tuple Structs +Without Named Fields to Create Different Types” on page XX.) The tuple struct +will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type for which we want to +implement a trait. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can +implement the trait on the wrapper. *Newtype* is a term that originates from +the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty for +using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time. - ThreadPool { threads } +As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec`, which the +orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the +`Vec` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct +that holds an instance of `Vec`; then we can implement `Display` on +`Wrapper` and use the `Vec` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::fmt; + +struct Wrapper(Vec); + +impl fmt::Display for Wrapper { + fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { + write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", ")) } - // --snip-- +} + +fn main() { + let w = Wrapper(vec![ + String::from("hello"), + String::from("world"), + ]); + println!("w = {w}"); } ``` -Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads +Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec` to implement +`Display` -We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate [1], because we’re -using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in -`ThreadPool` [2]. +The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec` +because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec` is the item at index 0 in the +tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`. -Once a valid size is received, our `ThreadPool` creates a new vector that can -hold `size` items [3]. We haven’t used the `with_capacity` function in this -book yet, which performs the same task as `Vec::new` but with an important -difference: it preallocates space in the vector. Because we know we need to -store `size` elements in the vector, doing this allocation up front is slightly -more efficient than using `Vec::new`, which resizes itself as elements are -inserted. +The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it +doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement +all the methods of `Vec` directly on `Wrapper` such that the methods +delegate to `self.0`, which would allow us to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a +`Vec`. If we wanted the new type to have every method the inner type has, +implementing the `Deref` trait on the `Wrapper` to return the inner type would +be a solution (we discussed implementing the `Deref` trait in “Treating Smart +Pointers Like Regular References with Deref” on page XX). If we didn’t want the +`Wrapper` type to have all the methods of the inner type—for example, to +restrict the `Wrapper` type’s behavior—we would have to implement just the +methods we do want manually. -When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. +This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s +switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. -#### A `Worker` Struct Responsible for Sending Code from the `ThreadPool` to a Thread +## Advanced Types -We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of -threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard -library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and -`thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the -thread is created. However, in our case, we want to create the threads and have -them *wait* for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s -implementation of threads doesn’t include any way to do that; we have to -implement it manually. +The Rust type system has some features that we’ve so far mentioned but haven’t +yet discussed. We’ll start by discussing newtypes in general as we examine why +newtypes are useful as types. Then we’ll move on to type aliases, a feature +similar to newtypes but with slightly different semantics. We’ll also discuss +the `!` type and dynamically sized types. -We’ll implement this behavior by introducing a new data structure between the -`ThreadPool` and the threads that will manage this new behavior. We’ll call -this data structure `Worker`, which is a common term in pooling -implementations. Think of people working in the kitchen at a restaurant: the -workers wait until orders come in from customers, and then they’re responsible -for taking those orders and filling them. +### Using the Newtype Pattern for Type Safety and Abstraction -Instead of storing a vector of `JoinHandle<()>` instances in the thread pool, -we’ll store instances of the `Worker` struct. Each `Worker` will store a single -`JoinHandle<()>` instance. Then we’ll implement a method on `Worker` that will -take a closure of code to run and send it to the already running thread for -execution. We’ll also give each worker an `id` so we can distinguish between -the different workers in the pool when logging or debugging. +> Note: This section assumes you’ve read the earlier section “Using the Newtype +Pattern to Implement External Traits” on page XX. -Let’s make the following changes to what happens when we create a `ThreadPool`. -We’ll implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have -`Worker` set up in this way: +The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so +far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and +indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to +indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` +structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a +parameter of type `Millimeters`, we wouldn’t be able to compile a program that +accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a +plain `u32`. -1. Define a `Worker` struct that holds an `id` and a `JoinHandle<()>`. -2. Change `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `Worker` instances. -3. Define a `Worker::new` function that takes an `id` number and returns a - `Worker` instance that holds the `id` and a thread spawned with an empty - closure. -4. In `ThreadPool::new`, use the `for` loop counter to generate an `id`, create - a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the worker in the vector. +We can also use the newtype pattern to abstract away some implementation +details of a type: the new type can expose a public API that is different from +the API of the private inner type. -If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before -looking at the code in Listing 20-15. +Newtypes can also hide internal implementation. For example, we could provide a +`People` type to wrap a `HashMap` that stores a person’s ID +associated with their name. Code using `People` would only interact with the +public API we provide, such as a method to add a name string to the `People` +collection; that code wouldn’t need to know that we assign an `i32` ID to names +internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation +to hide implementation details, which we discussed in “Encapsulation That Hides +Implementation Details” on page XX. -Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. +### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases -Filename: src/lib.rs +Rust provides the ability to declare a *type alias* to give an existing type +another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create +the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: + +``` +type Kilometers = i32; +``` + +Now the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` +and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, +new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as +values of type `i32`: ``` -use std::thread; +type Kilometers = i32; -pub struct ThreadPool { - [1] workers: Vec, -} +let x: i32 = 5; +let y: Kilometers = 5; -impl ThreadPool { - // --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +println!("x + y = {}", x + y); +``` - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both +types and we can pass `Kilometers` values to functions that take `i32` +parameters. However, using this method, we don’t get the type-checking benefits +that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. In other words, if we +mix up `Kilometers` and `i32` values somewhere, the compiler will not give us +an error. - [2] for id in 0..size { - [3] workers.push(Worker::new(id)); - } +The main use case for type synonyms is to reduce repetition. For example, we +might have a lengthy type like this: - ThreadPool { workers } - } - // --snip-- -} +``` +Box +``` -[4] struct Worker { - id: usize, - thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, -} +Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all +over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of +code like that in Listing 19-24. + +``` +let f: Box = Box::new(|| { + println!("hi"); +}); -impl Worker { - [5] fn new(id: usize) -> Worker { - [6] let thread = thread::spawn(|| {}); +fn takes_long_type(f: Box) { + --snip-- +} - Worker { [7] id, [8] thread } - } +fn returns_long_type() -> Box { + --snip-- } ``` -Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of -holding threads directly +Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places -We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` -because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` -instances [1]. We use the counter in the `for` loop [2] as an argument to -`Worker::new`, and we store each new `Worker` in the vector named `workers` [3]. +A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In +Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and +can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. -External code (like our server in *src/main.rs*) doesn’t need to know the -implementation details regarding using a `Worker` struct within `ThreadPool`, -so we make the `Worker` struct [4] and its `new` function [5] private. The -`Worker::new` function uses the `id` we give it [7] and stores a -`JoinHandle<()>` instance [8] that is created by spawning a new thread using an -empty closure [6]. +``` +type Thunk = Box; -This code will compile and will store the number of `Worker` instances we -specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re *still* not processing -the closure that we get in `execute`. Let’s look at how to do that next. +let f: Thunk = Box::new(|| println!("hi")); -#### Sending Requests to Threads via Channels +fn takes_long_type(f: Thunk) { + --snip-- +} -Now we’ll tackle the problem that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do -absolutely nothing. Currently, we get the closure we want to execute in the -`execute` method. But we need to give `thread::spawn` a closure to run when we -create each `Worker` during the creation of the `ThreadPool`. +fn returns_long_type() -> Thunk { + --snip-- +} +``` -We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch code to run from a -queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. +Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition -In Chapter 16, you learned about *channels*—a simple way to communicate between -two threads—that would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to -function as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the -`ThreadPool` to the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. -Here is the plan: +This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a +type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code +to be evaluated at a later time, so it’s an appropriate name for a closure that +gets stored). -1. The `ThreadPool` will create a channel and hold on to the sender. -2. Each `Worker` will hold on to the receiver. -3. We’ll create a new `Job` struct that will hold the closures we want to send - down the channel. -4. The `execute` method will send the job it wants to execute through the - sender. -5. In its thread, the `Worker` will loop over its receiver and execute the - closures of any jobs it receives. +Type aliases are also commonly used with the `Result` type for reducing +repetition. Consider the `std::io` module in the standard library. I/O +operations often return a `Result` to handle situations when operations +fail to work. This library has a `std::io::Error` struct that represents all +possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning +`Result` where the `E` is `std::io::Error`, such as these functions in +the `Write` trait: -Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender -in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct -doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down -the channel. +``` +use std::fmt; +use std::io::Error; -Filename: src/lib.rs +pub trait Write { + fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result; + fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<(), Error>; + fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<(), Error>; + fn write_fmt( + &mut self, + fmt: fmt::Arguments, + ) -> Result<(), Error>; +} ``` -use std::{sync::mpsc, thread}; -pub struct ThreadPool { - workers: Vec, - sender: mpsc::Sender, -} +The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type +alias declaration: -struct Job; +``` +type Result = std::result::Result; +``` -impl ThreadPool { - // --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully +qualified alias `std::io::Result`; that is, a `Result` with the `E` +filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up +looking like this: - [1] let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +``` +pub trait Write { + fn write(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result; + fn flush(&mut self) -> Result<()>; - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + fn write_all(&mut self, buf: &[u8]) -> Result<()>; + fn write_fmt(&mut self, fmt: fmt::Arguments) -> Result<()>; +} +``` - for id in 0..size { - workers.push(Worker::new(id)); - } +The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives +us a consistent interface across all of `std::io`. Because it’s an alias, it’s +just another `Result`, which means we can use any methods that work on +`Result` with it, as well as special syntax like the `?` operator. - ThreadPool { workers, [2] sender } - } - // --snip-- +### The Never Type That Never Returns + +Rust has a special type named `!` that’s known in type theory lingo as the +*empty type* because it has no values. We prefer to call it the *never type* +because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never +return. Here is an example: + +``` +fn bar() -> ! { + --snip-- } ``` -Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that -transmits `Job` instances +This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return +never are called *diverging functions*. We can’t create values of the type `!`, +so `bar` can never possibly return. -In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel [1] and have the pool hold the -sender [2]. This will successfully compile. +But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from +Listing 2-5, part of the number-guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it +here in Listing 19-26. -Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each worker as the thread pool -creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread that the -workers spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter in the closure. The -code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. +``` +let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(num) => num, + Err(_) => continue, +}; +``` -Filename: src/lib.rs +Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue` + +At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In “The match Control +Flow Construct” on page XX, we discussed that `match` arms must all return the +same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: ``` -impl ThreadPool { - // --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +let guess = match guess.trim().parse() { + Ok(_) => 5, + Err(_) => "hello", +}; +``` - let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, +and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` +return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm +that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust +computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a +value of `u32` and the latter with a `!` value. Because `!` can never have a +value, Rust decides that the type of `guess` is `u32`. - for id in 0..size { - [1] workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); - } +The formal way of describing this behavior is that expressions of type `!` can +be coerced into any other type. We’re allowed to end this `match` arm with +`continue` because `continue` doesn’t return a value; instead, it moves control +back to the top of the loop, so in the `Err` case, we never assign a value to +`guess`. + +The never type is useful with the `panic!` macro as well. Recall the `unwrap` +function that we call on `Option` values to produce a value or panic with +this definition: - ThreadPool { workers, sender } +``` +impl Option { + pub fn unwrap(self) -> T { + match self { + Some(val) => val, + None => panic!( + "called `Option::unwrap()` on a `None` value" + ), + } } - // --snip-- } +``` -// --snip-- +In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust +sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result +of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` +doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be +returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(|| { - [2] receiver; - }); +One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: - Worker { id, thread } - } -} ``` +print!("forever "); -Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to the workers +loop { + print!("and ever "); +} +``` -We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into -`Worker::new` [1], and then we use it inside the closure [2]. +Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this +wouldn’t be true if we included a `break`, because the loop would terminate +when it got to the `break`. + +### Dynamically Sized Types and the Sized Trait + +Rust needs to know certain details about its types, such as how much space to +allocate for a value of a particular type. This leaves one corner of its type +system a little confusing at first: the concept of *dynamically sized types*. +Sometimes referred to as *DSTs* or *unsized types*, these types let us write +code using values whose size we can know only at runtime. + +Let’s dig into the details of a dynamically sized type called `str`, which +we’ve been using throughout the book. That’s right, not `&str`, but `str` on +its own, is a DST. We can’t know how long the string is until runtime, meaning +we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type +`str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: + +``` +let s1: str = "Hello there!"; +let s2: str = "How's it going?"; +``` + +Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular +type, and all values of a type must use the same amount of memory. If Rust +allowed us to write this code, these two `str` values would need to take up the +same amount of space. But they have different lengths: `s1` needs 12 bytes of +storage and `s2` needs 15. This is why it’s not possible to create a variable +holding a dynamically sized type. + +So what do we do? In this case, you already know the answer: we make the types +of `s1` and `s2` a `&str` rather than a `str`. Recall from “String Slices” on +page XX that the slice data structure just stores the starting position and the +length of the slice. So, although a `&T` is a single value that stores the +memory address of where the `T` is located, a `&str` is *two* values: the +address of the `str` and its length. As such, we can know the size of a `&str` +value at compile time: it’s twice the length of a `usize`. That is, we always +know the size of a `&str`, no matter how long the string it refers to is. In +general, this is the way in which dynamically sized types are used in Rust: +they have an extra bit of metadata that stores the size of the dynamic +information. The golden rule of dynamically sized types is that we must always +put values of dynamically sized types behind a pointer of some kind. + +We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box` or +`Rc`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically +sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by +using the name of the trait. In “Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of +Different Types” on page XX, we mentioned that to use traits as trait objects, +we must put them behind a pointer, such as `&dyn Trait` or `Box` +(`Rc` would work too). + +To work with DSTs, Rust provides the `Sized` trait to determine whether or not +a type’s size is known at compile time. This trait is automatically implemented +for everything whose size is known at compile time. In addition, Rust +implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a +generic function definition like this: + +``` +fn generic(t: T) { + --snip-- +} +``` -When we try to check this code, we get this error: +is actually treated as though we had written this: ``` -$ cargo check - Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` - --> src/lib.rs:27:42 - | -22 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); - | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type `std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait -... -27 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); - | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in previous iteration of loop +fn generic(t: T) { + --snip-- +} ``` -The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This -won’t work, as you’ll recall from Chapter 16: the channel implementation that -Rust provides is multiple *producer*, single *consumer*. This means we can’t -just clone the consuming end of the channel to fix this code. We also don’t -want to send a message multiple times to multiple consumers; we want one list -of messages with multiple workers such that each message gets processed once. +By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at +compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this +restriction: -Additionally, taking a job off the channel queue involves mutating the -`receiver`, so the threads need a safe way to share and modify `receiver`; -otherwise, we might get race conditions (as covered in Chapter 16). +``` +fn generic(t: &T) { + --snip-- +} +``` -Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share -ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we -need to use `Arc>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple workers own the -receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one worker gets a job from the -receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to make. +A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this +notation overrides the default that generic types must have a known size at +compile time. The `?Trait` syntax with this meaning is only available for +`Sized`, not any other traits. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Also note that we switched the type of the `t` parameter from `T` to `&T`. +Because the type might not be `Sized`, we need to use it behind some kind of +pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. -``` -use std::{ - sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex}, - thread, -}; -// --snip-- +Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! -impl ThreadPool { - // --snip-- - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - assert!(size > 0); +## Advanced Functions and Closures - let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); +This section explores some advanced features related to functions and closures, +including function pointers and returning closures. - [1] let receiver = Arc::new(Mutex::new(receiver)); +### Function Pointers - let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); +We’ve talked about how to pass closures to functions; you can also pass regular +functions to functions! This technique is useful when you want to pass a +function you’ve already defined rather than defining a new closure. Functions +coerce to the type `fn` (with a lowercase *f*), not to be confused with the +`Fn` closure trait. The `fn` type is called a *function pointer*. Passing +functions with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments +to other functions. - for id in 0..size { - workers.push(Worker::new(id, Arc::clone(&receiver)[2])); - } +The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to +that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function +`add_one` that adds 1 to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two +parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter +and returns an `i32`, and one `i32 value`. The `do_twice` function calls the +function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call +results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments +`add_one` and `5`. - ThreadPool { workers, sender } - } +Filename: src/main.rs - // --snip-- +``` +fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 { + x + 1 } -// --snip-- +fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) -> i32 { + f(arg) + f(arg) +} -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { - // --snip-- - } +fn main() { + let answer = do_twice(add_one, 5); + + println!("The answer is: {answer}"); } ``` -Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the workers using `Arc` and `Mutex` +Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument -In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex` [1]. For -each new worker, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the workers -can share ownership of the receiver [2]. +This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in +`do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an +`i32`. We can then call `f` in the body of `do_twice`. In `main`, we can pass +the function name `add_one` as the first argument to `do_twice`. -With these changes, the code compiles! We’re getting there! +Unlike closures, `fn` is a type rather than a trait, so we specify `fn` as the +parameter type directly rather than declaring a generic type parameter with one +of the `Fn` traits as a trait bound. -#### Implementing the `execute` Method +Function pointers implement all three of the closure traits (`Fn`, `FnMut`, and +`FnOnce`), meaning you can always pass a function pointer as an argument for a +function that expects a closure. It’s best to write functions using a generic +type and one of the closure traits so your functions can accept either +functions or closures. -Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also change -`Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of -closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in the “Creating Type Synonyms -with Type Aliases” -section of Chapter 19, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter. Look -at Listing 20-19. +That said, one example of where you would want to only accept `fn` and not +closures is when interfacing with external code that doesn’t have closures: C +functions can accept functions as arguments, but C doesn’t have closures. -Filename: src/lib.rs +As an example of where you could use either a closure defined inline or a named +function, let’s look at a use of the `map` method provided by the `Iterator` +trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a vector of +numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: + +``` +let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; +let list_of_strings: Vec = list_of_numbers + .iter() + .map(|i| i.to_string()) + .collect(); +``` + +Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, +like this: ``` -// --snip-- +let list_of_numbers = vec![1, 2, 3]; +let list_of_strings: Vec = list_of_numbers + .iter() + .map(ToString::to_string) + .collect(); +``` -type Job = Box; +Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about in +“Advanced Traits” on page XX because there are multiple functions available +named `to_string`. -impl ThreadPool { - // --snip-- +Here, we’re using the `to_string` function defined in the `ToString` trait, +which the standard library has implemented for any type that implements +`Display`. - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, - { - [1] let job = Box::new(f); +Recall from “Enum Values” on page XX that the name of each enum variant that we +define also becomes an initializer function. We can use these initializer +functions as function pointers that implement the closure traits, which means +we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods that take +closures, like so: - [2] self.sender.send(job).unwrap(); - } +``` +enum Status { + Value(u32), + Stop, } -// --snip-- +let list_of_statuses: Vec = (0u32..20) + .map(Status::Value) + .collect(); ``` -Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure -and then sending the job down the channel +Here, we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range +that `map` is called on by using the initializer function of `Status::Value`. +Some people prefer this style and some people prefer to use closures. They +compile to the same code, so use whichever style is clearer to you. -After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute` [1], -we send that job down the sending end of the channel [2]. We’re calling -`unwrap` on `send` for the case that sending fails. This might happen if, for -example, we stop all our threads from executing, meaning the receiving end has -stopped receiving new messages. At the moment, we can’t stop our threads from -executing: our threads continue executing as long as the pool exists. The -reason we use `unwrap` is that we know the failure case won’t happen, but the -compiler doesn’t know that. +### Returning Closures -But we’re not quite done yet! In the worker, our closure being passed to -`thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. -Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the -channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change -shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. +Closures are represented by traits, which means you can’t return closures +directly. In most cases where you might want to return a trait, you can instead +use the concrete type that implements the trait as the return value of the +function. However, you can’t do that with closures because they don’t have a +concrete type that is returnable; you’re not allowed to use the function +pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. -Filename: src/lib.rs +The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: ``` -// --snip-- +fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { + |x| x + 1 +} +``` -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { - let job = receiver.lock()[1].unwrap()[2].recv()[3].unwrap()[4]; +The compiler error is as follows: - println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); +``` +error[E0746]: return type cannot have an unboxed trait object + --> src/lib.rs:1:25 + | +1 | fn returns_closure() -> dyn Fn(i32) -> i32 { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ doesn't have a size known at +compile-time + | + = note: for information on `impl Trait`, see + +help: use `impl Fn(i32) -> i32` as the return type, as all return paths are of +type `[closure@src/lib.rs:2:5: 2:14]`, which implements `Fn(i32) -> i32` + | +1 | fn returns_closure() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 { + | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ +``` - job(); - }); +The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space +it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. +We can use a trait object: - Worker { id, thread } - } +``` +fn returns_closure() -> Box i32> { + Box::new(|x| x + 1) } ``` -Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the worker’s thread +This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to “Using +Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types” on page XX. -Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex [1], and then -we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors [2]. Acquiring a lock might fail if the -mutex is in a *poisoned* state, which can happen if some other thread panicked -while holding the lock rather than releasing the lock. In this situation, -calling `unwrap` to have this thread panic is the correct action to take. Feel -free to change this `unwrap` to an `expect` with an error message that is -meaningful to you. +Next, let’s look at macros! -If we get the lock on the mutex, we call `recv` to receive a `Job` from the -channel [3]. A final `unwrap` moves past any errors here as well [4], which -might occur if the thread holding the sender has shut down, similar to how the -`send` method returns `Err` if the receiver shuts down. +## Macros -The call to `recv` blocks, so if there is no job yet, the current thread will -wait until a job becomes available. The `Mutex` ensures that only one -`Worker` thread at a time is trying to request a job. +We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully +explored what a macro is and how it works. The term *macro* refers to a family +of features in Rust: *declarative* macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds +of *procedural* macros: -Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some -requests: +* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute +used on structs and enums +* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item +* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens +specified as their argument -``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -warning: field is never read: `workers` - --> src/lib.rs:7:5 - | -7 | workers: Vec, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - | - = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default +We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even +need macros when we already have functions. -warning: field is never read: `id` - --> src/lib.rs:48:5 - | -48 | id: usize, - | ^^^^^^^^^ +### The Difference Between Macros and Functions -warning: field is never read: `thread` - --> src/lib.rs:49:5 - | -49 | thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 got a job; executing. -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 got a job; executing. -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Worker 2 got a job; executing. -``` - -Success! We now have a thread pool that executes connections asynchronously. -There are never more than four threads created, so our system won’t get -overloaded if the server receives a lot of requests. If we make a request to -*/sleep*, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another -thread run them. - -> Note: if you open */sleep* in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they -> might load one at a time in 5 second intervals. Some web browsers execute -> multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This -> limitation is not caused by our web server. - -After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering -why we didn’t write the worker thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. +Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which +is known as *metaprogramming*. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` +attribute, which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve +also used the `println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these +macros *expand* to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and +maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have +some additional powers that functions don’t have. -``` -// --snip-- +A function signature must declare the number and type of parameters the +function has. Macros, on the other hand, can take a variable number of +parameters: we can call `println!("hello")` with one argument or +`println!("hello {}", name)` with two arguments. Also, macros are expanded +before the compiler interprets the meaning of the code, so a macro can, for +example, implement a trait on a given type. A function can’t, because it gets +called at runtime and a trait needs to be implemented at compile time. -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || { - while let Ok(job) = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { - println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); +The downside to implementing a macro instead of a function is that macro +definitions are more complex than function definitions because you’re writing +Rust code that writes Rust code. Due to this indirection, macro definitions are +generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function +definitions. - job(); - } - }); +Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must +define macros or bring them into scope *before* you call them in a file, as +opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere. + +### Declarative Macros with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming + +The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the *declarative macro*. These +are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,” +or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write +something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6, +`match` expressions are control structures that take an expression, compare the +resultant value of the expression to patterns, and then run the code associated +with the matching pattern. Macros also compare a value to patterns that are +associated with particular code: in this situation, the value is the literal +Rust source code passed to the macro; the patterns are compared with the +structure of that source code; and the code associated with each pattern, when +matched, replaces the code passed to the macro. This all happens during +compilation. + +To define a macro, you use the `macro_rules!` construct. Let’s explore how to +use `macro_rules!` by looking at how the `vec!` macro is defined. Chapter 8 +covered how we can use the `vec!` macro to create a new vector with particular +values. For example, the following macro creates a new vector containing three +integers: - Worker { id, thread } - } -} +``` +let v: Vec = vec![1, 2, 3]; ``` -Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let` +We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector +of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same +because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. -This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading -behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be -processed. The reason is somewhat subtle: the `Mutex` struct has no public -`unlock` method because the ownership of the lock is based on the lifetime of -the `MutexGuard` within the `LockResult>` that the `lock` -method returns. At compile time, the borrow checker can then enforce the rule -that a resource guarded by a `Mutex` cannot be accessed unless we hold the -lock. But this implementation can also result in the lock being held longer -than intended if we don’t think carefully about the lifetime of the -`MutexGuard`. +Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. -The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = -receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any -temporary values used in the expression on the right hand side of the equals -sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while -let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of -the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration -of the call to `job()`, meaning other workers cannot receive jobs. +Filename: src/lib.rs -## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup +``` +1 #[macro_export] +2 macro_rules! vec { + 3 ( $( $x:expr ),* ) => { + { + let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); + 4 $( + 5 temp_vec.push(6 $x); + )* + 7 temp_vec + } + }; +} +``` + +Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition + +> Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library +includes code to pre-allocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code +is an optimization that we don’t include here, to make the example simpler. + +The `#[macro_export]` annotation [1] indicates that this macro should be made +available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into +scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope. + +We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the +macro we’re defining *without* the exclamation mark [2]. The name, in this case +`vec`, is followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition. + +The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match` +expression. Here we have one arm with the pattern `( $( $x:expr ),* )`, +followed by `=>` and the block of code associated with this pattern [3]. If the +pattern matches, the associated block of code will be emitted. Given that this +is the only pattern in this macro, there is only one valid way to match; any +other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than +one arm. + +Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different from the pattern syntax +covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code +structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in +Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the Rust Reference +at *https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/macros-by-example.html*. + +First we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a +dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain +the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a +macro variable as opposed to a regular Rust variable. Next comes a set of +parentheses that captures values that match the pattern within the parentheses +for use in the replacement code. Within `$()` is `$x:expr`, which matches any +Rust expression and gives the expression the name `$x`. + +The comma following `$()` indicates that a literal comma separator character +could optionally appear after the code that matches the code in `$()`. The `*` +specifies that the pattern matches zero or more of whatever precedes the `*`. + +When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the `$x` pattern matches three +times with the three expressions `1`, `2`, and `3`. + +Now let’s look at the pattern in the body of the code associated with this arm: +`temp_vec.push()` [5] within `$()* at [4] and [7] is generated for each part +that matches `$()` in the pattern zero or more times depending on how many +times the pattern matches. The `$x` [6] is replaced with each expression +matched. When we call this macro with `vec![1, 2, 3];`, the code generated that +replaces this macro call will be the following: + +``` +{ + let mut temp_vec = Vec::new(); + temp_vec.push(1); + temp_vec.push(2); + temp_vec.push(3); + temp_vec +} +``` + +We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can +generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements. -The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the -use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, -`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us -we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant ctrl-c method to halt the main thread, all other -threads are stopped immediately as well, even if they’re in the middle of -serving a request. +To learn more about how to write macros, consult the online documentation or +other resources, such as “The Little Book of Rust Macros” at +*https://veykril.github.io/tlborm* started by Daniel Keep and continued by +Lukas Wirth. -Now we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the threads in -the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before closing. -Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop accepting new -requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify our server to -accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its thread pool. +### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes -### Implementing the `Drop` Trait on `ThreadPool` +The second form of macros is the procedural macro, which acts more like a +function (and is a type of procedure). *Procedural macros* accept some code as +an input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than +matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative +macros do. The three kinds of procedural macros are custom `derive`, +attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. -Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is -dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. -Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t -quite work yet. +When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate +with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope +to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a +procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific +macro variety. Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - [1] for worker in &mut self.workers { - [2] println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); +use proc_macro::TokenStream; - [3] worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - } - } +#[some_attribute] +pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { } ``` -Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope - -First, we loop through each of the thread pool `workers` [1]. We use `&mut` for -this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to -mutate `worker`. For each worker, we print a message saying that this -particular worker is shutting down [2], and then we call `join` on that -worker’s thread [3]. If the call to `join` fails, we use `unwrap` to make Rust -panic and go into an ungraceful shutdown. +Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural macro -Here is the error we get when we compile this code: +The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input +and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by +the `proc_macro` crate that is included with Rust and represents a sequence of +tokens. This is the core of the macro: the source code that the macro is +operating on makes up the input `TokenStream`, and the code the macro produces +is the output `TokenStream`. The function also has an attribute attached to it +that specifies which kind of procedural macro we’re creating. We can have +multiple kinds of procedural macros in the same crate. -``` -error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable reference - --> src/lib.rs:52:13 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ move occurs because `worker.thread` has type `JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait -``` +Let’s look at the different kinds of procedural macros. We’ll start with a +custom `derive` macro and then explain the small dissimilarities that make the +other forms different. -The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow -of each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this -issue, we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns -`thread` so `join` can consume the thread. We did this in Listing 17-15: if -`Worker` holds an `Option>` instead, we can call the -`take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the `Some` variant and -leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a `Worker` that is running -will have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we want to clean up a -`Worker`, we’ll replace `Some` with `None` so the `Worker` doesn’t have a -thread to run. +### How to Write a Custom derive Macro -So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: +Let’s create a crate named `hello_macro` that defines a trait named +`HelloMacro` with one associated function named `hello_macro`. Rather than +making our users implement the `HelloMacro` trait for each of their types, +we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with +`#[derive(HelloMacro)]` to get a default implementation of the `hello_macro` +function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is` +TypeName`!` where TypeName is the name of the type on which this trait has been +defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another programmer to +write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: src/main.rs ``` -struct Worker { - id: usize, - thread: Option>, +use hello_macro::HelloMacro; +use hello_macro_derive::HelloMacro; + +#[derive(HelloMacro)] +struct Pancakes; + +fn main() { + Pancakes::hello_macro(); } ``` -Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. -Checking this code, we get two errors: +Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using +our procedural macro -``` -error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current scope - --> src/lib.rs:52:27 - | -52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); - | ^^^^ method not found in `Option>` +This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The +first step is to make a new library crate, like this: -error[E0308]: mismatched types - --> src/lib.rs:72:22 - | -72 | Worker { id, thread } - | ^^^^^^ expected enum `Option`, found struct `JoinHandle` - | - = note: expected enum `Option>` - found struct `JoinHandle<_>` -help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` - | -72 | Worker { id, Some(thread) } - | +++++ + +``` +$ cargo new hello_macro --lib ``` -Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of -`Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a -new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: +Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: Filename: src/lib.rs ``` -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { - // --snip-- - - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } - } +pub trait HelloMacro { + fn hello_macro(); } ``` -The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we -intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. -The following changes will do so: - -Filename: src/lib.rs +We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement +the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: ``` -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - for worker in &mut self.workers { - println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); +use hello_macro::HelloMacro; - [1] if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - [2] thread.join().unwrap(); - } - } +struct Pancakes; + +impl HelloMacro for Pancakes { + fn hello_macro() { + println!("Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!"); } } + +fn main() { + Pancakes::hello_macro(); +} ``` -As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` -variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure -the `Some` and get the thread [1]; then we call `join` on the thread [2]. If a -worker’s thread is already `None`, we know that worker has already had its -thread cleaned up, so nothing happens in that case. +However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they +wanted to use with `hello_macro`; we want to spare them from having to do this +work. + +Additionally, we can’t yet provide the `hello_macro` function with default +implementation that will print the name of the type the trait is implemented +on: Rust doesn’t have reflection capabilities, so it can’t look up the type’s +name at runtime. We need a macro to generate code at compile time. -### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs +The next step is to define the procedural macro. At the time of this writing, +procedural macros need to be in their own crate. Eventually, this restriction +might be lifted. The convention for structuring crates and macro crates is as +follows: for a crate named foo, a custom `derive` procedural macro crate is +called foo`_derive`. Let’s start a new crate called `hello_macro_derive` inside +our `hello_macro` project: -With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. But -the bad news is this code doesn’t function the way we want it to yet. The key -is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` instances: at -the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads because they -`loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our `ThreadPool` with our -current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will block forever waiting -for the first thread to finish. +``` +$ cargo new hello_macro_derive --lib +``` -To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the the `ThreadPool` `drop` -implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. +Our two crates are tightly related, so we create the procedural macro crate +within the directory of our `hello_macro` crate. If we change the trait +definition in `hello_macro`, we’ll have to change the implementation of the +procedural macro in `hello_macro_derive` as well. The two crates will need to +be published separately, and programmers using these crates will need to add +both as dependencies and bring them both into scope. We could instead have the +`hello_macro` crate use `hello_macro_derive` as a dependency and re-export the +procedural macro code. However, the way we’ve structured the project makes it +possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the +`derive` functionality. -First, we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop -the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the -changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` -and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out -of `ThreadPool`: +We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate. +We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see +in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the +*Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: -Filename: src/lib.rs +Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml ``` -pub struct ThreadPool { - workers: Vec, - sender: Option>, -} -// --snip-- -impl ThreadPool { - pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { - // --snip-- +[lib] +proc-macro = true - ThreadPool { - workers, - sender: Some(sender), - } - } +[dependencies] +syn = "1.0" +quote = "1.0" +``` - pub fn execute(&self, f: F) - where - F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, - { - let job = Box::new(f); +To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into +your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code +won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. - self.sender.as_ref().unwrap().send(job).unwrap(); - } -} +Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs -impl Drop for ThreadPool { - fn drop(&mut self) { - [1] drop(self.sender.take()); +``` +use proc_macro::TokenStream; +use quote::quote; +use syn; - for worker in &mut self.workers { - println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); +#[proc_macro_derive(HelloMacro)] +pub fn hello_macro_derive(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { + // Construct a representation of Rust code as a syntax tree + // that we can manipulate + let ast = syn::parse(input).unwrap(); - if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { - thread.join().unwrap(); + // Build the trait implementation + impl_hello_macro(&ast) +} +``` + +Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to +process Rust code + +Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which +is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` +function, which is responsible for transforming the syntax tree: this makes +writing a procedural macro more convenient. The code in the outer function +(`hello_macro_derive` in this case) will be the same for almost every +procedural macro crate you see or create. The code you specify in the body of +the inner function (`impl_hello_macro` in this case) will be different +depending on your procedural macro’s purpose. + +We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, `syn` (available from +*https://crates.io/crates/syn*), and `quote` (available from +*https://crates.io/crates/quote*). The `proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so +we didn’t need to add that to the dependencies in *Cargo.toml*. The +`proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that allows us to read and manipulate +Rust code from our code. + +The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we +can perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back +into Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust +code we might want to handle: writing a full parser for Rust code is no simple +task. + +The `hello_macro_derive` function will be called when a user of our library +specifies `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` on a type. This is possible because we’ve +annotated the `hello_macro_derive` function here with `proc_macro_derive` and +specified the name `HelloMacro`, which matches our trait name; this is the +convention most procedural macros follow. + +The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a +`TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform +operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in +`syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the +parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` +struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string. + +``` +DeriveInput { + --snip-- + + ident: Ident { + ident: "Pancakes", + span: #0 bytes(95..103) + }, + data: Struct( + DataStruct { + struct_token: Struct, + fields: Unit, + semi_token: Some( + Semi + ) + } + ) +} +``` + +Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has +the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30 + +The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct +with the `ident` (*identifier*, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more +fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the `syn` +documentation for `DeriveInput` at +*https://docs.rs/syn/1.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html* for more information. + +Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build +the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output +for our `derive` macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is +added to the code that our crate users write, so when they compile their crate, +they’ll get the extra functionality that we provide in the modified +`TokenStream`. + +You might have noticed that we’re calling `unwrap` to cause the +`hello_macro_derive` function to panic if the call to the `syn::parse` function +fails here. It’s necessary for our procedural macro to panic on errors because +`proc_macro_derive` functions must return `TokenStream` rather than `Result` to +conform to the procedural macro API. We’ve simplified this example by using +`unwrap`; in production code, you should provide more specific error messages +about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. + +Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` +into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the +`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. + +Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs + +``` +fn impl_hello_macro(ast: &syn::DeriveInput) -> TokenStream { + let name = &ast.ident; + let gen = quote! { + impl HelloMacro for #name { + fn hello_macro() { + println!( + "Hello, Macro! My name is {}!", + stringify!(#name) + ); } } - } + }; + gen.into() } ``` -Listing 20-23: Explicitly drop `sender` before joining the worker threads +Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code -Dropping `sender` [1] closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will -be sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the workers do in the -infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the `Worker` -loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads will -finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. +We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the +annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when +we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the +`ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus +the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance +that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in +Listing 19-30. -Filename: src/lib.rs +The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The +compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` +macro’s execution, so we need to convert it to a `TokenStream`. We do this by +calling the `into` method, which consumes this intermediate representation and +returns a value of the required `TokenStream` type. + +The `quote!` macro also provides some very cool templating mechanics: we can +enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable +`name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work. +Check out the `quote` crate’s docs at *https://docs.rs/quote* for a thorough +introduction. + +We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro` +trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The +trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains +the functionality we want to provide: printing `Hello, Macro! My name is` and +then the name of the annotated type. + +The `stringify!` macro used here is built into Rust. It takes a Rust +expression, such as `1 + 2`, and at compile time turns the expression into a +string literal, such as `"1 + 2"`. This is different from `format!` or +`println!`, macros which evaluate the expression and then turn the result into +a `String`. There is a possibility that the `#name` input might be an +expression to print literally, so we use `stringify!`. Using `stringify!` also +saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. +At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` +and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing +19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in +your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add +`hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` +crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and +`hello_macro_derive` to *https://crates.io*, they would be regular +dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: + +``` +[dependencies] +hello_macro = { path = "../hello_macro" } +hello_macro_derive = { path = "../hello_macro/hello_macro_derive" } ``` -impl Worker { - fn new(id: usize, receiver: Arc>>) -> Worker { - let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { - match receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { - Ok(job) => { - println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); - job(); - } - Err(_) => { - println!("Worker {id} disconnected; shutting down."); - break; - } - } - }); +Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it +should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the +`HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the +`pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the +trait implementation. + +Next, let’s explore how the other kinds of procedural macros differ from custom +`derive` macros. + +### Attribute-like Macros + +Attribute-like macros are similar to custom `derive` macros, but instead of +generating code for the `derive` attribute, they allow you to create new +attributes. They’re also more flexible: `derive` only works for structs and +enums; attributes can be applied to other items as well, such as functions. +Here’s an example of using an attribute-like macro. Say you have an attribute +named `route` that annotates functions when using a web application framework: - Worker { - id, - thread: Some(thread), - } - } -} +``` +#[route(GET, "/")] +fn index() { ``` -Listing 20-24: Explicitly break out of the loop when `recv` returns an error +This `#[route]` attribute would be defined by the framework as a procedural +macro. The signature of the macro definition function would look like this: -To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests -before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. +``` +#[proc_macro_attribute] +pub fn route( + attr: TokenStream, + item: TokenStream +) -> TokenStream { +``` -Filename: src/main.rs +Here, we have two parameters of type `TokenStream`. The first is for the +contents of the attribute: the `GET, "/"` part. The second is the body of the +item the attribute is attached to: in this case, `fn index() {}` and the rest +of the function’s body. + +Other than that, attribute-like macros work the same way as custom `derive` +macros: you create a crate with the `proc-macro` crate type and implement a +function that generates the code you want! + +### Function-like Macros + +Function-like macros define macros that look like function calls. Similarly to +`macro_rules!` macros, they’re more flexible than functions; for example, they +can take an unknown number of arguments. However, `macro_rules!` macros can +only be defined using the match-like syntax we discussed in “Declarative Macros +with macro_rules! for General Metaprogramming” on page XX. Function-like macros +take a `TokenStream` parameter, and their definition manipulates that +`TokenStream` using Rust code as the other two types of procedural macros do. +An example of a function-like macro is an `sql!` macro that might be called +like so: ``` -fn main() { - let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); - let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); +let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1); +``` - for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { - let stream = stream.unwrap(); +This macro would parse the SQL statement inside it and check that it’s +syntactically correct, which is much more complex processing than a +`macro_rules!` macro can do. The `sql!` macro would be defined like this: - pool.execute(|| { - handle_connection(stream); - }); - } +``` +#[proc_macro] +pub fn sql(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { +``` - println!("Shutting down."); -} -``` - -Listing 20-25: Shut down the server after serving two requests by exiting the -loop - -You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two -requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is -in working order. - -The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration -to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the -end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. - -Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request -should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: - -``` -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Shutting down. -Shutting down worker 0 -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. -Shutting down worker 1 -Shutting down worker 2 -Shutting down worker 3 -``` - -You might see a different ordering of workers and messages printed. We can see -how this code works from the messages: workers 0 and 3 got the first two -requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second connection, -and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing before worker 3 -even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all the workers and -tells them to shut down. The workers each print a message when they disconnect, -and then the thread pool calls `join` to wait for each worker thread to finish. - -Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` -dropped the `sender`, and before any worker received an error, we tried to join -worker 0. Worker 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the main thread -blocked waiting for worker 0 to finish. In the meantime, worker 3 received a -job and then all threads received an error. When worker 0 finished, the main -thread waited for the rest of the workers to finish. At that point, they had -all exited their loops and stopped. - -Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses -a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful -shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. See -*https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021/* to download the full code for this chapter -for reference. - -We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are -some ideas: - -* Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. -* Add tests of the library’s functionality. -* Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. -* Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. -* Find a thread pool crate on *https://crates.io/* and implement a similar web - server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and robustness to the - thread pool we implemented. +This definition is similar to the custom `derive` macro’s signature: we receive +the tokens that are inside the parentheses and return the code we wanted to +generate. ## Summary -Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for -joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust -projects and help with other peoples’ projects. Keep in mind that there is a -welcoming community of other Rustaceans who would love to help you with any -challenges you encounter on your Rust journey. +Whew! Now you have some Rust features in your toolbox that you likely won’t use +often, but you’ll know they’re available in very particular circumstances. +We’ve introduced several complex topics so that when you encounter them in +error message suggestions or in other people’s code, you’ll be able to +recognize these concepts and syntax. Use this chapter as a reference to guide +you to solutions. + +Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice +and do one more project! + diff --git a/nostarch/chapter21.md b/nostarch/chapter21.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..9d4e22cd77 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/chapter21.md @@ -0,0 +1,1994 @@ + + +[TOC] + +# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server + +It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this +chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the +concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier +lessons. + +For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like +Figure 20-1 in a web browser. + +Figure 20-1: Our final shared project + +Here is our plan for building the web server: + +1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. +1. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. +1. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. +1. Create a proper HTTP response. +1. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. + +Before we get started, we should mention one detail: the method we’ll use won’t +be the best way to build a web server with Rust. Community members have +published a number of production-ready crates available at *https://crates.io* +that provide more complete web server and thread pool implementations than +we’ll build. However, our intention in this chapter is to help you learn, not +to take the easy route. Because Rust is a systems programming language, we can +choose the level of abstraction we want to work with and can go to a lower +level than is possible or practical in other languages. We’ll therefore write +the basic HTTP server and thread pool manually so you can learn the general +ideas and techniques behind the crates you might use in the future. + +## Building a Single-Threaded Web Server + +We’ll start by getting a single-threaded web server working. Before we begin, +let’s look at a quick overview of the protocols involved in building web +servers. The details of these protocols are beyond the scope of this book, but +a brief overview will give you the information you need. + +The two main protocols involved in web servers are *Hypertext Transfer +Protocol* *(HTTP)* and *Transmission Control Protocol* *(TCP)*. Both protocols +are *request-response* protocols, meaning a *client* initiates requests and a +*server* listens to the requests and provides a response to the client. The +contents of those requests and responses are defined by the protocols. + +TCP is the lower-level protocol that describes the details of how information +gets from one server to another but doesn’t specify what that information is. +HTTP builds on top of TCP by defining the contents of the requests and +responses. It’s technically possible to use HTTP with other protocols, but in +the vast majority of cases, HTTP sends its data over TCP. We’ll work with the +raw bytes of TCP and HTTP requests and responses. + +### Listening to the TCP Connection + +Our web server needs to listen to a TCP connection, so that’s the first part +we’ll work on. The standard library offers a `std::net` module that lets us do +this. Let’s make a new project in the usual fashion: + +``` +$ cargo new hello + Created binary (application) `hello` project +$ cd hello +``` + +Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will +listen at the local address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it +gets an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::net::TcpListener; + +fn main() { + 1 let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + 2 for stream in listener.incoming() { + 3 let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 4 println!("Connection established!"); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we +receive a stream + +Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address +`127.0.0.1:7878` [1]. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP +address representing your computer (this is the same on every computer and +doesn’t represent the authors’ computer specifically), and `7878` is the port. +We’ve chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this +port, so our server is unlikely to conflict with any other web server you might +have running on your machine, and 7878 is *rust* typed on a telephone. + +The `bind` function in this scenario works like the `new` function in that it +will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The function is called `bind` +because, in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as “binding +to a port.” + +The `bind` function returns a `Result`, which indicates that it’s +possible for binding to fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires +administrator privileges (non-administrators can listen only on ports higher +than 1023), so if we tried to connect to port 80 without being an +administrator, binding wouldn’t work. Binding also wouldn’t work, for example, +if we ran two instances of our program and so had two programs listening to the +same port. Because we’re writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we +won’t worry about handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to +stop the program if errors happen. + +The `incoming` method on `TcpListener` returns an iterator that gives us a +sequence of streams [2] (more specifically, streams of type `TcpStream`). A +single *stream* represents an open connection between the client and the +server. A *connection* is the name for the full request and response process in +which a client connects to the server, the server generates a response, and the +server closes the connection. As such, we will read from the `TcpStream` to see +what the client sent and then write our response to the stream to send data +back to the client. Overall, this `for` loop will process each connection in +turn and produce a series of streams for us to handle. + +For now, our handling of the stream consists of calling `unwrap` to terminate +our program if the stream has any errors [3]; if there aren’t any errors, the +program prints a message [4]. We’ll add more functionality for the success case +in the next listing. The reason we might receive errors from the `incoming` +method when a client connects to the server is that we’re not actually +iterating over connections. Instead, we’re iterating over *connection +attempts*. The connection might not be successful for a number of reasons, many +of them operating system specific. For example, many operating systems have a +limit to the number of simultaneous open connections they can support; new +connection attempts beyond that number will produce an error until some of the +open connections are closed. + +Let’s try running this code! Invoke `cargo run` in the terminal and then load +*127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser. The browser should show an error message +like “Connection reset” because the server isn’t currently sending back any +data. But when you look at your terminal, you should see several messages that +were printed when the browser connected to the server! + +``` + Running `target/debug/hello` +Connection established! +Connection established! +Connection established! +``` + +Sometimes you’ll see multiple messages printed for one browser request; the +reason might be that the browser is making a request for the page as well as a +request for other resources, like the *favicon.ico* icon that appears in the +browser tab. + +It could also be that the browser is trying to connect to the server multiple +times because the server isn’t responding with any data. When `stream` goes out +of scope and is dropped at the end of the loop, the connection is closed as +part of the `drop` implementation. Browsers sometimes deal with closed +connections by retrying, because the problem might be temporary. The important +factor is that we’ve successfully gotten a handle to a TCP connection! + +Remember to stop the program by pressing ctrl-C when you’re done running a +particular version of the code. Then restart the program by invoking the `cargo +run` command after you’ve made each set of code changes to make sure you’re +running the newest code. + +### Reading the Request + +Let’s implement the functionality to read the request from the browser! To +separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action +with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In +this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and +print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to +look like Listing 20-2. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +1 use std::{ + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, +}; + +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 2 handle_connection(stream); + } +} + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + 3 let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + 4 let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + 5 .lines() + 6 .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + 7 .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + 8 println!("Request: {:#?}", http_request); +} +``` + +Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data + +We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access +to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream [1]. In the +`for` loop in the `main` function, instead of printing a message that says we +made a connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass +the `stream` to it [2]. + +In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that +wraps a mutable reference to the `stream` [3]. `BufReader` adds buffering by +managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. + +We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request +the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these +lines in a vector by adding the `Vec<_>` type annotation [4]. + +`BufReader` implements the `std::io::BufRead` trait, which provides the `lines` +method [5]. The `lines` method returns an iterator of `Result` by splitting the stream of data whenever it sees a newline +byte. To get each `String`, we map and `unwrap` each `Result` [6]. The `Result` +might be an error if the data isn’t valid UTF-8 or if there was a problem +reading from the stream. Again, a production program should handle these errors +more gracefully, but we’re choosing to stop the program in the error case for +simplicity. + +The browser signals the end of an HTTP request by sending two newline +characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines until +we get a line that is the empty string [7]. Once we’ve collected the lines into +the vector, we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting [8] so we can +take a look at the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. + +Let’s try this code! Start the program and make a request in a web browser +again. Note that we’ll still get an error page in the browser, but our +program’s output in the terminal will now look similar to this: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.42s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Request: [ + "GET / HTTP/1.1", + "Host: 127.0.0.1:7878", + "User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10.15; rv:99.0) +Gecko/20100101 Firefox/99.0", + "Accept: +text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,*/* +;q=0.8", + "Accept-Language: en-US,en;q=0.5", + "Accept-Encoding: gzip, deflate, br", + "DNT: 1", + "Connection: keep-alive", + "Upgrade-Insecure-Requests: 1", + "Sec-Fetch-Dest: document", + "Sec-Fetch-Mode: navigate", + "Sec-Fetch-Site: none", + "Sec-Fetch-User: ?1", + "Cache-Control: max-age=0", +] +``` + +Depending on your browser, you might get slightly different output. Now that +we’re printing the request data, we can see why we get multiple connections +from one browser request by looking at the path after `GET` in the first line +of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting */*, we know the +browser is trying to fetch */* repeatedly because it’s not getting a response +from our program. + +Let’s break down this request data to understand what the browser is asking of +our program. + +### A Closer Look at an HTTP Request + +HTTP is a text-based protocol, and a request takes this format: + +``` +Method Request-URI HTTP-Version CRLF +headers CRLF +message-body +``` + +The first line is the *request line* that holds information about what the +client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the *method* +being used, such as `GET` or `POST`, which describes how the client is making +this request. Our client used a `GET` request, which means it is asking for +information. + +The next part of the request line is */*, which indicates the *uniform resource +identifier* *(URI)* the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, +the same as a *uniform resource locator* *(URL)*. The difference between URIs +and URLs isn’t important for our purposes in this chapter, but the HTTP spec +uses the term *URI*, so we can just mentally substitute *URL* for *URI* here. + +The last part is the HTTP version the client uses, and then the request line +ends in a CRLF sequence. (CRLF stands for *carriage return* and *line feed*, +which are terms from the typewriter days!) The CRLF sequence can also be +written as `\r\n`, where `\r` is a carriage return and `\n` is a line feed. The +*CRLF sequence* separates the request line from the rest of the request data. +Note that when the CRLF is printed, we see a new line start rather than `\r\n`. + +Looking at the request line data we received from running our program so far, +we see that `GET` is the method, */* is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the +version. + +After the request line, the remaining lines starting from `Host:` onward are +headers. `GET` requests have no body. + +Try making a request from a different browser or asking for a different +address, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/test*, to see how the request data changes. + +Now that we know what the browser is asking for, let’s send back some data! + +### Writing a Response + +We’re going to implement sending data in response to a client request. +Responses have the following format: + +``` +HTTP-Version Status-Code Reason-Phrase CRLF +headers CRLF +message-body +``` + +The first line is a *status line* that contains the HTTP version used in the +response, a numeric status code that summarizes the result of the request, and +a reason phrase that provides a text description of the status code. After the +CRLF sequence are any headers, another CRLF sequence, and the body of the +response. + +Here is an example response that uses HTTP version 1.1, and has a status code +of 200, an OK reason phrase, no headers, and no body: + +``` +HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n +``` + +The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny +successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a +successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the +`println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in +Listing 20-3. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + .lines() + .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + 1 let response = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n\r\n"; + + 2 stream.write_all(response.3 as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream + +The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success +message’s data [1]. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the +string data to bytes [3]. The `write_all` method on `stream` takes a `&[u8]` +and sends those bytes directly down the connection [2]. Because the `write_all` +operation could fail, we use `unwrap` on any error result as before. Again, in +a real application you would add error handling here. + +With these changes, let’s run our code and make a request. We’re no longer +printing any data to the terminal, so we won’t see any output other than the +output from Cargo. When you load *127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser, you should +get a blank page instead of an error. You’ve just handcoded receiving an HTTP +request and sending a response! + +### Returning Real HTML + +Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create +the new file *hello.html* in the root of your project directory, not in the +*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one +possibility. + +Filename: hello.html + +``` + + + + + Hello! + + +

Hello!

+

Hi from Rust

+ + +``` + +Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a response + +This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this +from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as +shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, +and send it. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::{ + 1 fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, +}; +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + let http_request: Vec<_> = buf_reader + .lines() + .map(|result| result.unwrap()) + .take_while(|line| !line.is_empty()) + .collect(); + + let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; + let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + 2 let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response + +We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s +filesystem module into scope [1]. The code for reading the contents of a file +to a string should look familiar; we used it when we read the contents of a +file for our I/O project in Listing 12-4. + +Next, we use `format!` to add the file’s contents as the body of the success +response [2]. To ensure a valid HTTP response, we add the `Content-Length` +header which is set to the size of our response body, in this case the size of +`hello.html`. + +Run this code with `cargo run` and load *127.0.0.1:7878* in your browser; you +should see your HTML rendered! + +Currently, we’re ignoring the request data in `http_request` and just sending +back the contents of the HTML file unconditionally. That means if you try +requesting *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else* in your browser, you’ll still get +back this same HTML response. At the moment, our server is very limited and +does not do what most web servers do. We want to customize our responses +depending on the request and only send back the HTML file for a well-formed +request to */*. + +### Validating the Request and Selectively Responding + +Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the +client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is +requesting */* before returning the HTML file, and return an error if the +browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, +as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request +received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and +`else` blocks to treat requests differently. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + let buf_reader = BufReader::new(&mut stream); + 1 let request_line = buf_reader + .lines() + .next() + .unwrap() + .unwrap(); + + 2 if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { + let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 200 OK"; + let contents = fs::read_to_string("hello.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); + 3 } else { + // some other request + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-6: Handling requests to */* differently from other requests + +We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather +than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the +first item from the iterator [1]. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` +and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles +the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` +added in Listing 20-2. + +Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET +request to the */* path [2]. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of +our HTML file. + +If the `request_line` does *not* equal the GET request to the */* path, it +means we’ve received some other request. We’ll add code to the `else` block [3] +in a moment to respond to all other requests. + +Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in +*hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as +*127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you +saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. + +Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response +with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was +not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser +indicating the response to the end user. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- +} else { + 1 let status_line = "HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND"; + 2 let contents = fs::read_to_string("404.html").unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything +other than */* was requested + +Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase +`NOT FOUND` [1]. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file +*404.html* [1]. You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* +for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want, or use the +example HTML in Listing 20-8. + +Filename: 404.html + +``` + + + + + Hello! + + +

Oops!

+

Sorry, I don't know what you're asking for.

+ + +``` + +Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response + +With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should +return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like +*127.0.0.1:7878/foo*, should return the error HTML from *404.html*. + +### A Touch of Refactoring + +At the moment, the `if` and `else` blocks have a lot of repetition: they’re +both reading files and writing the contents of the files to the stream. The +only differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more +concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines +that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; +we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file +and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resultant code after replacing +the large `if` and `else` blocks. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + --snip-- + + let (status_line, filename) = + if request_line == "GET / HTTP/1.1" { + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } else { + ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html") + }; + + let contents = fs::read_to_string(filename).unwrap(); + let length = contents.len(); + + let response = format!( + "{status_line}\r\n\ + Content-Length: {length}\r\n\r\n\ + {contents}" + ); + + stream.write_all(response.as_bytes()).unwrap(); +} +``` + +Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code +that differs between the two cases + +Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the +status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these +two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` +statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. + +The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and +uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see +the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to +update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing +work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in +Listing 20-8. + +Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code +that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other +requests with a 404 response. + +Currently, our server runs in a single thread, meaning it can only serve one +request at a time. Let’s examine how that can be a problem by simulating some +slow requests. Then we’ll fix it so our server can handle multiple requests at +once. + +## Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server + +Right now, the server will process each request in turn, meaning it won’t +process a second connection until the first is finished processing. If the +server received more and more requests, this serial execution would be less and +less optimal. If the server receives a request that takes a long time to +process, subsequent requests will have to wait until the long request is +finished, even if the new requests can be processed quickly. We’ll need to fix +this, but first we’ll look at the problem in action. + +### Simulating a Slow Request + +We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to +our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request +to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep +for five seconds before responding. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use std::{ + fs, + io::{prelude::*, BufReader}, + net::{TcpListener, TcpStream}, + thread, + time::Duration, +}; +--snip-- + +fn handle_connection(mut stream: TcpStream) { + --snip-- + + let (status_line, filename) = 1 match &request_line[..] { + 2 "GET / HTTP/1.1" => ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html"), + 3 "GET /sleep HTTP/1.1" => { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)); + ("HTTP/1.1 200 OK", "hello.html") + } + 4 _ => ("HTTP/1.1 404 NOT FOUND", "404.html"), + }; + + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by sleeping for five seconds + +We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases [1]. We need to +explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern-match against the +string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and +dereferencing, like the equality method does. + +The first arm [2] is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second +arm [3] matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the +server will sleep for five seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. +The third arm [4] is the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. + +You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the +recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! + +Start the server using `cargo run`. Then open two browser windows: one for +*http://127.0.0.1:7878* and the other for *http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep*. If you +enter the */* URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. But if +you enter */sleep* and then load */*, you’ll see that */* waits until `sleep` +has slept for its full five seconds before loading. + +There are multiple techniques we could use to avoid requests backing up behind +a slow request; the one we’ll implement is a thread pool. + +### Improving Throughput with a Thread Pool + +A *thread pool* is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to +handle a task. When the program receives a new task, it assigns one of the +threads in the pool to the task, and that thread will process the task. The +remaining threads in the pool are available to handle any other tasks that come +in while the first thread is processing. When the first thread is done +processing its task, it’s returned to the pool of idle threads, ready to handle +a new task. A thread pool allows you to process connections concurrently, +increasing the throughput of your server. + +We’ll limit the number of threads in the pool to a small number to protect us +from DoS attacks; if we had our program create a new thread for each request as +it came in, someone making 10 million requests to our server could create havoc +by using up all our server’s resources and grinding the processing of requests +to a halt. + +Rather than spawning unlimited threads, then, we’ll have a fixed number of +threads waiting in the pool. Requests that come in are sent to the pool for +processing. The pool will maintain a queue of incoming requests. Each of the +threads in the pool will pop off a request from this queue, handle the request, +and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process up +to N requests concurrently, where N is the number of threads. If each thread is +responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still back up in +the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests we can +handle before reaching that point. + +This technique is just one of many ways to improve the throughput of a web +server. Other options you might explore are the fork/join model, the +single-threaded async I/O model, and the multithreaded async I/O model. If +you’re interested in this topic, you can read more about other solutions and +try to implement them; with a low-level language like Rust, all of these +options are possible. + +Before we begin implementing a thread pool, let’s talk about what using the +pool should look like. When you’re trying to design code, writing the client +interface first can help guide your design. Write the API of the code so it’s +structured in the way you want to call it; then implement the functionality +within that structure rather than implementing the functionality and then +designing the public API. + +Similar to how we used test-driven development in the project in Chapter 12, +we’ll use compiler-driven development here. We’ll write the code that calls the +functions we want, and then we’ll look at errors from the compiler to determine +what we should change next to get the code to work. Before we do that, however, +we’ll explore the technique we’re not going to use as a starting point. + +#### Spawning a Thread for Each Request + +First, let’s explore how our code might look if it did create a new thread for +every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the +problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a +starting point to get a working multithreaded server first. Then we’ll add the +thread pool as an improvement, and contrasting the two solutions will be easier. + +Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread to +handle each stream within the `for` loop. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + thread::spawn(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each stream + +As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then +run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load +*/sleep* in your browser, then */* in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see +that the requests to */* don’t have to wait for */sleep* to finish. However, as +we mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making +new threads without any limit. + +#### Creating a Finite Number of Threads + +We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so that switching +from threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that +uses our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` +struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + 1 let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming() { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + 2 pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface + +We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number +of threads, in this case four [1]. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has +a similar interface as `thread::spawn` in that it takes a closure the pool +should run for each stream [2]. We need to implement `pool.execute` so it takes +the closure and gives it to a thread in the pool to run. This code won’t yet +compile, but we’ll try so that the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. + +#### Building ThreadPool Using Compiler-Driven Development + +Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the +compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first +error we get: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0433]: failed to resolve: use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` + --> src/main.rs:11:16 + | +11 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + | ^^^^^^^^^^ use of undeclared type `ThreadPool` +``` + +Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll +build one now. Our `ThreadPool` implementation will be independent of the kind +of work our web server is doing. So let’s switch the `hello` crate from a +binary crate to a library crate to hold our `ThreadPool` implementation. After +we change to a library crate, we could also use the separate thread pool +library for any work we want to do using a thread pool, not just for serving +web requests. + +Create a *src/lib.rs* file that contains the following, which is the simplest +definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool; +``` + +Then edit the *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library +crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +use hello::ThreadPool; +``` + +This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that +we need to address: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0599]: no function or associated item named `new` found for struct +`ThreadPool` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:12:28 + | +12 | let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + | ^^^ function or associated item not found in +`ThreadPool` +``` + +This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named +`new` for `ThreadPool`. We also know that `new` needs to have one parameter +that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. +Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those +characteristics: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool; + +impl ThreadPool { + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + ThreadPool + } +} +``` + +We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter because we know that a +negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this +`4` as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the +`usize` type is for, as discussed in “Integer Types” on page XX. + +Let’s check the code again: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0599]: no method named `execute` found for struct `ThreadPool` in the +current scope + --> src/main.rs:17:14 + | +17 | pool.execute(|| { + | ^^^^^^^ method not found in `ThreadPool` +``` + +Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. +Recall from “Creating a Finite Number of Threads” on page XX that we decided +our thread pool should have an interface similar to `thread::spawn`. In +addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function so it takes the closure it’s +given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool to run. + +We’ll define the `execute` method on `ThreadPool` to take a closure as a +parameter. Recall from “Moving Captured Values Out of Closures and the Fn +Traits” on page XX that we can take closures as parameters with three different +traits: `Fn`, `FnMut`, and `FnOnce`. We need to decide which kind of closure to +use here. We know we’ll end up doing something similar to the standard library +`thread::spawn` implementation, so we can look at what bounds the signature of +`thread::spawn` has on its parameter. The documentation shows us the following: + +``` +pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + where + F: FnOnce() -> T, + F: Send + 'static, + T: Send + 'static, +``` + +The `F` type parameter is the one we’re concerned with here; the `T` type +parameter is related to the return value, and we’re not concerned with that. We +can see that `spawn` uses `FnOnce` as the trait bound on `F`. This is probably +what we want as well, because we’ll eventually pass the argument we get in +`execute` to `spawn`. We can be further confident that `FnOnce` is the trait we +want to use because the thread for running a request will only execute that +request’s closure one time, which matches the `Once` in `FnOnce`. + +The `F` type parameter also has the trait bound `Send` and the lifetime bound +`'static`, which are useful in our situation: we need `Send` to transfer the +closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how long +the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on +`ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() 1 + Send + 'static, + { + } +} +``` + +We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` [1] because this `FnOnce` represents a +closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like +function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but +even if we have no parameters, we still need the parentheses. + +Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does +nothing, but we’re only trying to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s +``` + +It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the +browser, you’ll see the errors in the browser that we saw at the beginning of +the chapter. Our library isn’t actually calling the closure passed to `execute` +yet! + +> Note: A saying you might hear about languages with strict compilers, such as +Haskell and Rust, is “if the code compiles, it works.” But this saying is not +universally true. Our project compiles, but it does absolutely nothing! If we +were building a real, complete project, this would be a good time to start +writing unit tests to check that the code compiles *and* has the behavior we +want. + +#### Validating the Number of Threads in new + +We aren’t doing anything with the parameters to `new` and `execute`. Let’s +implement the bodies of these functions with the behavior we want. To start, +let’s think about `new`. Earlier we chose an unsigned type for the `size` +parameter because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. +However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly +valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before +we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a +zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + /// Create a new ThreadPool. + /// + /// The size is the number of threads in the pool. + /// + 1 /// # Panics + /// + /// The `new` function will panic if the size is zero. + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + 2 assert!(size > 0); + + ThreadPool + } + + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero + +We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. +Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that +calls out the situations in which our function can panic [1], as discussed in +Chapter 14. Try running `cargo doc --open` and clicking the `ThreadPool` struct +to see what the generated docs for `new` look like! + +Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here [2], we could change +`new` into `build` and return a `Result` like we did with `Config::build` in +the I/O project in Listing 12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to +create a thread pool without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If +you’re feeling ambitious, try to write a function named `build` with the +following signature to compare with the `new` function: + +``` +pub fn build( + size: usize +) -> Result { +``` + +#### Creating Space to Store the Threads + +Now that we have a way to know we have a valid number of threads to store in +the pool, we can create those threads and store them in the `ThreadPool` struct +before returning the struct. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another +look at the `thread::spawn` signature: + +``` +pub fn spawn(f: F) -> JoinHandle + where + F: FnOnce() -> T, + F: Send + 'static, + T: Send + 'static, +``` + +The `spawn` function returns a `JoinHandle`, where `T` is the type that the +closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our +case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection +and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. + +The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. +We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of +`thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of +`size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and +returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +1 use std::thread; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + 2 threads: Vec>, +} + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + 3 let mut threads = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for _ in 0..size { + // create some threads and store them in the vector + } + + ThreadPool { threads } + } + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads + +We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate [1] because we’re +using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in +`ThreadPool` [2]. + +Once a valid size is received, our `ThreadPool` creates a new vector that can +hold `size` items [3]. The `with_capacity` function performs the same task as +`Vec::new` but with an important difference: it pre-allocates space in the +vector. Because we know we need to store `size` elements in the vector, doing +this allocation up front is slightly more efficient than using `Vec::new`, +which resizes itself as elements are inserted. + +When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. + +#### Sending Code from the ThreadPool to a Thread + +We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of +threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard +library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and +`thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the +thread is created. However, in our case, we want to create the threads and have +them *wait* for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s +implementation of threads doesn’t include any way to do that; we have to +implement it manually. + +We’ll implement this behavior by introducing a new data structure between the +`ThreadPool` and the threads that will manage this new behavior. We’ll call +this data structure *Worker*, which is a common term in pooling +implementations. The `Worker` picks up code that needs to be run and runs the +code in its thread. + +Think of people working in the kitchen at a restaurant: the workers wait until +orders come in from customers, and then they’re responsible for taking those +orders and filling them. + +Instead of storing a vector of `JoinHandle<()>` instances in the thread pool, +we’ll store instances of the `Worker` struct. Each `Worker` will store a single +`JoinHandle<()>` instance. Then we’ll implement a method on `Worker` that will +take a closure of code to run and send it to the already running thread for +execution. We’ll also give each `Worker` an `id` so we can distinguish between +the different instances of `Worker` in the pool when logging or debugging. + +Here is the new process that will happen when we create a `ThreadPool`. We’ll +implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have `Worker` +set up in this way: + +1. Define a `Worker` struct that holds an `id` and a `JoinHandle<()>`. +1. Change `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `Worker` instances. +1. Define a `Worker::new` function that takes an `id` number and returns a +`Worker` instance that holds the `id` and a thread spawned with an empty +closure. +1. In `ThreadPool::new`, use the `for` loop counter to generate an `id`, create +a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the `Worker` in the vector. + +If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before +looking at the code in Listing 20-15. + +Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::thread; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + 1 workers: Vec, +} + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + 2 for id in 0..size { + 3 workers.push(Worker::new(id)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers } + } + --snip-- +} + +4 struct Worker { + id: usize, + thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, +} + +impl Worker { + 5 fn new(id: usize) -> Worker { + 6 let thread = thread::spawn(|| {}); + + Worker { 7 id, 8 thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of +holding threads directly + +We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` +because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` +instances [1]. We use the counter in the `for` loop [2] as an argument to +`Worker::new`, and we store each new `Worker` in the vector named `workers` [3]. + +External code (like our server in *src/main.rs*) doesn’t need to know the +implementation details regarding using a `Worker` struct within `ThreadPool`, +so we make the `Worker` struct [4] and its `new` function [5] private. The +`Worker::new` function uses the `id` we give it [7] and stores a +`JoinHandle<()>` instance [8] that is created by spawning a new thread using an +empty closure [6]. + +> Note: If the operating system can’t create a thread because there aren’t +enough system resources, `thread::spawn` will panic. That will cause our whole +server to panic, even though the creation of some threads might succeed. For +simplicity’s sake, this behavior is fine, but in a production thread pool +implementation, you’d likely want to use `std::thread::Builder` and its `spawn` +method that returns `Result` instead. + +This code will compile and will store the number of `Worker` instances we +specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re *still* not processing +the closure that we get in `execute`. Let’s look at how to do that next. + +#### Sending Requests to Threads via Channels + +The next problem we’ll tackle is that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do +absolutely nothing. Currently, we get the closure we want to execute in the +`execute` method. But we need to give `thread::spawn` a closure to run when we +create each `Worker` during the creation of the `ThreadPool`. + +We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch the code to run from +a queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. + +The channels we learned about in Chapter 16—a simple way to communicate between +two threads—would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to function +as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the `ThreadPool` to +the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. Here is the plan: + +1. The `ThreadPool` will create a channel and hold on to the sender. +1. Each `Worker` will hold on to the receiver. +1. We’ll create a new `Job` struct that will hold the closures we want to send +down the channel. +1. The `execute` method will send the job it wants to execute through the +sender. +1. In its thread, the `Worker` will loop over its receiver and execute the +closures of any jobs it receives. + +Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender +in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct +doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down +the channel. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::{sync::mpsc, thread}; + +pub struct ThreadPool { + workers: Vec, + sender: mpsc::Sender, +} + +struct Job; + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + 1 let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + workers.push(Worker::new(id)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, 2 sender } + } + --snip-- +} +``` + +Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that +transmits `Job` instances + +In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel [1] and have the pool hold the +sender [2]. This will successfully compile. + +Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each `Worker` as the thread +pool creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread +that the `Worker` instances spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter +in the closure. The code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + 1 workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, sender } + } + --snip-- +} + +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new(id: usize, receiver: mpsc::Receiver) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(|| { + 2 receiver; + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to each `Worker` + +We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into +`Worker::new` [1], and then we use it inside the closure [2]. + +When we try to check this code, we get this error: + +``` +$ cargo check + Checking hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +error[E0382]: use of moved value: `receiver` + --> src/lib.rs:26:42 + | +21 | let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + | -------- move occurs because `receiver` has type +`std::sync::mpsc::Receiver`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait +... +26 | workers.push(Worker::new(id, receiver)); + | ^^^^^^^^ value moved here, in +previous iteration of loop +``` + +The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This +won’t work, as you’ll recall from Chapter 16: the channel implementation that +Rust provides is multiple *producer*, single *consumer*. This means we can’t +just clone the consuming end of the channel to fix this code. We also don’t +want to send a message multiple times to multiple consumers; we want one list +of messages with multiple `Worker` instances such that each message gets +processed once. + +Additionally, taking a job off the channel queue involves mutating the +`receiver`, so the threads need a safe way to share and modify `receiver`; +otherwise, we might get race conditions (as covered in Chapter 16). + +Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share +ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we +need to use `Arc>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple `Worker` +instances own the receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one `Worker` gets +a job from the receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to +make. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +use std::{ + sync::{mpsc, Arc, Mutex}, + thread, +}; +--snip-- + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + assert!(size > 0); + + let (sender, receiver) = mpsc::channel(); + + 1 let receiver = Arc::new(Mutex::new(receiver)); + + let mut workers = Vec::with_capacity(size); + + for id in 0..size { + workers.push( + Worker::new(id, Arc::clone(& 2 receiver)) + ); + } + + ThreadPool { workers, sender } + } + + --snip-- +} + +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + --snip-- + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the `Worker` instances using `Arc` +and `Mutex` + +In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex` [1]. For +each new `Worker`, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the +`Worker` instances can share ownership of the receiver [2]. + +With these changes, the code compiles! We’re getting there! + +#### Implementing the execute Method + +Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also change +`Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of +closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in “Creating Type Synonyms with +Type Aliases” on page XX, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for +ease of use. Look at Listing 20-19. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +type Job = Box; + +impl ThreadPool { + --snip-- + + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, + { + 1 let job = Box::new(f); + + 2 self.sender.send(job).unwrap(); + } +} + +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure +and then sending the job down the channel + +After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute` [1], +we send that job down the sending end of the channel [2]. We’re calling +`unwrap` on `send` for the case that sending fails. This might happen if, for +example, we stop all our threads from executing, meaning the receiving end has +stopped receiving new messages. At the moment, we can’t stop our threads from +executing: our threads continue executing as long as the pool exists. The +reason we use `unwrap` is that we know the failure case won’t happen, but the +compiler doesn’t know that. + +But we’re not quite done yet! In the `Worker`, our closure being passed to +`thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. +Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the +channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change +shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { + let job = receiver + 1 .lock() + 2 .unwrap() + 3 .recv() + 4 .unwrap(); + + println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); + + job(); + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the `Worker` instance’s +thread + +Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex [1], and then +we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors [2]. Acquiring a lock might fail if the +mutex is in a *poisoned* state, which can happen if some other thread panicked +while holding the lock rather than releasing the lock. In this situation, +calling `unwrap` to have this thread panic is the correct action to take. Feel +free to change this `unwrap` to an `expect` with an error message that is +meaningful to you. + +If we get the lock on the mutex, we call `recv` to receive a `Job` from the +channel [3]. A final `unwrap` moves past any errors here as well [4], which +might occur if the thread holding the sender has shut down, similar to how the +`send` method returns `Err` if the receiver shuts down. + +The call to `recv` blocks, so if there is no job yet, the current thread will +wait until a job becomes available. The `Mutex` ensures that only one +`Worker` thread at a time is trying to request a job. + +Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some +requests: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) +warning: field is never read: `workers` + --> src/lib.rs:7:5 + | +7 | workers: Vec, + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | + = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default + +warning: field is never read: `id` + --> src/lib.rs:48:5 + | +48 | id: usize, + | ^^^^^^^^^ + +warning: field is never read: `thread` + --> src/lib.rs:49:5 + | +49 | thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 got a job; executing. +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 got a job; executing. +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Worker 2 got a job; executing. +``` + +Success! We now have a thread pool that executes connections asynchronously. +There are never more than four threads created, so our system won’t get +overloaded if the server receives a lot of requests. If we make a request to +*/sleep*, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another +thread run them. + +> Note: If you open */sleep* in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they +might load one at a time in five-second intervals. Some web browsers execute +multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This +limitation is not caused by our web server. + +After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering +why we didn’t write the `Worker` thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +--snip-- + +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || { + while let Ok(job) = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv() { + println!("Worker {id} got a job; executing."); + + job(); + } + }); + + Worker { id, thread } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let` + +This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading +behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be +processed. The reason is somewhat subtle: the `Mutex` struct has no public +`unlock` method because the ownership of the lock is based on the lifetime of +the `MutexGuard` within the `LockResult>` that the `lock` +method returns. At compile time, the borrow checker can then enforce the rule +that a resource guarded by a `Mutex` cannot be accessed unless we hold the +lock. However, this implementation can also result in the lock being held +longer than intended if we aren’t mindful of the lifetime of the +`MutexGuard`. + +The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = +receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any +temporary values used in the expression on the right-hand side of the equal +sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while +let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of +the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration +of the call to `job()`, meaning other `Worker` instances cannot receive jobs. + +## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup + +The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the +use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, +`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us +we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant ctrl-C method to +halt the main thread, all other threads are stopped immediately as well, even +if they’re in the middle of serving a request. + +Next, then, we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the +threads in the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before +closing. Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop +accepting new requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify +our server to accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its +thread pool. + +### Implementing the Drop Trait on ThreadPool + +Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is +dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. +Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t +quite work yet. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + 1 for worker in &mut self.workers { + 2 println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + 3 worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope + +First we loop through each of the thread pool `workers` [1]. We use `&mut` for +this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to +mutate `worker`. For each `worker`, we print a message saying that this +particular `Worker` instance is shutting down [2], and then we call `join` on +that `Worker` instance’s thread [3]. If the call to `join` fails, we use +`unwrap` to make Rust panic and go into an ungraceful shutdown. + +Here is the error we get when we compile this code: + +``` +error[E0507]: cannot move out of `worker.thread` which is behind a mutable +reference + --> src/lib.rs:52:13 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ------ `worker.thread` moved due to this +method call + | | + | move occurs because `worker.thread` has type +`JoinHandle<()>`, which does not implement the `Copy` trait + | +note: this function takes ownership of the receiver `self`, which moves +`worker.thread` +``` + +The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow +of each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this +issue, we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns +`thread` so `join` can consume the thread. We did this in Listing 17-15: if +`Worker` holds an `Option>` instead, we can call the +`take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the `Some` variant and +leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a `Worker` that is running +will have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we want to clean up a +`Worker`, we’ll replace `Some` with `None` so the `Worker` doesn’t have a +thread to run. + +So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +struct Worker { + id: usize, + thread: Option>, +} +``` + +Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. +Checking this code, we get two errors: + +``` +error[E0599]: no method named `join` found for enum `Option` in the current +scope + --> src/lib.rs:52:27 + | +52 | worker.thread.join().unwrap(); + | ^^^^ method not found in +`Option>` + +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/lib.rs:72:22 + | +72 | Worker { id, thread } + | ^^^^^^ expected enum `Option`, found struct +`JoinHandle` + | + = note: expected enum `Option>` + found struct `JoinHandle<_>` +help: try wrapping the expression in `Some` + | +72 | Worker { id, thread: Some(thread) } + | +++++++++++++ + +``` + +Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of +`Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a +new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + --snip-- + + Worker { + id, + thread: Some(thread), + } + } +} +``` + +The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we +intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. +The following changes will do so: + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + for worker in &mut self.workers { + println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + 1 if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { + 2 thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } + } +} +``` + +As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` +variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure +the `Some` and get the thread [1]; then we call `join` on the thread [2]. If a +`Worker` instance’s thread is already `None`, we know that `Worker` has already +had its thread cleaned up, so nothing happens in that case. + +### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs + +With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. +However, the bad news is that this code doesn’t function the way we want it to +yet. The key is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` +instances: at the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads, +because they `loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our +`ThreadPool` with our current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will +block forever, waiting for the first thread to finish. + +To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the `ThreadPool` `drop` +implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. + +First we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop +the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the +changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` +and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out +of `ThreadPool`. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +pub struct ThreadPool { + workers: Vec, + sender: Option>, +} +--snip-- +impl ThreadPool { + pub fn new(size: usize) -> ThreadPool { + --snip-- + + ThreadPool { + workers, + sender: Some(sender), + } + } + + pub fn execute(&self, f: F) + where + F: FnOnce() + Send + 'static, + { + let job = Box::new(f); + + self.sender + .as_ref() + .unwrap() + .send(job) + .unwrap(); + } +} + +impl Drop for ThreadPool { + fn drop(&mut self) { + 1 drop(self.sender.take()); + + for worker in &mut self.workers { + println!("Shutting down worker {}", worker.id); + + if let Some(thread) = worker.thread.take() { + thread.join().unwrap(); + } + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-23: Explicitly dropping `sender` before joining the `Worker` threads + +Dropping `sender` [1] closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will +be sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the `Worker` instances +do in the infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the +`Worker` loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads +will finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. + +Filename: src/lib.rs + +``` +impl Worker { + fn new( + id: usize, + receiver: Arc>>, + ) -> Worker { + let thread = thread::spawn(move || loop { + let message = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv(); + + match message { + Ok(job) => { + println!( + "Worker {id} got a job; executing." + ); + + job(); + } + Err(_) => { + println!( + "Worker {id} shutting down." + ); + break; + } + } + }); + + Worker { + id, + thread: Some(thread), + } + } +} +``` + +Listing 20-24: Explicitly breaking out of the loop when `recv` returns an error + +To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests +before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +``` +fn main() { + let listener = TcpListener::bind("127.0.0.1:7878").unwrap(); + let pool = ThreadPool::new(4); + + for stream in listener.incoming().take(2) { + let stream = stream.unwrap(); + + pool.execute(|| { + handle_connection(stream); + }); + } + + println!("Shutting down."); +} +``` + +Listing 20-25: Shutting down the server after serving two requests by exiting +the loop + +You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two +requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is +in working order. + +The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration +to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the +end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. + +Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request +should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: + +``` +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Shutting down. +Shutting down worker 0 +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. +Shutting down worker 1 +Shutting down worker 2 +Shutting down worker 3 +``` + +You might see a different ordering of `Worker` IDs and messages printed. We can +see how this code works from the messages: `Worker` instances 0 and 3 got the +first two requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second +connection, and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing +before `Worker` 3 even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all +the `Worker` instances and tells them to shut down. The `Worker` instances each +print a message when they disconnect, and then the thread pool calls `join` to +wait for each `Worker` thread to finish. + +Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` +dropped the `sender`, and before any `Worker` received an error, we tried to +join `Worker` 0. `Worker` 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the +main thread blocked, waiting for `Worker` 0 to finish. In the meantime, +`Worker` 3 received a job and then all threads received an error. When `Worker` +0 finished, the main thread waited for the rest of the `Worker` instances to +finish. At that point, they had all exited their loops and stopped. + +Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses +a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful +shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. See +*https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021* to download the full code for this chapter +for reference. + +We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are +some ideas: + +* Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. +* Add tests of the library’s functionality. +* Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. +* Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. +* Find a thread pool crate on *https://crates.io* and implement a similar web +server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and robustness to the +thread pool we implemented. + +## Summary + +Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for +joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust +projects and help with other people’s projects. 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Traditionally, this +realm of programming is seen as arcane, accessible only to a select few who +have devoted the necessary years learning to avoid its infamous pitfalls. And +even those who practice it do so with caution, lest their code be open to +exploits, crashes, or corruption. + +Rust breaks down these barriers by eliminating the old pitfalls and providing a +friendly, polished set of tools to help you along the way. Programmers who need +to “dip down” into lower-level control can do so with Rust, without taking on +the customary risk of crashes or security holes, and without having to learn +the fine points of a fickle toolchain. Better yet, the language is designed to +guide you naturally towards reliable code that is efficient in terms of speed +and memory usage. + +Programmers who are already working with low-level code can use Rust to raise +their ambitions. For example, introducing parallelism in Rust is a relatively +low-risk operation: the compiler will catch the classical mistakes for you. And +you can tackle more aggressive optimizations in your code with the confidence +that you won’t accidentally introduce crashes or vulnerabilities. + +But Rust isn’t limited to low-level systems programming. It’s expressive and +ergonomic enough to make CLI apps, web servers, and many other kinds of code +quite pleasant to write — you’ll find simple examples of both later in the +book. Working with Rust allows you to build skills that transfer from one +domain to another; you can learn Rust by writing a web app, then apply those +same skills to target your Raspberry Pi. + +This book fully embraces the potential of Rust to empower its users. It’s a +friendly and approachable text intended to help you level up not just your +knowledge of Rust, but also your reach and confidence as a programmer in +general. So dive in, get ready to learn—and welcome to the Rust community! + +— Nicholas Matsakis and Aaron Turon diff --git a/nostarch/frontmatter.md b/nostarch/frontmatter.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..001f964833 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/frontmatter.md @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ + +## About the Authors + +Carol Nichols is a member of the Rust Crates.io Team and a former member of the +Rust Core Team. She’s a co-founder of Integer 32, LLC, the world’s first +Rust-focused software consultancy. Nichols has also organized the Rust Belt +Rust Conference. + +Steve Klabnik was the lead for the Rust documentation team and was one of +Rust’s core developers. A frequent speaker and a prolific open source +contributor, he previously worked on projects such as Ruby and Ruby on Rails. + +## About the Technical Reviewer + +JT is a Rust core team member and the co-creator of the Rust error message +format, Rust Language Server (RLS), and Nushell. They first started using Rust +in 2011, and in 2016 joined Mozilla to work on Rust full time, helping to shape +its direction for widespread use. These days, they are a freelance Rust trainer +and advocate for safe systems programming. + +## Brief Contents + +## Contents in Detail + +## Foreword + +It wasn’t always so clear, but the Rust programming language is fundamentally +about *empowerment*: no matter what kind of code you are writing now, Rust +empowers you to reach further, to program with confidence in a wider variety of +domains than you did before. + +Take, for example, “systems-level” work that deals with low-level details of +memory management, data representation, and concurrency. Traditionally, this +realm of programming is seen as arcane, accessible to only a select few who +have devoted the necessary years learning it to avoid its infamous pitfalls. +And even those who practice it do so with caution, lest their code be open to +exploits, crashes, or corruption. + +Rust breaks down these barriers by eliminating the old pitfalls and providing a +friendly, polished set of tools to help you along the way. Programmers who need +to “dip down” into lower-level control can do so with Rust, without taking on +the customary risk of crashes or security holes and without having to learn the +fine points of a fickle toolchain. Better yet, the language is designed to +guide you naturally toward reliable code that is efficient in terms of speed +and memory usage. + +Programmers who are already working with low-level code can use Rust to raise +their ambitions. For example, introducing parallelism in Rust is a relatively +low-risk operation: the compiler will catch the classical mistakes for you. And +you can tackle more aggressive optimizations in your code with the confidence +that you won’t accidentally introduce crashes or vulnerabilities. + +But Rust isn’t limited to low-level systems programming. It’s expressive and +ergonomic enough to make CLI apps, web servers, and many other kinds of code +quite pleasant to write—you’ll find simple examples later in the book. Working +with Rust allows you to build skills that transfer from one domain to another; +you can learn Rust by writing a web app, then apply those same skills to target +your Raspberry Pi. + +This book fully embraces the potential of Rust to empower its users. It’s a +friendly and approachable text intended to help you level up not just your +knowledge of Rust, but also your reach and confidence as a programmer in +general. So dive in, get ready to learn—and welcome to the Rust community! + +Nicholas Matsakis and Aaron Turon + +## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS + +We would like to thank everyone who has worked on the Rust language for +creating an amazing language worth writing a book about. We’re grateful to +everyone in the Rust community for being welcoming and creating an environment +worth welcoming more folks into. + +We’re especially thankful for everyone who read early versions of this book +online and provided feedback, bug reports, and pull requests. Special thanks to +Eduard-Mihai Burtescu, Alex Crichton, and JT for providing technical review, +and to Karen Rustad Tölva for the cover art. Thank you to our team at No +Starch, including Bill Pollock, Liz Chadwick, and Janelle Ludowise, for +improving this book and bringing it to print. + +Carol is grateful for the opportunity to work on this book. She thanks her +family for their constant love and support, especially her husband, Jake +Goulding, and her daughter, Vivian. + +## Preface + +This version of the text assumes you’re using Rust 1.62.0 (released 2022-06-30) +or later with `edition="2021"` in the *Cargo.toml* file of all projects to +configure them to use Rust 2021 edition idioms. See “Installation” on page XX +for instructions on installing or updating Rust, and see Appendix E for +information on editions. + +The 2021 edition of the Rust language includes a number of improvements that +make Rust more ergonomic and that correct some inconsistencies. On top of a +general update to reflect these improvements, this rendition of the book has a +number of improvements to address specific feedback: + +* Chapter 7 contains a new quick reference section on organizing your code into +multiple files with modules. +* Chapter 13 has new and improved closure examples that more clearly illustrate +captures, the `move` keyword, and the `Fn` traits. +* We fixed a number of small errors and imprecise wording throughout the book. +Thank you to the readers who reported them! + +Note that any code from earlier renditions of this book that compiled will +continue to compile with the relevant edition in the project’s *Cargo.toml*, +even as you update the Rust compiler version you’re using. That’s Rust’s +backward-compatibility guarantees at work! + +## Introduction + +Welcome to *The Rust Programming Language*, an introductory book about Rust. +The Rust programming language helps you write faster, more reliable software. +High-level ergonomics and low-level control are often at odds in programming +language design; Rust challenges that conflict. Through balancing powerful +technical capacity and a great developer experience, Rust gives you the option +to control low-level details (such as memory usage) without all the hassle +traditionally associated with such control. + +## Who Rust Is For + +Rust is ideal for many people for a variety of reasons. Let’s look at a few of +the most important groups. + +### Teams of Developers + +Rust is proving to be a productive tool for collaborating among large teams of +developers with varying levels of systems programming knowledge. Low-level code +is prone to various subtle bugs, which in most other languages can only be +caught through extensive testing and careful code review by experienced +developers. In Rust, the compiler plays a gatekeeper role by refusing to +compile code with these elusive bugs, including concurrency bugs. By working +alongside the compiler, the team can spend their time focusing on the program’s +logic rather than chasing down bugs. + +Rust also brings contemporary developer tools to the systems programming world: + +* Cargo, the included dependency manager and build tool, makes adding, +compiling, and managing dependencies painless and consistent across the Rust +ecosystem. +* The `rustfmt` formatting tool ensures a consistent coding style across +developers. +* The Rust Language Server powers integrated development environment (IDE) +integration for code completion and inline error messages. + +By using these and other tools in the Rust ecosystem, developers can be +productive while writing systems-level code. + +### Students + +Rust is for students and those who are interested in learning about systems +concepts. Using Rust, many people have learned about topics like operating +systems development. The community is very welcoming and happy to answer +students’ questions. Through efforts such as this book, the Rust teams want to +make systems concepts more accessible to more people, especially those new to +programming. + +### Companies + +Hundreds of companies, large and small, use Rust in production for a variety of +tasks, including command line tools, web services, DevOps tooling, embedded +devices, audio and video analysis and transcoding, cryptocurrencies, +bioinformatics, search engines, Internet of Things applications, machine +learning, and even major parts of the Firefox web browser. + +### Open Source Developers + +Rust is for people who want to build the Rust programming language, community, +developer tools, and libraries. We’d love to have you contribute to the Rust +language. + +### People Who Value Speed and Stability + +Rust is for people who crave speed and stability in a language. By speed, we +mean both how quickly Rust code can run and the speed at which Rust lets you +write programs. The Rust compiler’s checks ensure stability through feature +additions and refactoring. This is in contrast to the brittle legacy code in +languages without these checks, which developers are often afraid to modify. By +striving for zero-cost abstractions, higher-level features that compile to +lower-level code as fast as code written manually, Rust endeavors to make safe +code be fast code as well. + +The Rust language hopes to support many other users as well; those mentioned +here are merely some of the biggest stakeholders. Overall, Rust’s greatest +ambition is to eliminate the trade-offs that programmers have accepted for +decades by providing safety *and* productivity, speed *and* ergonomics. Give +Rust a try and see if its choices work for you. + +## Who This Book Is For + +This book assumes that you’ve written code in another programming language, but +doesn’t make any assumptions about which one. We’ve tried to make the material +broadly accessible to those from a wide variety of programming backgrounds. We +don’t spend a lot of time talking about what programming *is* or how to think +about it. If you’re entirely new to programming, you would be better served by +reading a book that specifically provides an introduction to programming. + +## How to Use This Book + +In general, this book assumes that you’re reading it in sequence from front to +back. Later chapters build on concepts in earlier chapters, and earlier +chapters might not delve into details on a particular topic but will revisit +the topic in a later chapter. + +You’ll find two kinds of chapters in this book: concept chapters and project +chapters. In concept chapters, you’ll learn about an aspect of Rust. In project +chapters, we’ll build small programs together, applying what you’ve learned so +far. Chapter 2, Chapter 12, and Chapter 20 are project chapters; the rest are +concept chapters. + +**Chapter 1** explains how to install Rust, how to write a “Hello, world!” +program, and how to use Cargo, Rust’s package manager and build tool. **Chapter +2** is a hands-on introduction to writing a program in Rust, having you build +up a number-guessing game. Here, we cover concepts at a high level, and later +chapters will provide additional detail. If you want to get your hands dirty +right away, Chapter 2 is the place for that. **Chapter 3** covers Rust features +that are similar to those of other programming languages, and in **Chapter 4** +you’ll learn about Rust’s ownership system. If you’re a particularly meticulous +learner who prefers to learn every detail before moving on to the next, you +might want to skip Chapter 2 and go straight to Chapter 3, returning to Chapter +2 when you’d like to work on a project applying the details you’ve learned. + +**Chapter 5** discusses structs and methods, and **Chapter 6** covers enums, +`match` expressions, and the `if let` control flow construct. You’ll use +structs and enums to make custom types in Rust. + +In **Chapter 7**, you’ll learn about Rust’s module system and about privacy +rules for organizing your code and its public application programming interface +(API). **Chapter 8** discusses some common collection data structures that the +standard library provides, such as vectors, strings, and hash maps. **Chapter +9** explores Rust’s error-handling philosophy and techniques. + +**Chapter 10** digs into generics, traits, and lifetimes, which give you the +power to define code that applies to multiple types. **Chapter 11** is all +about testing, which even with Rust’s safety guarantees is necessary to ensure +your program’s logic is correct. In **Chapter 12**, we’ll build our own +implementation of a subset of functionality from the `grep` command line tool +that searches for text within files. For this, we’ll use many of the concepts +we discussed in the previous chapters. + +**Chapter 13** explores closures and iterators: features of Rust that come from +functional programming languages. In **Chapter 14**, we’ll examine Cargo in +more depth and talk about best practices for sharing your libraries with +others. **Chapter 15** discusses smart pointers that the standard library +provides and the traits that enable their functionality. + +In **Chapter 16**, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent +programming and talk about how Rust helps you program in multiple threads +fearlessly. **Chapter 17** looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented +programming principles you might be familiar with. + +**Chapter 18** is a reference on patterns and pattern matching, which are +powerful ways of expressing ideas throughout Rust programs. **Chapter 19** +contains a smorgasbord of advanced topics of interest, including unsafe Rust, +macros, and more about lifetimes, traits, types, functions, and closures. + +In **Chapter 20**, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a +low-level multithreaded web server! + +Finally, some appendices contain useful information about the language in a +more reference-like format**. Appendix A** covers Rust’s keywords, **Appendix +B** covers Rust’s operators and symbols, **Appendix C** covers derivable traits +provided by the standard library, **Appendix D** covers some useful development +tools, and **Appendix E** explains Rust editions. + +There is no wrong way to read this book: if you want to skip ahead, go for it! +You might have to jump back to earlier chapters if you experience any +confusion. But do whatever works for you. + +An important part of the process of learning Rust is learning how to read the +error messages the compiler displays: these will guide you toward working code. +As such, we’ll provide many examples that don’t compile along with the error +message the compiler will show you in each situation. Know that if you enter +and run a random example, it may not compile! Make sure you read the +surrounding text to see whether the example you’re trying to run is meant to +error. In most situations, we’ll lead you to the correct version of any code +that doesn’t compile. + +## Resources and How to Contribute to This Book + +This book is open source. If you find an error, please don’t hesitate to file +an issue or send a pull request on GitHub at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/book*. Please see *CONTRIBUTING.md* at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/book/blob/main/CONTRIBUTING.md* for more details. + +The source code for the examples in this book, errata, and other information +are available at *https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021*. + diff --git a/nostarch/introduction.md b/nostarch/introduction.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bcaed24c56 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/introduction.md @@ -0,0 +1,186 @@ + + +[TOC] + +# Introduction + +Welcome to *The Rust Programming Language,* an introductory book about Rust. +The Rust programming language helps you write faster, more reliable software. +High-level ergonomics and low-level control are often at odds in programming +language design; Rust challenges that conflict. Through balancing powerful +technical capacity and a great developer experience, Rust gives you the option +to control low-level details (such as memory usage) without all the hassle +traditionally associated with such control. + +## Who Rust Is For + +Rust is ideal for many people for a variety of reasons. Let’s look at a few of +the most important groups. + +### Teams of Developers + +Rust is proving to be a productive tool for collaborating among large teams of +developers with varying levels of systems programming knowledge. Low-level code +is prone to various subtle bugs, which in most other languages can be caught +only through extensive testing and careful code review by experienced +developers. In Rust, the compiler plays a gatekeeper role by refusing to +compile code with these elusive bugs, including concurrency bugs. By working +alongside the compiler, the team can spend their time focusing on the program’s +logic rather than chasing down bugs. + +Rust also brings contemporary developer tools to the systems programming world: + +* Cargo, the included dependency manager and build tool, makes adding, + compiling, and managing dependencies painless and consistent across the Rust + ecosystem. +* The Rustfmt formatting tool ensures a consistent coding style across + developers. +* The Rust Language Server powers Integrated Development Environment (IDE) + integration for code completion and inline error messages. + +By using these and other tools in the Rust ecosystem, developers can be +productive while writing systems-level code. + +### Students + +Rust is for students and those who are interested in learning about systems +concepts. Using Rust, many people have learned about topics like operating +systems development. The community is very welcoming and happy to answer +student questions. Through efforts such as this book, the Rust teams want to +make systems concepts more accessible to more people, especially those new to +programming. + +### Companies + +Hundreds of companies, large and small, use Rust in production for a variety of +tasks, including command line tools, web services, DevOps tooling, embedded +devices, audio and video analysis and transcoding, cryptocurrencies, +bioinformatics, search engines, Internet of Things applications, machine +learning, and even major parts of the Firefox web browser. + +### Open Source Developers + +Rust is for people who want to build the Rust programming language, community, +developer tools, and libraries. We’d love to have you contribute to the Rust +language. + +### People Who Value Speed and Stability + +Rust is for people who crave speed and stability in a language. By speed, we +mean both how quickly Rust code can run and the speed at which Rust lets you +write programs. The Rust compiler’s checks ensure stability through feature +additions and refactoring. This is in contrast to the brittle legacy code in +languages without these checks, which developers are often afraid to modify. By +striving for zero-cost abstractions, higher-level features that compile to +lower-level code as fast as code written manually, Rust endeavors to make safe +code be fast code as well. + +The Rust language hopes to support many other users as well; those mentioned +here are merely some of the biggest stakeholders. Overall, Rust’s greatest +ambition is to eliminate the trade-offs that programmers have accepted for +decades by providing safety *and* productivity, speed *and* ergonomics. Give +Rust a try and see if its choices work for you. + +## Who This Book Is For + +This book assumes that you’ve written code in another programming language but +doesn’t make any assumptions about which one. We’ve tried to make the material +broadly accessible to those from a wide variety of programming backgrounds. We +don’t spend a lot of time talking about what programming *is* or how to think +about it. If you’re entirely new to programming, you would be better served by +reading a book that specifically provides an introduction to programming. + +## How to Use This Book + +In general, this book assumes that you’re reading it in sequence from front to +back. Later chapters build on concepts in earlier chapters, and earlier +chapters might not delve into details on a particular topic but will revisit +the topic in a later chapter. + +You’ll find two kinds of chapters in this book: concept chapters and project +chapters. In concept chapters, you’ll learn about an aspect of Rust. In project +chapters, we’ll build small programs together, applying what you’ve learned so +far. Chapters 2, 12, and 20 are project chapters; the rest are concept chapters. + +Chapter 1 explains how to install Rust, how to write a “Hello, world!” program, +and how to use Cargo, Rust’s package manager and build tool. Chapter 2 is a +hands-on introduction to writing a program in Rust, having you build up a +number guessing game. Here we cover concepts at a high level, and later +chapters will provide additional detail. If you want to get your hands dirty +right away, Chapter 2 is the place for that. Chapter 3 covers Rust features +that are similar to those of other programming languages, and in Chapter 4 +you’ll learn about Rust’s ownership system. If you’re a particularly meticulous +learner who prefers to learn every detail before moving on to the next, you +might want to skip Chapter 2 and go straight to Chapter 3, returning to Chapter +2 when you’d like to work on a project applying the details you’ve learned. + +Chapter 5 discusses structs and methods, and Chapter 6 covers enums, `match` +expressions, and the `if let` control flow construct. You’ll use structs and +enums to make custom types in Rust. + +In Chapter 7, you’ll learn about Rust’s module system and about privacy rules +for organizing your code and its public Application Programming Interface +(API). Chapter 8 discusses some common collection data structures that the +standard library provides, such as vectors, strings, and hash maps. Chapter 9 +explores Rust’s error-handling philosophy and techniques. + +Chapter 10 digs into generics, traits, and lifetimes, which give you the power +to define code that applies to multiple types. Chapter 11 is all about testing, +which even with Rust’s safety guarantees is necessary to ensure your program’s +logic is correct. In Chapter 12, we’ll build our own implementation of a subset +of functionality from the `grep` command line tool that searches for text +within files. For this, we’ll use many of the concepts we discussed in the +previous chapters. + +Chapter 13 explores closures and iterators: features of Rust that come from +functional programming languages. In Chapter 14, we’ll examine Cargo in more +depth and talk about best practices for sharing your libraries with others. +Chapter 15 discusses smart pointers that the standard library provides and the +traits that enable their functionality. + +In Chapter 16, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent programming +and talk about how Rust helps you to program in multiple threads fearlessly. +Chapter 17 looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented programming +principles you might be familiar with. + +Chapter 18 is a reference on patterns and pattern matching, which are powerful +ways of expressing ideas throughout Rust programs. Chapter 19 contains a +smorgasbord of advanced topics of interest, including unsafe Rust, macros, and +more about lifetimes, traits, types, functions, and closures. + +In Chapter 20, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a low-level +multithreaded web server! + +Finally, some appendices contain useful information about the language in a +more reference-like format. Appendix A covers Rust’s keywords, Appendix B +covers Rust’s operators and symbols, Appendix C covers derivable traits +provided by the standard library, Appendix D covers some useful development +tools, and Appendix E explains Rust editions. + +There is no wrong way to read this book: if you want to skip ahead, go for it! +You might have to jump back to earlier chapters if you experience any +confusion. But do whatever works for you. + +An important part of the process of learning Rust is learning how to read the +error messages the compiler displays: these will guide you toward working code. +As such, we’ll provide many examples that don’t compile along with the error +message the compiler will show you in each situation. Know that if you enter +and run a random example, it may not compile! Make sure you read the +surrounding text to see whether the example you’re trying to run is meant to +error. In most situations, we’ll lead you to the correct version of any code +that doesn’t compile. + +## Resources and How to Contribute to This Book + +This book is open source. If you find an error, please don’t hesitate to file +an issue or send a pull request on GitHub at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/book/*. Please see *CONTRIBUTING.md* at +*https://github.com/rust-lang/book/blob/main/CONTRIBUTING.md* for more details. + +The source code for the examples in this book, errata, and other information +are available at *https://www.nostarch.com/Rust2021/*. + diff --git a/nostarch/preface.md b/nostarch/preface.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..33b1a0fd86 --- /dev/null +++ b/nostarch/preface.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +## Preface + +This version of the text assumes you’re using Rust 1.62.0 (released 2022-06-30) +or later with `edition="2021"` in *Cargo.toml* of all projects to use Rust 2021 +Edition idioms. See “Installation” on page 1 for instructions on installing or +updating Rust, and see Appendix E for information on editions. + +The 2021 Edition of the Rust language includes a number of improvements that +make Rust more ergonomic and correct some inconsistencies. On top of a general +update to reflect these improvements, this rendition of the book has a number +of improvements to address specific feedback: + +* Chapter 7 contains a new quick reference section on organizing your code into +multiple files with modules. +* Chapter 13 has new and improved closure examples that more clearly illustrate +captures, the `move` keyword, and the `Fn` traits. +* We fixed a number of small errors and imprecise wording throughout the book. +Thank you to the readers who reported them! +Note that any code from earlier renditions of this book that compiled will +continue to compile with the relevant edition in the project’s *Cargo.toml*, +even as you update the Rust compiler version you’re using. 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+assert_cmd = "2" + +# This package is used as a path dependency in `rust-lang/rust`, not published +# to crates.io, so it cannot be part of the `rust-lang/book` workspace, because +# path dependencies do not get built as a crate within the hosting workspace. +[workspace] diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/README.md b/packages/mdbook-trpl/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..15aacced0d --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +# mdbook_trpl + +A shared package for [mdbook][mdbook] [preprocessors][pre] used in [_The Rust +Programming Language_][trpl]. + +Supplies the following preprocessor binaries: + +- [mdbook-trpl-note](./src/bin/note) +- [mdbook-trpl-listing](./src/bin/listing) + +[mdbook]: https://crates.io/crates/mdbook +[pre]: https://rust-lang.github.io/mdBook/format/configuration/preprocessors.html +[trpl]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/README - mdbook-trpl-note.md b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/README - mdbook-trpl-note.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3e54ae7fd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/README - mdbook-trpl-note.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +# mdbook-trpl-note + +This is a _very_ simple [preprocessor][pre] for [mdBook][mdbook], focused specifically on the content of _The Rust Programming Language_ book. This preprocessor takes Markdown like this— + +```markdown +> Note: This is some material we want to provide more emphasis for, because it +> is important in some way! + +Some text. + +> ## Some subject +> +> Here is all the important things to know about that particular subject. +``` + +—and rewrites the Markdown to this: + +```html +
+ +This is some material we want to provide more emphasis for, because it is +important in some way! + +
+ +Some text. + +
+ +## Some subject + +Here is all the important things to know about that particular subject. + +
+``` + +This allows using the relatively standard Markdown convention of (incorrectly!) using blockquotes for “callouts” or “notes” like this, while still producing semantic HTML which conveys the actual intent. + +> [!NOTE] +> This is _not_ a full “admonition” preprocessor, and it is not remotely compliant with [the GitHub “alert” syntax][alerts]. It exists almost entirely for the sake of providing better semantic HTML for _The Rust Programming Language_ book with a minimum of disruption to existing workflows! +> +> You are probably better off using one of the other existing alert/admonition preprocessors: +> +> - [mdbook-alerts][mdbook-alerts] +> - [mdbook-admonish][mdbook-admonish] + +[pre]: https://rust-lang.github.io/mdBook/format/configuration/preprocessors.html +[mdbook]: https://github.com/rust-lang/mdBook +[alerts]: https://docs.github.com/en/get-started/writing-on-github/getting-started-with-writing-and-formatting-on-github/basic-writing-and-formatting-syntax#alerts +[mdbook-alerts]: https://github.com/lambdalisue/rs-mdbook-alerts +[mdbook-admonish]: https://github.com/tommilligan/mdbook-admonish diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/figure.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/figure.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e780cbd4e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/figure.rs @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +use std::io; + +use clap::{self, Parser, Subcommand}; + +use mdbook::preprocess::{CmdPreprocessor, Preprocessor}; +use mdbook_trpl::Figure; + +fn main() -> Result<(), String> { + match Cli::parse().command { + Some(Command::Supports { renderer }) => { + if Figure.supports_renderer(&renderer) { + Ok(()) + } else { + Err(format!("Renderer '{renderer}' is unsupported")) + } + } + None => { + let (ctx, book) = CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(io::stdin()) + .map_err(|e| format!("{e}"))?; + let processed = + Figure.run(&ctx, book).map_err(|e| format!("{e}"))?; + serde_json::to_writer(io::stdout(), &processed) + .map_err(|e| format!("{e}")) + } + } +} + +/// A simple preprocessor for handling figures with images in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_ book. +#[derive(Parser, Debug)] +struct Cli { + #[command(subcommand)] + command: Option, +} + +#[derive(Subcommand, Debug)] +enum Command { + /// Is the renderer supported? + /// + /// Supported renderers are `'html'`, `'markdown'`, and `'test'`. + Supports { renderer: String }, +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/listing.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/listing.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ed3f7226db --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/listing.rs @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +use std::io; + +use clap::{self, Parser, Subcommand}; +use mdbook::preprocess::{CmdPreprocessor, Preprocessor}; + +use mdbook_trpl::Listing; + +fn main() -> Result<(), String> { + let cli = Cli::parse(); + if let Some(Command::Supports { renderer }) = cli.command { + return if Listing.supports_renderer(&renderer) { + Ok(()) + } else { + Err(format!("Renderer '{renderer}' is unsupported")) + }; + } + + let (ctx, book) = CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(io::stdin()) + .map_err(|e| format!("{e}"))?; + let processed = Listing.run(&ctx, book).map_err(|e| format!("{e}"))?; + serde_json::to_writer(io::stdout(), &processed).map_err(|e| format!("{e}")) +} + +/// A simple preprocessor for semantic markup for code listings in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_. +#[derive(Parser, Debug)] +struct Cli { + #[command(subcommand)] + command: Option, +} + +#[derive(Subcommand, Debug)] +enum Command { + /// Is the renderer supported? + /// + /// All renderers are supported! This is the contract for mdBook. + Supports { renderer: String }, +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/note.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/note.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..8af222b8d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/bin/note.rs @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +use std::io; + +use clap::{self, Parser, Subcommand}; +use mdbook::preprocess::{CmdPreprocessor, Preprocessor}; + +use mdbook_trpl::Note; + +fn main() -> Result<(), String> { + let cli = Cli::parse(); + let simple_note = Note; + if let Some(Command::Supports { renderer }) = cli.command { + return if simple_note.supports_renderer(&renderer) { + Ok(()) + } else { + Err(format!("Renderer '{renderer}' is unsupported")) + }; + } + + let (ctx, book) = CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(io::stdin()) + .map_err(|e| format!("blah: {e}"))?; + let processed = simple_note.run(&ctx, book).map_err(|e| format!("{e}"))?; + serde_json::to_writer(io::stdout(), &processed).map_err(|e| format!("{e}")) +} + +/// A simple preprocessor for semantic notes in _The Rust Programming Language_. +#[derive(Parser, Debug)] +struct Cli { + #[command(subcommand)] + command: Option, +} + +#[derive(Subcommand, Debug)] +enum Command { + /// Is the renderer supported? + /// + /// All renderers are supported! This is the contract for mdBook. + Supports { renderer: String }, +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/config/mod.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/config/mod.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1be61e9dba --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/config/mod.rs @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +//! Get any `preprocessor.trpl-*` config. + +use mdbook::preprocess::PreprocessorContext; + +#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)] +pub enum Mode { + Default, + Simple, +} + +impl Mode { + pub fn from_context( + ctx: &PreprocessorContext, + preprocessor_name: &str, + ) -> Result { + let config = ctx + .config + .get_preprocessor(preprocessor_name) + .ok_or_else(|| Error::NoConfig(preprocessor_name.into()))?; + + let key = String::from("output-mode"); + let mode = config + .get(&key) + .map(|value| match value.as_str() { + Some(s) => Mode::try_from(s).map_err(|_| Error::BadValue { + key, + value: value.to_string(), + }), + None => Err(Error::BadValue { + key, + value: value.to_string(), + }), + }) + .transpose()? + .unwrap_or(Mode::Default); + + Ok(mode) + } +} + +/// Trivial marker struct to indicate an internal error. +/// +/// The caller has enough info to do what it needs without passing data around. +pub struct ParseErr; + +impl TryFrom<&str> for Mode { + type Error = ParseErr; + + fn try_from(value: &str) -> Result { + match value { + "default" => Ok(Mode::Default), + "simple" => Ok(Mode::Simple), + _ => Err(ParseErr), + } + } +} + +#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)] +pub enum Error { + #[error(transparent)] + Mdbook(#[from] mdbook::errors::Error), + + #[error("No config for '{0}'")] + NoConfig(String), + + #[error("Bad config value '{value}' for key '{key}'")] + BadValue { key: String, value: String }, +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/config/tests.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/config/tests.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0795595abc --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/config/tests.rs @@ -0,0 +1,266 @@ +//! Check that the config options are correctly handled. +//! +//! Note: none of these tests particularly exercise the *wiring*. They just +//! assume that the config itself is done correctly. This is a small enough +//! chunk of code that it easy to verify by hand at present. If it becomes +//! more complex in the future, it would be good to revisit and integrate +//! the same kinds of tests as the unit tests above here. + +use mdbook::{ + book::Book, + errors::Result, + preprocess::{Preprocessor, PreprocessorContext}, + BookItem, +}; + +use crate::config::Mode; + +/// Dummy preprocessor for testing purposes to exercise config. +struct TestPreprocessor; + +impl Preprocessor for TestPreprocessor { + fn name(&self) -> &str { + "test-preprocessor" + } + + fn run(&self, ctx: &PreprocessorContext, mut book: Book) -> Result { + let mode = Mode::from_context(ctx, self.name())?; + book.push_item(BookItem::PartTitle(format!("{mode:?}"))); + Ok(book) + } +} + +#[test] +fn no_config() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": {} + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TestPreprocessor.run(&ctx, book); + assert!(result.is_err()); + let err = result.unwrap_err(); + assert_eq!(format!("{err}"), "No config for 'test-preprocessor'"); +} + +#[test] +fn empty_config() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "test-preprocessor": {} + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let book = TestPreprocessor.run(&ctx, book).unwrap(); + assert!(book.iter().any( + |item| matches!(item, BookItem::PartTitle(title) if title == &format!("{:?}", Mode::Default)) + )) +} + +#[test] +fn specify_default() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "test-preprocessor": { + "output-mode": "default" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let book = TestPreprocessor.run(&ctx, book).unwrap(); + assert!(book.iter().any( + |item| matches!(item, BookItem::PartTitle(title) if title == &format!("{:?}", Mode::Default)) + )); +} + +#[test] +fn specify_simple() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "test-preprocessor": { + "output-mode": "simple" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let book = TestPreprocessor.run(&ctx, book).unwrap(); + assert!(book.iter().any( + |item| matches!(item, BookItem::PartTitle(title) if title == &format!("{:?}", Mode::Simple)) + )) +} + +#[test] +fn specify_invalid() { + let input_json = r##"[ + { + "root": "/path/to/book", + "config": { + "book": { + "authors": ["AUTHOR"], + "language": "en", + "multilingual": false, + "src": "src", + "title": "TITLE" + }, + "preprocessor": { + "test-preprocessor": { + "output-mode": "nonsense" + } + } + }, + "renderer": "html", + "mdbook_version": "0.4.21" + }, + { + "sections": [ + { + "Chapter": { + "name": "Chapter 1", + "content": "# Chapter 1\n", + "number": [1], + "sub_items": [], + "path": "chapter_1.md", + "source_path": "chapter_1.md", + "parent_names": [] + } + } + ], + "__non_exhaustive": null + } + ]"##; + let input_json = input_json.as_bytes(); + let (ctx, book) = + mdbook::preprocess::CmdPreprocessor::parse_input(input_json).unwrap(); + let result = TestPreprocessor.run(&ctx, book).unwrap_err(); + assert_eq!( + format!("{result}"), + "Bad config value '\"nonsense\"' for key 'output-mode'" + ); +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/figure/mod.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/figure/mod.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..169475f658 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/figure/mod.rs @@ -0,0 +1,252 @@ +use anyhow::{anyhow, Result}; +use html_parser::{Dom, Node}; +use mdbook::{book::Book, preprocess::Preprocessor, BookItem}; + +use pulldown_cmark::Event; +use pulldown_cmark_to_cmark::cmark; + +use crate::config::Mode; + +/// A simple preprocessor to rewrite `
`s with ``s. +/// +/// This is a no-op by default; it only operates on the book chapters when the +/// `[preprocessor.trpl-figure]` has `output-mode = "simple"`. +/// +/// Takes in Markdown containing like this: +/// +/// ```markdown +///
+/// +/// +/// +///
Figure 1-2: A description of the image
+/// +///
+/// ``` +/// +/// Spits out Markdown like this: +/// +/// ```markdown +/// +/// +/// +/// Figure 1-2: A description of the image +/// +/// ``` +pub struct TrplFigure; + +impl TrplFigure { + pub fn supports_renderer(&self, renderer: &str) -> bool { + renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" || renderer == "test" + } +} + +impl Preprocessor for TrplFigure { + fn name(&self) -> &str { + "trpl-figure" + } + + fn run( + &self, + ctx: &mdbook::preprocess::PreprocessorContext, + mut book: Book, + ) -> Result { + // The `
`-based output is only replaced in the `Simple` mode. + let Mode::Simple = Mode::from_context(ctx, self.name())? else { + return Ok(book); + }; + + let mut errors = vec![]; + book.for_each_mut(|item| { + if let BookItem::Chapter(ref mut chapter) = item { + match rewrite_figure(&chapter.content) { + Ok(rewritten) => chapter.content = rewritten, + Err(reason) => errors.push(reason), + } + } + }); + + if errors.is_empty() { + Ok(book) + } else { + Err(CompositeError(errors).into()) + } + } +} + +#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)] +struct CompositeError(Vec); + +impl std::fmt::Display for CompositeError { + fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result { + write!( + f, + "Error(s) rewriting input: {}", + self.0.iter().map(|e| format!("{e:?}")).collect::() + ) + } +} + +const OPEN_FIGURE: &'static str = "
"; +const CLOSE_FIGURE: &'static str = "
"; + +const OPEN_CAPTION: &'static str = "
"; +const CLOSE_CAPTION: &'static str = "
"; + +fn rewrite_figure(text: &str) -> Result { + let final_state = crate::parser(text).try_fold( + State { + current: None, + events: Vec::new(), + }, + |mut state, event| { + match (event, &mut state.current) { + // -- Open figure + (Event::Html(tag), None) if tag.starts_with(OPEN_FIGURE) => { + let mut figure = Figure::new(); + figure.events.push(Event::Text("\n".into())); + state.current.replace(figure); + } + + (Event::Html(tag), Some(_)) if tag.starts_with(OPEN_FIGURE) => { + return Err(anyhow!( + "Opening `
` when already in a `
`" + )) + } + + // -- Close figure + (Event::Html(tag), Some(figure)) + if tag.starts_with(CLOSE_FIGURE) => + { + if figure.in_caption { + return Err(anyhow!("Unclosed `
`")); + } + + state.events.append(&mut figure.events); + state.events.push(Event::Text("\n".into())); + let _ = state.current.take(); + } + + (Event::Html(tag), None) if tag.trim() == CLOSE_FIGURE => { + return Err(anyhow!(bad_close(CLOSE_FIGURE, OPEN_CAPTION))); + } + + // -- Start captions + // We do not allow nested captions, but if we have not yet + // started a caption, it is legal to start one, and we + // intentionally ignore that event entirely other than tracking + // that we have started a caption. We will push the body of the + // caption into the figure’s events when we hit them. + // + // Note: this does not support `
`. + (Event::Html(tag), Some(fig)) + if tag.starts_with(OPEN_CAPTION) => + { + if fig.in_caption { + return Err(anyhow!(bad_open(OPEN_CAPTION))); + } else { + if tag.trim().ends_with(CLOSE_CAPTION) { + let text = Dom::parse(tag.as_ref())? + .children + .into_iter() + .filter_map(text_of) + .collect::(); + + if text.is_empty() { + return Err(anyhow!( + "Missing caption in `
`" + )); + } + + fig.events.push(Event::Text(text.into())); + } else { + fig.events.push(Event::Text("\n".into())); + fig.in_caption = true; + } + } + } + + (Event::Html(tag), None) if tag.starts_with(OPEN_CAPTION) => { + return Err(anyhow!(bad_open(OPEN_CAPTION))) + } + + // -- Close captions + (Event::Html(tag), Some(fig)) + if tag.trim() == CLOSE_CAPTION => + { + if fig.in_caption { + fig.events.push(Event::Text("\n".into())); + fig.in_caption = false; + } else { + return Err(anyhow!(bad_close( + CLOSE_CAPTION, + OPEN_CAPTION + ))); + } + } + + (Event::Html(tag), None) if tag.trim() == CLOSE_CAPTION => { + return Err(anyhow!(bad_close(CLOSE_CAPTION, OPEN_FIGURE))); + } + + // Otherwise, if in the body of a figure, push whatever other + // events without modification into the figure state. + (ev, Some(ref mut figure)) => figure.events.push(ev), + + // And if not in a figure, no modifications whatsoever. + (ev, None) => state.events.push(ev), + } + Ok(state) + }, + )?; + + if final_state.current.is_some() { + return Err(anyhow!("Unclosed `
`")); + } + + let mut rewritten = String::new(); + cmark(final_state.events.into_iter(), &mut rewritten)?; + Ok(rewritten) +} + +fn text_of(node: Node) -> Option { + match node { + Node::Text(text) => Some(text), + Node::Element(element) => { + Some(element.children.into_iter().filter_map(text_of).collect()) + } + Node::Comment(_) => None, + } +} + +fn bad_open(tag: &str) -> String { + format!("Opening `<{tag}>` while not in a `
`.") +} + +fn bad_close(close: &str, required_open: &str) -> String { + format!("Closing `<{close}>` while not in a `<{required_open}>`.") +} + +#[derive(Debug)] +struct State<'e> { + current: Option>, + events: Vec>, +} + +#[derive(Debug)] +struct Figure<'e> { + events: Vec>, + in_caption: bool, +} + +impl<'e> Figure<'e> { + fn new() -> Figure<'e> { + Figure { + events: vec![], + in_caption: false, + } + } +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/figure/tests.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/figure/tests.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d99eb6d43e --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/figure/tests.rs @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +use super::*; + +#[test] +fn text_without_figures_is_ignored() { + let actual = rewrite_figure("This is some basic text.").unwrap(); + assert_eq!(actual, "This is some basic text."); +} + +#[test] +fn text_with_figure_replaces_it_with_simple_text() { + let actual = rewrite_figure( + r#"
+ + + +
Figure 12-34: Look at this cool picture!
+ +
"#, + ) + .unwrap(); + + let expected = r#" + + + +Figure 12-34: Look at this cool picture! + +"#; + + assert_eq!(actual, expected); +} + +#[test] +fn unclosed_figure() { + let result = rewrite_figure("
"); + let actual = format!("{:?}", result.unwrap_err()); + assert_eq!(actual, "Unclosed `
`"); +} + +#[test] +fn empty_caption() { + let result = rewrite_figure( + "
+
+
", + ); + let actual = format!("{:?}", result.unwrap_err()); + assert_eq!(actual, "Missing caption in `
`"); +} + +#[test] +fn unclosed_caption() { + let result = rewrite_figure( + "
+
+
", + ); + let actual = format!("{:?}", result.unwrap_err()); + assert_eq!(actual, "Unclosed `
`"); +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/lib.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..04e446eba2 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +mod config; +mod figure; +mod listing; +mod note; + +pub use config::Mode; +pub use figure::TrplFigure as Figure; +pub use listing::TrplListing as Listing; +pub use note::TrplNote as Note; +use pulldown_cmark::{Options, Parser}; + +/// Convenience function to get a parser matching `mdbook::new_cmark_parser`. +/// +/// This is implemented separately so we are decoupled from mdbook's dependency +/// versions and can update at will (albeit with care to stay aligned with what +/// mdbook does!) to later versions of `pulldown-cmark` and related tools. +/// +/// Notes: +/// +/// - `mdbook::new_cmark_parser` has an additional parameter which allows smart +/// punctuation to be enabled or disabled; we always enable it. +/// - We do not use footnotes in the text at present, but this goes out of its +/// way to match this up to the old footnotes behavior just to make sure the +/// parsing etc. is all the same. +pub fn parser(text: &str) -> Parser<'_> { + let mut opts = Options::empty(); + opts.insert(Options::ENABLE_TABLES); + opts.insert(Options::ENABLE_FOOTNOTES); + opts.insert(Options::ENABLE_OLD_FOOTNOTES); + opts.insert(Options::ENABLE_STRIKETHROUGH); + opts.insert(Options::ENABLE_TASKLISTS); + opts.insert(Options::ENABLE_HEADING_ATTRIBUTES); + opts.insert(Options::ENABLE_SMART_PUNCTUATION); + Parser::new_ext(text, opts) +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/listing/mod.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/listing/mod.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b118234494 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/listing/mod.rs @@ -0,0 +1,365 @@ +use html_parser::Dom; +use mdbook::{ + book::Book, + errors::Result, + preprocess::{Preprocessor, PreprocessorContext}, + BookItem, +}; +use pulldown_cmark::{html, Event}; +use pulldown_cmark_to_cmark::cmark; + +use crate::config::Mode; + +/// A preprocessor for rendering listings more elegantly. +/// +/// Given input like this: +/// +/// ````markdown +/// +/// +/// ```rust +/// fn main() {} +/// ``` +/// +/// +/// +/// ```` +/// +/// With no configuration, or with `output-mode = "default"`, it renders the +/// following Markdown to be further preprocessed or rendered to HTML: +/// +/// ````markdown +///
+/// Filename: src/main.rs +/// +/// ```rust +/// fn main() {} +/// ``` +/// +///
Listing 1-2: Some text, yeah?
+/// +///
+/// ```` +/// +/// When `output-mode = "simple"` in the configuration, it instead emits: +/// +/// ````markdown +/// Filename: src/main.rs +/// +/// ```rust +/// fn main() {} +/// ``` +/// +/// Listing 1-2: Some *text*, yeah? +/// ```` +pub struct TrplListing; + +impl Preprocessor for TrplListing { + fn name(&self) -> &str { + "trpl-listing" + } + + fn run(&self, ctx: &PreprocessorContext, mut book: Book) -> Result { + let mode = Mode::from_context(ctx, self.name())?; + + let mut errors = vec![]; + book.for_each_mut(|item| { + if let BookItem::Chapter(ref mut chapter) = item { + match rewrite_listing(&chapter.content, mode) { + Ok(rewritten) => chapter.content = rewritten, + Err(reason) => errors.push(reason), + } + } + }); + + if errors.is_empty() { + Ok(book) + } else { + Err(CompositeError(errors.join("\n")).into()) + } + } + + fn supports_renderer(&self, renderer: &str) -> bool { + renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" || renderer == "test" + } +} + +#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)] +#[error("Error(s) rewriting input: {0}")] +struct CompositeError(String); + +fn rewrite_listing(src: &str, mode: Mode) -> Result { + match mode { + Mode::Default => { + let final_state = crate::parser(src).try_fold( + RewriteState { + current: None, + events: vec![], + }, + |mut state, ev| { + match ev { + Event::Html(tag) => { + if tag.starts_with("") { + state.close_listing(tag); + } else { + state.events.push(Ok(Event::Html(tag))); + } + } + ev => state.events.push(Ok(ev)), + }; + Ok::, String>(state) + }, + )?; + + if final_state.current.is_some() { + return Err("Unclosed listing".into()); + } + + let (events, errors): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) = + final_state.events.into_iter().partition(|e| e.is_ok()); + + if !errors.is_empty() { + return Err(errors + .into_iter() + .map(|e| e.unwrap_err()) + .collect::>() + .join("\n")); + } + + let mut buf = String::with_capacity(src.len() * 2); + cmark(events.into_iter().map(|ok| ok.unwrap()), &mut buf) + .map_err(|e| format!("{e}"))?; + + Ok(buf) + } + Mode::Simple => { + // The output text should be very slightly *shorter* than the input, + // so we know this is a reasonable size for the buffer. + let mut rewritten = String::with_capacity(src.len()); + let mut current_closing = None; + for line in src.lines() { + if line.starts_with("")) { + let listing = + ListingBuilder::from_tag(&line)?.build(Mode::Simple); + rewritten.push_str(&listing.opening_text()); + current_closing = Some(listing.closing_text("\n")); + } else if line == "" { + let closing = + current_closing.as_ref().ok_or_else(|| { + String::from( + "Closing `` without opening tag.", + ) + })?; + rewritten.push_str(closing); + } else { + rewritten.push_str(line); + rewritten.push('\n'); + } + } + + // Since we always push a `'\n'` onto the end of the new string and + // `.lines()` does not tell us whether there *was* such a character, + // this makes the output match the input, and thus avoids adding new + // newlines after conversion. + if !src.ends_with('\n') { + rewritten.pop(); + } + + Ok(rewritten) + } + } +} + +struct RewriteState<'e> { + current: Option, + events: Vec, String>>, +} + +impl<'e> RewriteState<'e> { + fn open_listing( + &mut self, + tag: pulldown_cmark::CowStr<'_>, + mode: Mode, + ) -> Result<(), String> { + let listing = ListingBuilder::from_tag(&tag)?.build(mode); + let opening_event = Event::Html(listing.opening_html().into()); + + self.current = Some(listing); + self.events.push(Ok(opening_event)); + Ok(()) + } + + fn close_listing(&mut self, tag: pulldown_cmark::CowStr<'_>) { + let trailing = if !tag.ends_with('>') { + tag.replace("", "") + } else { + String::from("") + }; + + match &self.current { + Some(listing) => { + let closing_event = + Event::Html(listing.closing_html(&trailing).into()); + + self.current = None; + self.events.push(Ok(closing_event)); + } + None => { + self.events.push(Err(String::from( + "Closing `` without opening tag.", + ))); + } + } + } +} + +#[derive(Debug)] +struct Listing { + number: Option, + caption: Option, + file_name: Option, +} + +impl Listing { + fn opening_html(&self) -> String { + let figure = String::from("
\n"); + + match self.file_name.as_ref() { + Some(file_name) => format!( + "{figure}Filename: {file_name}\n", + ), + None => figure, + } + } + + fn closing_html(&self, trailing: &str) -> String { + match (&self.number, &self.caption) { + (Some(number), Some(caption)) => format!( + r#"
Listing {number}: {caption}
+
{trailing}"# + ), + (None, Some(caption)) => format!( + r#"
{caption}
+
{trailing}"# + ), + (Some(number), None) => format!( + r#"
Listing {number}
+
{trailing}"# + ), + (None, None) => format!("
{trailing}"), + } + } + + fn opening_text(&self) -> String { + self.file_name + .as_ref() + .map(|file_name| format!("Filename: {file_name}\n")) + .unwrap_or_default() + } + + fn closing_text(&self, trailing: &str) -> String { + match (&self.number, &self.caption) { + (Some(number), Some(caption)) => { + format!("Listing {number}: {caption}{trailing}") + } + (None, Some(caption)) => format!("{caption}{trailing}"), + (Some(number), None) => format!("Listing {number}{trailing}"), + (None, None) => trailing.into(), + } + } +} + +/// Note: Although this has the same structure as [`Listing`], it does not have +/// the same *semantics*. In particular, this has the *source* for the `caption` +/// while `Listing` has the *rendered* version. +struct ListingBuilder { + number: Option, + caption: Option, + file_name: Option, +} + +impl ListingBuilder { + fn from_tag(tag: &str) -> Result { + let to_parse = format!("{tag}"); + Dom::parse(&to_parse) + .map_err(|e| e.to_string())? + .children + .into_iter() + .filter_map(|node| match node { + html_parser::Node::Element(element) => Some(element.attributes), + html_parser::Node::Text(_) | html_parser::Node::Comment(_) => { + None + } + }) + .flatten() + .try_fold( + ListingBuilder { + number: None, + caption: None, + file_name: None, + }, + |builder, (key, maybe_value)| match (key.as_str(), maybe_value) + { + ("number", Some(value)) => Ok(builder.with_number(value)), + + ("caption", Some(value)) => Ok(builder.with_caption(value)), + + ("file-name", Some(value)) => { + Ok(builder.with_file_name(value)) + } + + (attr @ "file-name", None) + | (attr @ "caption", None) + | (attr @ "number", None) => { + Err(format!("Missing value for attribute: '{attr}'")) + } + + (attr, _) => { + Err(format!("Unsupported attribute name: '{attr}'")) + } + }, + ) + } + + fn with_number(mut self, value: String) -> Self { + self.number = Some(value); + self + } + + fn with_caption(mut self, value: String) -> Self { + self.caption = Some(value); + self + } + + fn with_file_name(mut self, value: String) -> Self { + self.file_name = Some(value); + self + } + + fn build(self, mode: Mode) -> Listing { + let caption = match mode { + Mode::Default => self.caption.map(|caption_source| { + let events = crate::parser(&caption_source); + let mut buf = String::with_capacity(caption_source.len() * 2); + html::push_html(&mut buf, events); + + // This is not particularly principled, but since the only + // place it is used is here, for caption source handling, it + // is “fine”. + buf.replace("

", "").replace("

", "").replace('\n', "") + }), + Mode::Simple => self.caption, + }; + + Listing { + number: self.number.map(String::from), + caption, + file_name: self.file_name.map(String::from), + } + } +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/listing/tests.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/listing/tests.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..4efb24748d --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/listing/tests.rs @@ -0,0 +1,296 @@ +use super::*; + +/// Note: This inserts an additional backtick around the re-emitted code. +/// It is not clear *why*, but that seems to be an artifact of the rendering +/// done by the `pulldown_cmark_to_cmark` crate. +#[test] +fn default_mode_works() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#"
+Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
Listing 1-2: A write-up which might include inline Markdown like code etc.
+
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn simple_mode_works() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"Leading text. + ++ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + + + +Trailing text."#, + Mode::Simple, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#"Leading text. + +Filename: src/main.rs + +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +Listing 1-2: A write-up which *might* include inline Markdown like `code` etc. + +Trailing text."# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn listing_with_embedded_angle_brackets() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn get_a_box_of(t: T) -> Box { + Box::new(T) +} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + &result.unwrap(), + r#"
+ +````rust +fn get_a_box_of(t: T) -> Box { + Box::new(T) +} +```` + +
Listing 34-5: This has a Box<T> in it.
+
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn actual_listing() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. + ++ +```rust +fn main() { + println!("Hello, world!"); +} +``` + + + +Save the file and go back to your terminal window"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. + +
+Filename: main.rs + +````rust +fn main() { + println!("Hello, world!"); +} +```` + +
Listing 1-1: A program that prints Hello, world!
+
+ +Save the file and go back to your terminal window"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn no_filename() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"This is the opening. + ++ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + + + +This is the closing."#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"This is the opening. + +
+ +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
Listing 1-1: This is the caption
+
+ +This is the closing."# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn without_number() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert!(result.is_ok()); + assert_eq!( + result.unwrap(), + r#"
+Filename: src/main.rs + +````rust +fn main() {} +```` + +
"# + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_unsupported_attr_name() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + "+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +", + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Unsupported attribute name: 'invalid-attr'")) + ) +} + +#[test] +fn with_unsupported_attr_name_with_arg() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Unsupported attribute name: 'invalid-attr'")) + ) +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod missing_value { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn for_number() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Missing value for attribute: 'number'")) + ) + } + + #[test] + fn for_caption() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Missing value for attribute: 'caption'")) + ) + } + + #[test] + fn for_file_name() { + let result = rewrite_listing( + r#"+ +```rust +fn main() {} +``` + +"#, + Mode::Default, + ); + + assert_eq!( + result, + Err(String::from("Missing value for attribute: 'file-name'")) + ) + } +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/note/mod.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/note/mod.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..12528a1f2e --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/note/mod.rs @@ -0,0 +1,145 @@ +use mdbook::{ + book::Book, + errors::Result, + preprocess::{Preprocessor, PreprocessorContext}, + BookItem, +}; +use pulldown_cmark::{ + Event::{self, *}, + Tag, TagEnd, +}; +use pulldown_cmark_to_cmark::cmark; + +/// A simple preprocessor for semantic notes in _The Rust Programming Language_. +/// +/// Takes in Markdown like this: +/// +/// ```markdown +/// > Note: This is a note. +/// ``` +/// +/// Spits out Markdown like this: +/// +/// ```markdown +///
+/// +/// This is a note. +/// +///
+/// ``` +pub struct TrplNote; + +impl Preprocessor for TrplNote { + fn name(&self) -> &str { + "simple-note-preprocessor" + } + + fn run(&self, _ctx: &PreprocessorContext, mut book: Book) -> Result { + book.for_each_mut(|item| { + if let BookItem::Chapter(ref mut chapter) = item { + chapter.content = rewrite(&chapter.content); + } + }); + Ok(book) + } + + fn supports_renderer(&self, renderer: &str) -> bool { + renderer == "html" || renderer == "markdown" || renderer == "test" + } +} + +pub fn rewrite(text: &str) -> String { + let parser = crate::parser(text); + + let mut events = Vec::new(); + let mut state = Default; + + for event in parser { + match (&mut state, event) { + (Default, Start(Tag::BlockQuote(_))) => { + state = StartingBlockquote(vec![Start(Tag::BlockQuote(None))]); + } + + (StartingBlockquote(blockquote_events), Text(content)) => { + if content.starts_with("Note: ") { + // This needs the "extra" `SoftBreak`s so that when the final rendering pass + // happens, it does not end up treating the internal content as inline *or* + // treating the HTML tags as inline tags: + // + // - Content inside HTML blocks is only rendered as Markdown when it is + // separated from the block HTML elements: otherwise it gets treated as inline + // HTML and *not* rendered. + // - Along the same lines, an HTML tag that happens to be directly adjacent to + // the end of a previous Markdown block will end up being rendered as part of + // that block. + events.extend([ + SoftBreak, + SoftBreak, + Html( + r#"
"#.into(), + ), + SoftBreak, + SoftBreak, + Start(Tag::Paragraph), + Text(content), + ]); + state = InNote; + } else { + events.append(blockquote_events); + events.push(Text(content)); + state = Default; + } + } + + ( + StartingBlockquote(_blockquote_events), + heading @ Start(Tag::Heading { .. }), + ) => { + events.extend([ + SoftBreak, + SoftBreak, + Html(r#"
"#.into()), + SoftBreak, + SoftBreak, + heading, + ]); + state = InNote; + } + + (StartingBlockquote(ref mut events), Start(tag)) => { + events.push(Start(tag)); + } + + (InNote, End(TagEnd::BlockQuote(_))) => { + // As with the start of the block HTML, the closing HTML must be + // separated from the Markdown text by two newlines. + events.extend([ + SoftBreak, + SoftBreak, + Html("
".into()), + ]); + state = Default; + } + + (_, event) => { + events.push(event); + } + } + } + + let mut buf = String::new(); + cmark(events.into_iter(), &mut buf).unwrap(); + buf +} + +use State::*; + +#[derive(Debug)] +enum State<'e> { + Default, + StartingBlockquote(Vec>), + InNote, +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests; diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/note/tests.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/note/tests.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c67d2ec9dc --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/src/note/tests.rs @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ +use super::*; + +#[test] +fn no_note() { + let text = "Hello, world.\n\nThis is some text."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "

Hello, world.

\n

This is some text.

\n" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_note() { + let text = "> Note: This is some text.\n> It keeps going."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Note: This is some text.\nIt keeps going.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn regular_blockquote() { + let text = "> This is some text.\n> It keeps going."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

This is some text.\nIt keeps going.

\n
\n" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn combined() { + let text = "> Note: This is some text.\n> It keeps going.\n\nThis is regular text.\n\n> This is a blockquote.\n"; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Note: This is some text.\nIt keeps going.

\n
\n

This is regular text.

\n
\n

This is a blockquote.

\n
\n" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn blockquote_then_note() { + let text = "> This is quoted.\n\n> Note: This is noted."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

This is quoted.

\n
\n
\n

Note: This is noted.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn note_then_blockquote() { + let text = "> Note: This is noted.\n\n> This is quoted."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Note: This is noted.

\n
\n
\n

This is quoted.

\n
\n" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_h1_note() { + let text = "> # Header\n > And then some note content."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Header

\n

And then some note content.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_h2_note() { + let text = "> ## Header\n > And then some note content."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Header

\n

And then some note content.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_h3_note() { + let text = "> ### Header\n > And then some note content."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Header

\n

And then some note content.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_h4_note() { + let text = "> #### Header\n > And then some note content."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Header

\n

And then some note content.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_h5_note() { + let text = "> ##### Header\n > And then some note content."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n
Header
\n

And then some note content.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn with_h6_note() { + let text = "> ###### Header\n > And then some note content."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n
Header
\n

And then some note content.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn h1_then_blockquote() { + let text = + "> # Header\n > And then some note content.\n\n> This is quoted."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Header

\n

And then some note content.

\n
\n
\n

This is quoted.

\n
\n" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn blockquote_then_h1_note() { + let text = + "> This is quoted.\n\n> # Header\n > And then some note content."; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

This is quoted.

\n
\n
\n

Header

\n

And then some note content.

\n
" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn blockquote_with_strong() { + let text = "> **Bold text in a paragraph.**"; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

Bold text in a paragraph.

\n
\n" + ); +} + +#[test] +fn normal_table() { + let text = "| Header 1 | Header 2 |\n| -------- | -------- |\n| Text 123 | More 456 |"; + let processed = rewrite(text); + + assert_eq!( + processed, + "|Header 1|Header 2|\n|--------|--------|\n|Text 123|More 456|", + "It strips some whitespace but otherwise leaves the table intact." + ); +} + +#[test] +fn table_in_note() { + let text = "> Note: table stuff.\n\n| Header 1 | Header 2 |\n| -------- | -------- |\n| Text 123 | More 456 |"; + let processed = rewrite(text); + + assert_eq!( + processed, + "\n\n
\n\nNote: table stuff.\n\n
\n\n|Header 1|Header 2|\n|--------|--------|\n|Text 123|More 456|", + "It adds the note markup but leaves the table untouched, to be rendered as Markdown." + ); +} + +#[test] +fn table_in_quote() { + let text = "> A table.\n\n| Header 1 | Header 2 |\n| -------- | -------- |\n| Text 123 | More 456 |"; + let processed = rewrite(text); + assert_eq!( + render_markdown(&processed), + "
\n

A table.

\n
\n\n\n
Header 1Header 2
Text 123More 456
\n", + "It renders blockquotes with nested tables as expected." + ); +} + +fn render_markdown(text: &str) -> String { + let parser = crate::parser(text); + let mut buf = String::new(); + pulldown_cmark::html::push_html(&mut buf, parser); + buf +} diff --git a/packages/mdbook-trpl/tests/integration/main.rs b/packages/mdbook-trpl/tests/integration/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bc081a1204 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/mdbook-trpl/tests/integration/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +mod note { + use assert_cmd::Command; + #[test] + fn supports_html_renderer() { + let cmd = Command::cargo_bin("mdbook-trpl-note") + .unwrap() + .args(["supports", "html"]) + .ok(); + assert!(cmd.is_ok()); + } + + #[test] + fn errors_for_other_renderers() { + let cmd = Command::cargo_bin("mdbook-trpl-note") + .unwrap() + .args(["supports", "total-nonsense"]) + .ok(); + assert!(cmd.is_err()); + } +} diff --git a/packages/tools/Cargo.toml b/packages/tools/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a24a8d74e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/tools/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +[package] +name = "rust-book-tools" +version = "0.0.1" +description = "The Rust Book" +edition = "2021" + +[[bin]] +name = "concat_chapters" +path = "src/bin/concat_chapters.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "convert_quotes" +path = "src/bin/convert_quotes.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "lfp" +path = "src/bin/lfp.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "link2print" +path = "src/bin/link2print.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "release_listings" +path = "src/bin/release_listings.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "remove_hidden_lines" +path = "src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "remove_links" +path = "src/bin/remove_links.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "remove_markup" +path = "src/bin/remove_markup.rs" + +[[bin]] +name = "cleanup_blockquotes" +path = "src/bin/cleanup_blockquotes.rs" + + +[dependencies] +walkdir = { workspace = true } +docopt = { workspace = true } +serde = { workspace = true } +regex = { workspace = true } +lazy_static = { workspace = true } +flate2 = { workspace = true } +tar = { workspace = true } diff --git a/packages/tools/src/bin/cleanup_blockquotes.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/cleanup_blockquotes.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..41c31b653c --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/cleanup_blockquotes.rs @@ -0,0 +1,147 @@ +//! Fix incorrect round-tripping of block quotes in `pulldown-cmark-to-cmark`: +//! +//! - Eliminate extraneous leading `>` +//! - Eliminate extraneous indent. +//! +//! Note: later versions of `pulldown-cmark-to-cmark` will likely fix this, so +//! check when upgrading it if it is still necessary! + +use std::io::{self, Read}; + +use lazy_static::lazy_static; +use regex::Regex; + +fn main() { + let input = { + let mut buffer = String::new(); + io::stdin() + .read_to_string(&mut buffer) + .unwrap_or_else(|e| panic!("{e}")); + buffer + }; + + let fixed = cleanup_blockquotes(input); + print!("{fixed}"); +} + +fn cleanup_blockquotes(input: String) -> String { + let normal_start = EXTRA_SPACE.replace_all(&input, ">"); + let sans_empty_leading = EMPTY_LEADING.replace_all(&normal_start, "\n\n"); + sans_empty_leading.to_string() +} + +lazy_static! { + static ref EXTRA_SPACE: Regex = Regex::new("(?m)^ >").unwrap(); + static ref EMPTY_LEADING: Regex = Regex::new("\n\n> ?\n").unwrap(); +} + +#[cfg(test)] +mod tests { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn extra_space() { + let input = " > Hello".to_string(); + let actual = cleanup_blockquotes(input); + assert_eq!(actual, "> Hello"); + } + + #[test] + fn empty_leading() { + let input = "\n\n>\n> Hello".into(); + let actual = cleanup_blockquotes(input); + assert_eq!(actual, "\n\n> Hello"); + } + + #[test] + fn leading_after_extra_space_cleaned_up() { + let input = r#"Start + +> +> Note: Hey. + +Wrap."# + .into(); + + let actual = cleanup_blockquotes(input); + assert_eq!( + actual, + r#"Start + +> Note: Hey. + +Wrap."# + ); + } + + /// This particular input was the result of running any of the mdbook + /// preprocessors which use `pulldown-cmark-to-cmark@<=18.0.0`. + #[test] + fn regression_ch17_example() { + // This is an example of the original motivating input which we are fixing. + let input = r#" +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +*lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators [back in Chapter 13][iterators-lazy]. +Iterators do nothing unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or +using `for` loops or methods such as `map` which use `next` under the hood. With +futures, the same basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask +them to. This laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s +actually needed. + + > + > Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in + > the previous chapter, where the closure we passed to another thread started + > running immediately. It’s also different from how many other languages + > approach async! But it’s important for Rust. We’ll see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s +present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. +"#.to_string(); + + let actual = cleanup_blockquotes(input); + assert_eq!( + actual, + r#" +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +*lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators [back in Chapter 13][iterators-lazy]. +Iterators do nothing unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or +using `for` loops or methods such as `map` which use `next` under the hood. With +futures, the same basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask +them to. This laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s +actually needed. + +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in +> the previous chapter, where the closure we passed to another thread started +> running immediately. It’s also different from how many other languages +> approach async! But it’s important for Rust. We’ll see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s +present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. +"# + ); + } +} diff --git a/tools/src/bin/concat_chapters.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/concat_chapters.rs similarity index 96% rename from tools/src/bin/concat_chapters.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/concat_chapters.rs index 001c322b6d..046870edb0 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/concat_chapters.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/concat_chapters.rs @@ -1,6 +1,3 @@ -#[macro_use] -extern crate lazy_static; - use std::collections::BTreeMap; use std::env; use std::fs::{create_dir, read_dir, File}; @@ -9,9 +6,10 @@ use std::io::{Read, Write}; use std::path::{Path, PathBuf}; use std::process::exit; +use lazy_static::lazy_static; use regex::Regex; -static PATTERNS: &'static [(&'static str, &'static str)] = &[ +static PATTERNS: &[(&str, &str)] = &[ (r"ch(\d\d)-\d\d-.*\.md", "chapter$1.md"), (r"appendix-(\d\d).*\.md", "appendix.md"), ]; @@ -123,5 +121,5 @@ fn ensure_dir_exists(dir_string: &str) -> io::Result<&Path> { if !path.exists() { create_dir(path)?; } - Ok(&path) + Ok(path) } diff --git a/tools/src/bin/convert_quotes.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/convert_quotes.rs similarity index 89% rename from tools/src/bin/convert_quotes.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/convert_quotes.rs index c8cfd456d1..a6a8dae72b 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/convert_quotes.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/convert_quotes.rs @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ use std::io; -use std::io::{Read, Write}; +use std::io::Read; fn main() { let mut is_in_code_block = false; @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ fn main() { let mut buffer = String::new(); if let Err(e) = io::stdin().read_to_string(&mut buffer) { - panic!("{}", e); + panic!("{e}"); } for line in buffer.lines() { @@ -21,13 +21,13 @@ fn main() { if is_in_code_block { is_in_inline_code = false; is_in_html_tag = false; - write!(io::stdout(), "{}\n", line).unwrap(); + println!("{line}"); } else { let modified_line = &mut String::new(); let mut previous_char = std::char::REPLACEMENT_CHARACTER; - let mut chars_in_line = line.chars(); + let chars_in_line = line.chars(); - while let Some(possible_match) = chars_in_line.next() { + for possible_match in chars_in_line { // Check if inside inline code. if possible_match == '`' { is_in_inline_code = !is_in_inline_code; @@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ fn main() { modified_line.push(char_to_push); previous_char = char_to_push; } - write!(io::stdout(), "{}\n", modified_line).unwrap(); + println!("{modified_line}"); } } } diff --git a/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs similarity index 95% rename from tools/src/bin/lfp.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs index caab7b26e5..64bdaa99d8 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/lfp.rs @@ -1,11 +1,12 @@ // We have some long regex literals, so: // ignore-tidy-linelength -use docopt::Docopt; -use serde::Deserialize; use std::io::BufRead; use std::{fs, io, path}; +use docopt::Docopt; +use serde::Deserialize; + fn main() { let args: Args = Docopt::new(USAGE) .and_then(|d| d.deserialize()) @@ -18,7 +19,7 @@ fn main() { .map(|entry| match entry { Ok(entry) => entry, Err(err) => { - eprintln!("{:?}", err); + eprintln!("{err:?}"); std::process::exit(911) } }) @@ -57,7 +58,7 @@ fn main() { } } -const USAGE: &'static str = " +const USAGE: &str = " counter Usage: lfp <src-dir> @@ -102,14 +103,12 @@ fn is_file_of_interest(path: &path::Path) -> bool { } fn is_line_of_interest(line: &str) -> bool { - !line - .split_whitespace() - .filter(|sub_string| { - sub_string.contains("file://") - && !sub_string.contains("file:///projects/") - }) - .collect::<Vec<_>>() - .is_empty() + line.split_whitespace().any(|sub_string| { + sub_string.contains("file://") + && !sub_string.contains("file:///projects/") + && !sub_string.contains("file:///home/.cargo") + && !sub_string.contains("file:///home/.rustup") + }) } #[derive(Debug)] diff --git a/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs similarity index 89% rename from tools/src/bin/link2print.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs index 9688d10bf5..6212ca012d 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/link2print.rs @@ -1,10 +1,11 @@ // FIXME: we have some long lines that could be refactored, but it's not a big deal. // ignore-tidy-linelength -use regex::{Captures, Regex}; use std::collections::HashMap; use std::io; -use std::io::{Read, Write}; +use std::io::Read; + +use regex::{Captures, Regex}; fn main() { write_md(parse_links(parse_references(read_md()))); @@ -14,12 +15,12 @@ fn read_md() -> String { let mut buffer = String::new(); match io::stdin().read_to_string(&mut buffer) { Ok(_) => buffer, - Err(error) => panic!("{}", error), + Err(error) => panic!("{error}"), } } fn write_md(output: String) { - write!(io::stdout(), "{}", output).unwrap(); + print!("{output}"); } fn parse_references(buffer: String) -> (String, HashMap<String, String>) { @@ -45,23 +46,11 @@ fn parse_references(buffer: String) -> (String, HashMap<String, String>) { fn parse_links((buffer, ref_map): (String, HashMap<String, String>)) -> String { // FIXME: check which punctuation is allowed by spec. let re = Regex::new(r###"(?:(?P<pre>(?:```(?:[^`]|`[^`])*`?\n```\n)|(?:[^\[]`[^`\n]+[\n]?[^`\n]*`))|(?:\[(?P<name>[^]]+)\](?:(?:\([[:blank:]]*(?P<val>[^")]*[^ ])(?:[[:blank:]]*"[^"]*")?\))|(?:\[(?P<key>[^]]*)\]))?))"###).expect("could not create regex"); - let error_code = - Regex::new(r###"^E\d{4}$"###).expect("could not create regex"); let output = re.replace_all(&buffer, |caps: &Captures<'_>| { match caps.name("pre") { - Some(pre_section) => format!("{}", pre_section.as_str()), + Some(pre_section) => pre_section.as_str().to_string(), None => { let name = caps.name("name").expect("could not get name").as_str(); - // Really we should ignore text inside code blocks, - // this is a hack to not try to treat `#[derive()]`, - // `[profile]`, `[test]`, or `[E\d\d\d\d]` like a link. - if name.starts_with("derive(") || - name.starts_with("profile") || - name.starts_with("test") || - name.starts_with("no_mangle") || - error_code.is_match(name) { - return name.to_string() - } let val = match caps.name("val") { // `[name](link)` @@ -71,17 +60,19 @@ fn parse_links((buffer, ref_map): (String, HashMap<String, String>)) -> String { Some(key) => { match key.as_str() { // `[name][]` - "" => format!("{}", ref_map.get(&name.to_uppercase()).expect(&format!("could not find url for the link text `{}`", name))), + "" => ref_map.get(&name.to_uppercase()).unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("could not find url for the link text `{name}`")).to_string(), // `[name][reference]` - _ => format!("{}", ref_map.get(&key.as_str().to_uppercase()).expect(&format!("could not find url for the link text `{}`", key.as_str()))), + _ => ref_map.get(&key.as_str().to_uppercase()).unwrap_or_else(|| panic!("could not find url for the link text `{}`", key.as_str())).to_string(), } } - // `[name]` as reference - None => format!("{}", ref_map.get(&name.to_uppercase()).expect(&format!("could not find url for the link text `{}`", name))), + // `[name]` is within code and should not be treated as a link + None => { + return format!("[{name}]"); + } } } }; - format!("{} at *{}*", name, val) + format!("{name} at *{val}*") } } }); @@ -231,11 +222,11 @@ more text" } #[test] - fn parses_link_without_reference_as_reference() { + fn does_not_parse_link_without_reference_as_reference() { let source = r"[link] is alone [link]: The contents" .to_string(); - let target = r"link at *The contents* is alone".to_string(); + let target = r"[link] is alone".to_string(); assert_eq!(parse(source), target); } @@ -289,7 +280,7 @@ version = "0.1.0" [dependencies] ``` -Another [link] +Another [link][] more text [link]: http://gohere "### diff --git a/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs similarity index 67% rename from tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs index 56a38e020c..468c4637dd 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/release_listings.rs @@ -1,7 +1,3 @@ -#[macro_use] -extern crate lazy_static; - -use regex::Regex; use std::error::Error; use std::fs; use std::fs::File; @@ -9,6 +5,9 @@ use std::io::prelude::*; use std::io::{BufReader, BufWriter}; use std::path::{Path, PathBuf}; +use lazy_static::lazy_static; +use regex::Regex; + fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> { // Get all listings from the `listings` directory let listings_dir = Path::new("listings"); @@ -29,26 +28,59 @@ fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> { let chapter = chapter?; let chapter_path = chapter.path(); + if !chapter_path.is_dir() { + eprintln!( + "'{}' is not a directory, skipping", + chapter_path.display() + ); + continue; + } + let chapter_name = chapter_path .file_name() .expect("Chapter should've had a name"); // Create a corresponding chapter dir in `tmp/listings` let output_chapter_path = out_dir.join(chapter_name); - fs::create_dir(&output_chapter_path)?; + fs::create_dir(&output_chapter_path).map_err(|e| { + format!( + "could not create dir at '{}': {e}", + output_chapter_path.display() + ) + })?; // For each listing in the chapter directory, - for listing in fs::read_dir(chapter_path)? { - let listing = listing?; + for listing in fs::read_dir(&chapter_path).map_err(|e| { + format!("Could not read '{}': {e}", chapter_path.display()) + })? { + let listing = listing.map_err(|e| { + format!( + "bad dir entry listing in {}: {e}", + chapter_path.display() + ) + })?; let listing_path = listing.path(); + if !listing_path.is_dir() { + eprintln!( + "'{}' is not a directory, skipping", + listing_path.display(), + ); + continue; + } + let listing_name = listing_path .file_name() .expect("Listing should've had a name"); // Create a corresponding listing dir in the tmp chapter dir let output_listing_dir = output_chapter_path.join(listing_name); - fs::create_dir(&output_listing_dir)?; + fs::create_dir(&output_listing_dir).map_err(|e| { + format!( + "could not create dir '{}': {e}", + output_listing_dir.display() + ) + })?; // Copy all the cleaned files in the listing to the tmp directory copy_cleaned_listing_files(listing_path, output_listing_dir)?; @@ -80,8 +112,12 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files( from: PathBuf, to: PathBuf, ) -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> { - for item in fs::read_dir(from)? { - let item = item?; + for item in fs::read_dir(&from).map_err(|e| { + format!("Could not read_dir on '{}': {e}", from.display()) + })? { + let item = item.map_err(|e| { + format!("invalid dir entry in {}: {e}", from.display()) + })?; let item_path = item.path(); let item_name = @@ -91,7 +127,12 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files( if item_path.is_dir() { // Don't copy `target` directories if item_name != "target" { - fs::create_dir(&output_item)?; + fs::create_dir(&output_item).map_err(|e| { + format!( + "Could not create output directory '{}': {e}", + output_item.display() + ) + })?; copy_cleaned_listing_files(item_path, output_item)?; } } else { @@ -106,7 +147,13 @@ fn copy_cleaned_listing_files( )?; } else { // Copy any non-Rust files without modification - fs::copy(item_path, output_item)?; + fs::copy(&item_path, &output_item).map_err(|e| { + format!( + "Could not copy from '{}' to '{}': {e}", + item_path.display(), + output_item.display() + ) + })?; } } } @@ -146,10 +193,10 @@ fn copy_cleaned_rust_file( for line in from_buf.lines() { let line = line?; - if !ANCHOR_OR_SNIP_COMMENTS.is_match(&line) { - if item_name != "lib.rs" || !EMPTY_MAIN.is_match(&line) { - writeln!(&mut to_buf, "{}", line)?; - } + if !ANCHOR_OR_SNIP_COMMENTS.is_match(&line) + && (item_name != "lib.rs" || !EMPTY_MAIN.is_match(&line)) + { + writeln!(&mut to_buf, "{line}")?; } } diff --git a/tools/src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs similarity index 93% rename from tools/src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs index 45ce031aa3..934b64eb69 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_hidden_lines.rs @@ -9,12 +9,12 @@ fn read_md() -> String { let mut buffer = String::new(); match io::stdin().read_to_string(&mut buffer) { Ok(_) => buffer, - Err(error) => panic!("{}", error), + Err(error) => panic!("{error}"), } } fn write_md(output: String) { - write!(io::stdout(), "{}", output).unwrap(); + print!("{output}"); } fn remove_hidden_lines(input: &str) -> String { diff --git a/tools/src/bin/remove_links.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_links.rs similarity index 91% rename from tools/src/bin/remove_links.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/remove_links.rs index edccc53c1a..ebb46e2c25 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/remove_links.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_links.rs @@ -1,14 +1,12 @@ -extern crate regex; - use regex::{Captures, Regex}; use std::collections::HashSet; use std::io; -use std::io::{Read, Write}; +use std::io::Read; fn main() { let mut buffer = String::new(); if let Err(e) = io::stdin().read_to_string(&mut buffer) { - panic!("{}", e); + panic!("{e}"); } let mut refs = HashSet::new(); @@ -41,5 +39,5 @@ fn main() { caps.get(0).unwrap().as_str().to_string() }); - write!(io::stdout(), "{}", out).unwrap(); + print!("{out}"); } diff --git a/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs similarity index 86% rename from tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs rename to packages/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs index 06f6a6ba98..6ec0fdfb90 100644 --- a/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs +++ b/packages/tools/src/bin/remove_markup.rs @@ -1,8 +1,7 @@ -extern crate regex; +use std::io; +use std::io::Read; use regex::{Captures, Regex}; -use std::io; -use std::io::{Read, Write}; fn main() { write_md(remove_markup(read_md())); @@ -12,12 +11,12 @@ fn read_md() -> String { let mut buffer = String::new(); match io::stdin().read_to_string(&mut buffer) { Ok(_) => buffer, - Err(error) => panic!("{}", error), + Err(error) => panic!("{error}"), } } fn write_md(output: String) { - write!(io::stdout(), "{}", output).unwrap(); + print!("{output}"); } fn remove_markup(input: String) -> String { @@ -27,7 +26,7 @@ fn remove_markup(input: String) -> String { let caption_start_regex = Regex::new(r#"\A<span class="caption">(.*)\z"#).unwrap(); let caption_end_regex = Regex::new(r#"(.*)</span>\z"#).unwrap(); - let regexen = vec![filename_regex, caption_start_regex, caption_end_regex]; + let regexen = [filename_regex, caption_start_regex, caption_end_regex]; let lines: Vec<_> = input .lines() diff --git a/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5555b3ee64 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +# CHANGELOG + +## 0.1.0 + +Initial release! Adds support code for the first draft of the new async chapter of the book. diff --git a/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bd14bf21d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +# Contributing + +## 🚧 Under construction! 🚧 + +Thanks for your interesting in helping us with this! At the moment, we are not +ready for contributions, though. + +Once we stabilize the contents of the book, including the APIs we are +re-exporting here and the little bits of functionality implemented in that +crate, we will gladly take all the help we can get for maintaining this. 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"registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "ced3678a2879b30306d323f4542626697a464a97c0a07c9aebf7ebca65cd4dde" diff --git a/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a76c8261b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +[package] +name = "trpl" +version = "0.2.0" +edition = "2021" +license = "MIT OR Apache-2.0" +description = "A support crate for The Rust Programming Language book" +readme = "README.md" +repository = "https://github.com/rust-lang/book" +authors = ["Chris Krycho <hello@chriskrycho.com>"] + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +futures = "0.3" +reqwest = { version = "0.12", default-features = false, features = [ + "rustls-tls", +] } +scraper = "0.20" +tokio = { version = "1", default-features = false, features = [ + "fs", + "rt-multi-thread", + "sync", + "time", +] } +tokio-stream = "0.1" + +# This package is built as a standalone package to publish to crates.io, and is +# also built as a path dependency for distribution with Rust, so it must not be +# built as part of the `rust-lang/book` or `rust-lang/rust` workspaces. +[workspace] diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..38634daab0 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE @@ -0,0 +1,201 @@ + Apache License + Version 2.0, January 2004 + http://www.apache.org/licenses/ + +TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION + +1. 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We also recommend that a + file or class name and description of purpose be included on the + same "printed page" as the copyright notice for easier + identification within third-party archives. + +Copyright 2010 The Rust Project Developers + +Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); +you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. +You may obtain a copy of the License at + + http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 + +Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software +distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, +WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. +See the License for the specific language governing permissions and +limitations under the License. diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..25597d5838 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +Copyright (c) 2010 The Rust Project Developers + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any +person obtaining a copy of this software and associated +documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the +Software without restriction, including without +limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, +publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of +the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software +is furnished to do so, subject to the following +conditions: + +The above copyright notice and this permission notice +shall be included in all copies or substantial portions +of the Software. + +THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF +ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED +TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT +SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY +CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION +OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR +IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER +DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. diff --git a/packages/trpl/README.md b/packages/trpl/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3e97ac9b3b --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +# The Rust Programming Language Book Crate + +![Build Status](https://github.com/chriskrycho/trpl-crate/workflows/CI/badge.svg) + +This repository is the home of the `trpl` crate used in _The Rust Programming +Language_ book materials. + +This crate mostly just re-exports items from _other_ crates. It exists for two +main reasons: + +1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can add + just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and likewise + use only one set of imports. + +2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since we + control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will never be + broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 release at some + point. + +## Requirements + +This crate currently requires at least Rust 1.79. diff --git a/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..999cb6e273 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,150 @@ +//! A support crate for [_The Rust Programming Language_][trpl]. +//! +//! [trpl]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book +//! +//! This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for +//! two main reasons: +//! +//! 1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can +//! add just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and +//! likewise use only one set of imports. +//! +//! 2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since +//! we control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will +//! never be broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 +//! release at some point. + +// For direct use within the `trpl` crate, *not* re-exported. +use std::{future::Future, pin::pin}; + +use futures::future; + +// Re-exports, to be used like `trpl::join`. +pub use futures::{ + future::{join, join3, join_all, Either}, + join, +}; +pub use tokio::{ + fs::read_to_string, + runtime::Runtime, + // We use the `unbounded` variants because they most closely match the APIs + // from `std::sync::mpsc::channel`. Tokio's API choices are interesting: + // + // | `tokio::sync::mpsc` | `std::sync::mpsc` | + // | ------------------- | ----------------- | + // | `channel` | `sync_channel` | + // | `unbounded_channel` | `channel` | + // + // The book collapses these differences for pedagogical simplicity, so that + // readers are not asking why `unbounded` is now important and can focus on + // the more important differences between sync and async APIs. + sync::mpsc::{ + unbounded_channel as channel, UnboundedReceiver as Receiver, + UnboundedSender as Sender, + }, + task::{spawn as spawn_task, yield_now, JoinHandle}, + time::{interval, sleep}, +}; + +pub use tokio_stream::{ + iter as stream_from_iter, + wrappers::{IntervalStream, UnboundedReceiverStream as ReceiverStream}, + Stream, StreamExt, +}; + +/// Run a single future to completion on a bespoke Tokio `Runtime`. +/// +/// Every time you call this, a new instance of `tokio::runtime::Runtime` will +/// be created (see the implementation for details: it is trivial). This is: +/// +/// - Reasonable for teaching purposes, in that you do not generally need to set +/// up more than one runtime anyway, and especially do not in basic code like +/// we are showing! +/// +/// - Not *that* far off from what Tokio itself does under the hood in its own +/// `tokio::main` macro for supporting `async fn main`. +pub fn run<F: Future>(future: F) -> F::Output { + let rt = Runtime::new().unwrap(); + rt.block_on(future) +} + +/// Run two futures, taking whichever finishes first and canceling the other. +/// +/// Notice that this is built on [`futures::future::select`], which has the +/// same overall semantics but does *not* drop the slower future. The idea there +/// is that you can work with the first result and then later *also* continue +/// waiting for the second future. +/// +/// We use the `race` semantics, where the slower future is simply dropped, for +/// the sake of simplicity in the examples: no need to deal with the tuple and +/// intentionally ignore the second future this way! +/// +/// Note that this only works as “simply” as it does because: +/// +/// - It takes ownership of the futures. +/// - It internally *pins* the futures. +/// - It throws away (rather than returning) the unused future (which is why it +/// can get away with pinning them). +pub async fn race<A, B, F1, F2>(f1: F1, f2: F2) -> Either<A, B> +where + F1: Future<Output = A>, + F2: Future<Output = B>, +{ + let f1 = pin!(f1); + let f2 = pin!(f2); + match future::select(f1, f2).await { + Either::Left((a, _f2)) => Either::Left(a), + Either::Right((b, _f1)) => Either::Right(b), + } +} + +/// Fetch data from a URL. For more convenient use in _The Rust Programming +/// Language_, panics instead of returning a [`Result`] if the request fails. +pub async fn get(url: &str) -> Response { + Response(reqwest::get(url).await.unwrap()) +} + +/// A thin wrapper around [`reqwest::Response`] to make the demos in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use. +pub struct Response(reqwest::Response); + +impl Response { + /// Get the full response text. + /// + /// If the response cannot be deserialized, this panics instead of returning + /// a [`Result`] (for convenience in the demo). + pub async fn text(self) -> String { + self.0.text().await.unwrap() + } +} + +/// A thin wrapper around [`scraper::Html`] to make the demos in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use. +pub struct Html { + inner: scraper::Html, +} + +impl Html { + /// Parse an HTML document from a string. + /// + /// This is just a thin wrapper around `scraper::Html::parse_document` to + /// keep the exported API surface simpler. + pub fn parse(source: &str) -> Html { + Html { + inner: scraper::Html::parse_document(source), + } + } + + /// Get the first item in the document matching a string selector. Returns + /// Some() + /// + /// If the selector is not a valid CSS selector, panics rather than + /// returning a [`Result`] for convenience. + pub fn select_first<'a>( + &'a self, + selector: &'a str, + ) -> Option<scraper::ElementRef<'a>> { + let selector = scraper::Selector::parse(selector).unwrap(); + self.inner.select(&selector).nth(0) + } +} diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..afc5f81864 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,242 @@ +//! Integration tests for the crate. +//! +//! These all live in a *single* integration test crate, `tests/integration`, +//! because each integration test is a dedicated binary crate which has to be +//! compiled separately. While that is not really a problem for a crate this +//! small, we have chosen to follow this “best practice” here as a good example. +//! +//! For more details on why you might prefer this pattern see [this post][post]. +//! +//! [post]: https://matklad.github.io/2021/02/27/delete-cargo-integration-tests.html + +use std::{pin::Pin, time::Duration}; + +use futures::Future; +use trpl::{Either, Receiver, Sender}; + +/// This test is foundational for all the others, as they depend on `run`. +/// +/// If we mess this up, *all* the tests below will fail -- so by the same token, +/// if all the tests below are failing, this one probably is too; fix it and the +/// others will likely start working again. +#[test] +fn re_exported_run_works() { + let val = trpl::run(async { "Hello" }); + assert_eq!(val, "Hello"); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_spawn_works() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let handle_a = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Hello" }); + let handle_b = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Goodbye" }); + vec![handle_a.await.unwrap(), handle_b.await.unwrap()] + }); + + assert_eq!(result, vec!["Hello", "Goodbye"]); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_sleep_works() { + let val = trpl::run(async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_micros(1)).await; + "Done!" + }); + assert_eq!(val, "Done!"); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_channel_apis_work() { + trpl::run(async { + // Explicitly naming the type to confirm the re-exports are aligned. + let (tx, mut rx): (Sender<&str>, Receiver<&str>) = trpl::channel(); + + tx.send("Hello").unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + tx.send("Goodbye").unwrap(); + drop(tx); + + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Hello")); + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Goodbye")); + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, None); + }); +} + +mod re_exported_join_apis_work { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn join_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { 2 }; + trpl::join(a, b).await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, 2)); + } + + #[test] + fn join3_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { 2 }; + let c = async { 3 }; + + trpl::join3(a, b, c).await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, 2, 3)); + } + + #[test] + fn join_all_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { format!("{}", 1) }; + + let b = async { "Hello".to_string() }; + + let outer = String::from("World"); + let c = async move { outer.to_string() }; + + let futures: Vec<Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = String>>>> = + vec![Box::pin(a), Box::pin(b), Box::pin(c)]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await + }); + + assert_eq!( + result, + vec![ + String::from("1"), + String::from("Hello"), + String::from("World") + ] + ); + } + + #[test] + fn join_macro() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { "Hello" }; + + let outer = vec![String::from("World")]; + let c = async move { outer }; + + trpl::join!(a, b, c) + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, "Hello", vec![String::from("World")])); + } +} + +#[test] +fn race() { + #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)] + struct Slow; + + #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)] + struct Fast; + + let val = trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1_000)).await; + Slow + }; + + let fast = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + Fast + }; + + trpl::race(slow, fast).await + }); + + assert!(matches!(val, Either::Right(Fast))); +} + +#[test] +fn yield_now() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + trpl::yield_now().await; + "done" + }); + + assert_eq!(result, "done"); +} + +#[test] +fn read_to_string() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + trpl::read_to_string("tests/integration/to-read.txt") + .await + .unwrap() + }); + + assert_eq!(result, String::from("This is some text!\n")); +} + +#[test] +fn stream_iter() { + use trpl::StreamExt; + + let result = trpl::run(async { + let ns = vec![1, 2, 3]; + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(ns); + let mut result = vec![]; + while let Some(n) = stream.next().await { + result.push(format!("{n}")); + } + result + }); + + assert_eq!( + result, + vec![String::from("1"), String::from("2"), String::from("3")] + ) +} + +#[test] +fn receiver_stream() { + use trpl::ReceiverStream; + use trpl::StreamExt; + + let result: Vec<u32> = trpl::run(async { + println!("startup"); + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + let rx_stream = ReceiverStream::new(rx); + println!("sending 123"); + tx.send(123).unwrap(); + drop(tx); // So the receiver channel closes! + + rx_stream.collect().await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, vec![123]); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_interval_stream_works() { + use trpl::{IntervalStream, StreamExt}; + + trpl::run(async { + let mut interval_stream = + IntervalStream::new(trpl::interval(Duration::from_millis(1))) + .take(1); + + assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_some()); + assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_none()); + }); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_html() { + use trpl::Html; + + let doc = Html::parse( + "<html><head><title>

Hello!

", + ); + let p = doc.select_first("p").map(|el| el.inner_html()); + assert_eq!(p, Some(String::from("Hello!"))); +} diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2af04f5bdf --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +This is some text! diff --git a/redirects/associated-types.md b/redirects/associated-types.md index b222f3298f..af052c160d 100644 --- a/redirects/associated-types.md +++ b/redirects/associated-types.md @@ -14,4 +14,4 @@ pub trait Iterator { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#specifying-placeholder-types-in-trait-definitions-with-associated-types). diff --git a/redirects/choosing-your-guarantees.md b/redirects/choosing-your-guarantees.md index 3667258c66..d8a4e3a3f9 100644 --- a/redirects/choosing-your-guarantees.md +++ b/redirects/choosing-your-guarantees.md @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ ```rust let b = Box::new(5); -println!("b = {}", b); +println!("b = {b}"); ``` --- diff --git a/redirects/compiler-plugins.md b/redirects/compiler-plugins.md index 66061adf5a..67187f5f6b 100644 --- a/redirects/compiler-plugins.md +++ b/redirects/compiler-plugins.md @@ -2,12 +2,5 @@ There is a new edition of the book and this is an old link. -> Compiler plugins are user-provided libraries that extend the compiler's behavior with new syntax extensions, lint checks, etc. - ---- - -This particular chapter has moved to [the Unstable Book][2]. - -* **[In the Unstable Rust Book: `plugin`][2]** - -[2]: ../unstable-book/language-features/plugin.html +> Compiler plugins were user-provided libraries that extended the compiler's behavior in certain ways. +> Support for them has been removed. diff --git a/redirects/const-and-static.md b/redirects/const-and-static.md index b87bdd3831..60b13f62ac 100644 --- a/redirects/const-and-static.md +++ b/redirects/const-and-static.md @@ -16,6 +16,6 @@ static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Hello, world!"; You can find the latest version about constants [here](ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#constants), and about statics -[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable). +[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#accessing-or-modifying-a-mutable-static-variable). diff --git a/redirects/ffi.md b/redirects/ffi.md index 20ed3963ef..63308ab1de 100644 --- a/redirects/ffi.md +++ b/redirects/ffi.md @@ -20,4 +20,4 @@ fn main() { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#using-extern-functions-to-call-external-code) \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#using-extern-functions-to-call-external-code) diff --git a/redirects/iterators.md b/redirects/iterators.md index 26cb047668..d8a73dab87 100644 --- a/redirects/iterators.md +++ b/redirects/iterators.md @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3]; let v1_iter = v1.iter(); for val in v1_iter { - println!("Got: {}", val); + println!("Got: {val}"); } ``` diff --git a/redirects/lifetimes.md b/redirects/lifetimes.md index 21ddb38ce8..8a27ec1724 100644 --- a/redirects/lifetimes.md +++ b/redirects/lifetimes.md @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ // | let r = &x; // --+--+-- 'a // | | - println!("r: {}", r); // | | + println!("r: {r}"); // | | // --+ | } // -----+ ``` diff --git a/redirects/loops.md b/redirects/loops.md index 1686c115ee..30c7d4059f 100644 --- a/redirects/loops.md +++ b/redirects/loops.md @@ -14,17 +14,17 @@ loop { let mut number = 3; while number != 0 { - println!("{}!", number); + println!("{number}!"); number = number - 1; } let a = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]; for element in a.iter() { - println!("the value is: {}", element); + println!("the value is: {element}"); } ``` --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch03-05-control-flow.html#repetition-with-loops). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch03-05-control-flow.html#repetition-with-loops). diff --git a/redirects/macros.md b/redirects/macros.md index 08217d115d..828d484dd6 100644 --- a/redirects/macros.md +++ b/redirects/macros.md @@ -25,6 +25,6 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/macros.html -[2]: ch19-06-macros.html +[2]: ch20-06-macros.html [3]: https://rustbyexample.com/macros.html [4]: ../reference/macros-by-example.html diff --git a/redirects/match.md b/redirects/match.md index fd28ba8dea..5bcbc89495 100644 --- a/redirects/match.md +++ b/redirects/match.md @@ -34,5 +34,5 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/match.html [2]: ch06-02-match.html -[3]: ch18-00-patterns.html +[3]: ch19-00-patterns.html diff --git a/redirects/mutability.md b/redirects/mutability.md index 89fc3b6f56..4e64953c10 100644 --- a/redirects/mutability.md +++ b/redirects/mutability.md @@ -6,9 +6,9 @@ ```rust let mut x = 5; -println!("The value of x is: {}", x); +println!("The value of x is: {x}"); x = 6; -println!("The value of x is: {}", x); +println!("The value of x is: {x}"); ``` --- diff --git a/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md b/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md index ff9a33048a..3a61fbabc4 100644 --- a/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md +++ b/redirects/operators-and-overloading.md @@ -33,4 +33,4 @@ fn main() { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). +[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html). diff --git a/redirects/procedural-macros.md b/redirects/procedural-macros.md index bf6665f1a6..07657f6c88 100644 --- a/redirects/procedural-macros.md +++ b/redirects/procedural-macros.md @@ -16,6 +16,6 @@ You can check out other resources that describe macros. [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/procedural-macros.html -[2]: ch19-06-macros.html +[2]: ch20-06-macros.html [3]: ../proc_macro/index.html [4]: ../reference/procedural-macros.html diff --git a/redirects/raw-pointers.md b/redirects/raw-pointers.md index 773f3abc48..4076907b5c 100644 --- a/redirects/raw-pointers.md +++ b/redirects/raw-pointers.md @@ -14,4 +14,4 @@ let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32; --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html#dereferencing-a-raw-pointer) diff --git a/redirects/trait-objects.md b/redirects/trait-objects.md index 3200e26a15..44ca328235 100644 --- a/redirects/trait-objects.md +++ b/redirects/trait-objects.md @@ -65,4 +65,4 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/trait-objects.html -[2]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html +[2]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html diff --git a/redirects/traits.md b/redirects/traits.md index dcb577e97b..b36ede6640 100644 --- a/redirects/traits.md +++ b/redirects/traits.md @@ -21,4 +21,4 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/traits.html [2]: ch10-02-traits.html -[3]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html +[3]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html diff --git a/redirects/type-aliases.md b/redirects/type-aliases.md index 85cd4c9ecc..84f94e41e9 100644 --- a/redirects/type-aliases.md +++ b/redirects/type-aliases.md @@ -11,4 +11,4 @@ type Kilometers = i32; --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases). diff --git a/redirects/ufcs.md b/redirects/ufcs.md index 2959c06bd0..684c02ec77 100644 --- a/redirects/ufcs.md +++ b/redirects/ufcs.md @@ -45,4 +45,4 @@ fn main() { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#fully-qualified-syntax-for-disambiguation-calling-methods-with-the-same-name). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#fully-qualified-syntax-for-disambiguation-calling-methods-with-the-same-name). diff --git a/redirects/unsafe.md b/redirects/unsafe.md index 8628c7aa95..94ee8ad777 100644 --- a/redirects/unsafe.md +++ b/redirects/unsafe.md @@ -14,5 +14,5 @@ Here are the relevant sections in the new and old books: [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/unsafe.html -[2]: ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html +[2]: ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html [3]: ../nomicon/index.html diff --git a/redirects/unsized-types.md b/redirects/unsized-types.md index bd9582cbac..6e8d19da4a 100644 --- a/redirects/unsized-types.md +++ b/redirects/unsized-types.md @@ -15,4 +15,4 @@ fn generic(t: &T) { --- You can find the latest version of this information -[here](ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait). \ No newline at end of file +[here](ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait). diff --git a/redirects/using-rust-without-the-standard-library.md b/redirects/using-rust-without-the-standard-library.md index 75145429d4..0fbdfebdd6 100644 --- a/redirects/using-rust-without-the-standard-library.md +++ b/redirects/using-rust-without-the-standard-library.md @@ -7,11 +7,11 @@ --- -This particular chapter has moved to [the Unstable Book][2]. +This particular chapter has moved to [the Rustonomicon][2]. -* **[In the Unstable Rust Book: `lang_items` — Writing an executable without stdlib][2]** +* **[In the Rustonomicon: Beneath std][2]** * [In the first edition: Ch 4.12 — Using Rust without the Standard Library][1] [1]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/first-edition/using-rust-without-the-standard-library.html -[2]: ../unstable-book/language-features/lang-items.html#writing-an-executable-without-stdlib +[2]: ../nomicon/beneath-std.html diff --git a/rust-toolchain b/rust-toolchain index 791d8759b8..a92432a8ab 100644 --- a/rust-toolchain +++ b/rust-toolchain @@ -1 +1 @@ -1.59 +1.82 diff --git a/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md b/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md index 2798b5d50a..dfcdcec07c 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md +++ b/second-edition/src/appendix-04-macros.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-06-macros.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-06-macros.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/appendix-04-macros.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/appendix-04-macros.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md index 752130915e..e3633405f1 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-00-oop.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-00-oop.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-00-oop.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-00-oop.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md index 82c1ed8f9c..a705d19416 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-01-what-is-oo.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-01-what-is-oo.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md index 35f0c18835..16dad6368e 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-02-trait-objects.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-02-trait-objects.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-02-trait-objects.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 46bec2692f..b29dc2393c 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md index 6bd221fa3c..e315b35274 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index 0374a9a883..4a76aded0a 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md index 2ef5206afd..768df16b25 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-02-refutability.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-02-refutability.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-02-refutability.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-02-refutability.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md index 31c5f79203..08676091e1 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md index f6df05f0aa..3633c0548e 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-00-advanced-features.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-00-advanced-features.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-00-advanced-features.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md index 8a9a29c096..0e740ce03d 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-01-unsafe-rust.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md index cc8433fb38..56b9c7e662 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-03-advanced-traits.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-03-advanced-traits.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md index 5081457292..c217a12b5a 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-04-advanced-types.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-04-advanced-types.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-04-advanced-types.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 18d369c60d..6c296b9efe 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md index 059d6824c3..0c99ac623b 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md index 5ff97a2ee1..a06b0cbc1a 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-01-single-threaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-01-single-threaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-01-single-threaded.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md index 0695d2451c..8826bd9f1a 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-02-multithreaded.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-02-multithreaded.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-02-multithreaded.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md index eb7ed59879..457b294f90 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/theme/index.hbs b/second-edition/src/theme/index.hbs deleted file mode 100644 index f3f1b52fa8..0000000000 --- a/second-edition/src/theme/index.hbs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ - - - - - - Outdated link: {{ title }} - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - {{#each additional_css}} - - {{/each}} - - -
-
- {{> header}} -
-
- {{{ content }}} -
-
-
-
- - diff --git a/src/SUMMARY.md b/src/SUMMARY.md index f0483544c0..a157cd05af 100644 --- a/src/SUMMARY.md +++ b/src/SUMMARY.md @@ -7,129 +7,137 @@ ## Getting started - [Getting Started](ch01-00-getting-started.md) - - [Installation](ch01-01-installation.md) - - [Hello, World!](ch01-02-hello-world.md) - - [Hello, Cargo!](ch01-03-hello-cargo.md) + - [Installation](ch01-01-installation.md) + - [Hello, World!](ch01-02-hello-world.md) + - [Hello, Cargo!](ch01-03-hello-cargo.md) - [Programming a Guessing Game](ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md) - [Common Programming Concepts](ch03-00-common-programming-concepts.md) - - [Variables and Mutability](ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.md) - - [Data Types](ch03-02-data-types.md) - - [Functions](ch03-03-how-functions-work.md) - - [Comments](ch03-04-comments.md) - - [Control Flow](ch03-05-control-flow.md) + - [Variables and Mutability](ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.md) + - [Data Types](ch03-02-data-types.md) + - [Functions](ch03-03-how-functions-work.md) + - [Comments](ch03-04-comments.md) + - [Control Flow](ch03-05-control-flow.md) - [Understanding Ownership](ch04-00-understanding-ownership.md) - - [What is Ownership?](ch04-01-what-is-ownership.md) - - [References and Borrowing](ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md) - - [The Slice Type](ch04-03-slices.md) + - [What is Ownership?](ch04-01-what-is-ownership.md) + - [References and Borrowing](ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md) + - [The Slice Type](ch04-03-slices.md) - [Using Structs to Structure Related Data](ch05-00-structs.md) - - [Defining and Instantiating Structs](ch05-01-defining-structs.md) - - [An Example Program Using Structs](ch05-02-example-structs.md) - - [Method Syntax](ch05-03-method-syntax.md) + - [Defining and Instantiating Structs](ch05-01-defining-structs.md) + - [An Example Program Using Structs](ch05-02-example-structs.md) + - [Method Syntax](ch05-03-method-syntax.md) - [Enums and Pattern Matching](ch06-00-enums.md) - - [Defining an Enum](ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md) - - [The `match` Control Flow Construct](ch06-02-match.md) - - [Concise Control Flow with `if let`](ch06-03-if-let.md) + - [Defining an Enum](ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md) + - [The `match` Control Flow Construct](ch06-02-match.md) + - [Concise Control Flow with `if let`](ch06-03-if-let.md) ## Basic Rust Literacy - [Managing Growing Projects with Packages, Crates, and Modules](ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.md) - - [Packages and Crates](ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md) - - [Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy](ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md) - - [Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree](ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md) - - [Bringing Paths Into Scope with the `use` Keyword](ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md) - - [Separating Modules into Different Files](ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md) + - [Packages and Crates](ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md) + - [Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy](ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md) + - [Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree](ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md) + - [Bringing Paths Into Scope with the `use` Keyword](ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md) + - [Separating Modules into Different Files](ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md) - [Common Collections](ch08-00-common-collections.md) - - [Storing Lists of Values with Vectors](ch08-01-vectors.md) - - [Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with Strings](ch08-02-strings.md) - - [Storing Keys with Associated Values in Hash Maps](ch08-03-hash-maps.md) + - [Storing Lists of Values with Vectors](ch08-01-vectors.md) + - [Storing UTF-8 Encoded Text with Strings](ch08-02-strings.md) + - [Storing Keys with Associated Values in Hash Maps](ch08-03-hash-maps.md) - [Error Handling](ch09-00-error-handling.md) - - [Unrecoverable Errors with `panic!`](ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md) - - [Recoverable Errors with `Result`](ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md) - - [To `panic!` or Not to `panic!`](ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md) + - [Unrecoverable Errors with `panic!`](ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md) + - [Recoverable Errors with `Result`](ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md) + - [To `panic!` or Not to `panic!`](ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md) - [Generic Types, Traits, and Lifetimes](ch10-00-generics.md) - - [Generic Data Types](ch10-01-syntax.md) - - [Traits: Defining Shared Behavior](ch10-02-traits.md) - - [Validating References with Lifetimes](ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md) + - [Generic Data Types](ch10-01-syntax.md) + - [Traits: Defining Shared Behavior](ch10-02-traits.md) + - [Validating References with Lifetimes](ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md) - [Writing Automated Tests](ch11-00-testing.md) - - [How to Write Tests](ch11-01-writing-tests.md) - - [Controlling How Tests Are Run](ch11-02-running-tests.md) - - [Test Organization](ch11-03-test-organization.md) + - [How to Write Tests](ch11-01-writing-tests.md) + - [Controlling How Tests Are Run](ch11-02-running-tests.md) + - [Test Organization](ch11-03-test-organization.md) - [An I/O Project: Building a Command Line Program](ch12-00-an-io-project.md) - - [Accepting Command Line Arguments](ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md) - - [Reading a File](ch12-02-reading-a-file.md) - - [Refactoring to Improve Modularity and Error Handling](ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md) - - [Developing the Library’s Functionality with Test Driven Development](ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md) - - [Working with Environment Variables](ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md) - - [Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output](ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.md) + - [Accepting Command Line Arguments](ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md) + - [Reading a File](ch12-02-reading-a-file.md) + - [Refactoring to Improve Modularity and Error Handling](ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md) + - [Developing the Library’s Functionality with Test Driven Development](ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md) + - [Working with Environment Variables](ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md) + - [Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output](ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.md) ## Thinking in Rust - [Functional Language Features: Iterators and Closures](ch13-00-functional-features.md) - - [Closures: Anonymous Functions that Can Capture Their Environment](ch13-01-closures.md) - - [Processing a Series of Items with Iterators](ch13-02-iterators.md) - - [Improving Our I/O Project](ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.md) - - [Comparing Performance: Loops vs. Iterators](ch13-04-performance.md) + - [Closures: Anonymous Functions that Capture Their Environment](ch13-01-closures.md) + - [Processing a Series of Items with Iterators](ch13-02-iterators.md) + - [Improving Our I/O Project](ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.md) + - [Comparing Performance: Loops vs. Iterators](ch13-04-performance.md) - [More about Cargo and Crates.io](ch14-00-more-about-cargo.md) - - [Customizing Builds with Release Profiles](ch14-01-release-profiles.md) - - [Publishing a Crate to Crates.io](ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md) - - [Cargo Workspaces](ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.md) - - [Installing Binaries from Crates.io with `cargo install`](ch14-04-installing-binaries.md) - - [Extending Cargo with Custom Commands](ch14-05-extending-cargo.md) + - [Customizing Builds with Release Profiles](ch14-01-release-profiles.md) + - [Publishing a Crate to Crates.io](ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md) + - [Cargo Workspaces](ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.md) + - [Installing Binaries from Crates.io with `cargo install`](ch14-04-installing-binaries.md) + - [Extending Cargo with Custom Commands](ch14-05-extending-cargo.md) - [Smart Pointers](ch15-00-smart-pointers.md) - - [Using `Box` to Point to Data on the Heap](ch15-01-box.md) - - [Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the `Deref` Trait](ch15-02-deref.md) - - [Running Code on Cleanup with the `Drop` Trait](ch15-03-drop.md) - - [`Rc`, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer](ch15-04-rc.md) - - [`RefCell` and the Interior Mutability Pattern](ch15-05-interior-mutability.md) - - [Reference Cycles Can Leak Memory](ch15-06-reference-cycles.md) + - [Using `Box` to Point to Data on the Heap](ch15-01-box.md) + - [Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the `Deref` Trait](ch15-02-deref.md) + - [Running Code on Cleanup with the `Drop` Trait](ch15-03-drop.md) + - [`Rc`, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer](ch15-04-rc.md) + - [`RefCell` and the Interior Mutability Pattern](ch15-05-interior-mutability.md) + - [Reference Cycles Can Leak Memory](ch15-06-reference-cycles.md) - [Fearless Concurrency](ch16-00-concurrency.md) - - [Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously](ch16-01-threads.md) - - [Using Message Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads](ch16-02-message-passing.md) - - [Shared-State Concurrency](ch16-03-shared-state.md) - - [Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits](ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md) - -- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch17-00-oop.md) - - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch17-01-what-is-oo.md) - - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch17-02-trait-objects.md) - - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md) + - [Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously](ch16-01-threads.md) + - [Using Message Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads](ch16-02-message-passing.md) + - [Shared-State Concurrency](ch16-03-shared-state.md) + - [Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits](ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md) + +- [Async and Await](ch17-00-async-await.md) + - [Futures and the Async Syntax](ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md) + - [Concurrency With Async](ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md) + - [Working With Any Number of Futures](ch17-03-more-futures.md) + - [Streams](ch17-04-streams.md) + - [Digging Into the Traits for Async](ch17-05-traits-for-async.md) + - [Futures, Tasks, and Threads](ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md) + +- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch18-00-oop.md) + - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch18-01-what-is-oo.md) + - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch18-02-trait-objects.md) + - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md) ## Advanced Topics -- [Patterns and Matching](ch18-00-patterns.md) - - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) - - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch18-02-refutability.md) - - [Pattern Syntax](ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md) +- [Patterns and Matching](ch19-00-patterns.md) + - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) + - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch19-02-refutability.md) + - [Pattern Syntax](ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md) -- [Advanced Features](ch19-00-advanced-features.md) - - [Unsafe Rust](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md) - - [Advanced Traits](ch19-03-advanced-traits.md) - - [Advanced Types](ch19-04-advanced-types.md) - - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) - - [Macros](ch19-06-macros.md) +- [Advanced Features](ch20-00-advanced-features.md) + - [Unsafe Rust](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md) + - [Advanced Traits](ch20-03-advanced-traits.md) + - [Advanced Types](ch20-04-advanced-types.md) + - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) + - [Macros](ch20-06-macros.md) -- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) - - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch20-01-single-threaded.md) - - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch20-02-multithreaded.md) - - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) +- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) + - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch21-01-single-threaded.md) + - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch21-02-multithreaded.md) + - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) - [Appendix](appendix-00.md) - - [A - Keywords](appendix-01-keywords.md) - - [B - Operators and Symbols](appendix-02-operators.md) - - [C - Derivable Traits](appendix-03-derivable-traits.md) - - [D - Useful Development Tools](appendix-04-useful-development-tools.md) - - [E - Editions](appendix-05-editions.md) - - [F - Translations of the Book](appendix-06-translation.md) - - [G - How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”](appendix-07-nightly-rust.md) + - [A - Keywords](appendix-01-keywords.md) + - [B - Operators and Symbols](appendix-02-operators.md) + - [C - Derivable Traits](appendix-03-derivable-traits.md) + - [D - Useful Development Tools](appendix-04-useful-development-tools.md) + - [E - Editions](appendix-05-editions.md) + - [F - Translations of the Book](appendix-06-translation.md) + - [G - How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”](appendix-07-nightly-rust.md) diff --git a/src/appendix-01-keywords.md b/src/appendix-01-keywords.md index c609cb4b99..1df1691174 100644 --- a/src/appendix-01-keywords.md +++ b/src/appendix-01-keywords.md @@ -3,83 +3,84 @@ The following list contains keywords that are reserved for current or future use by the Rust language. As such, they cannot be used as identifiers (except as raw identifiers as we’ll discuss in the “[Raw -Identifiers][raw-identifiers]” section), including names of -functions, variables, parameters, struct fields, modules, crates, constants, +Identifiers][raw-identifiers]” section). Identifiers are names +of functions, variables, parameters, struct fields, modules, crates, constants, macros, static values, attributes, types, traits, or lifetimes. [raw-identifiers]: #raw-identifiers ### Keywords Currently in Use -The following keywords currently have the functionality described. - -* `as` - perform primitive casting, disambiguate the specific trait containing - an item, or rename items in `use` and `extern crate` statements -* `async` - return a `Future` instead of blocking the current thread -* `await` - suspend execution until the result of a `Future` is ready -* `break` - exit a loop immediately -* `const` - define constant items or constant raw pointers -* `continue` - continue to the next loop iteration -* `crate` - link an external crate or a macro variable representing the crate in - which the macro is defined -* `dyn` - dynamic dispatch to a trait object -* `else` - fallback for `if` and `if let` control flow constructs -* `enum` - define an enumeration -* `extern` - link an external crate, function, or variable -* `false` - Boolean false literal -* `fn` - define a function or the function pointer type -* `for` - loop over items from an iterator, implement a trait, or specify a +The following is a list of keywords currently in use, with their functionality +described. + +- `as` - perform primitive casting, disambiguate the specific trait containing + an item, or rename items in `use` statements +- `async` - return a `Future` instead of blocking the current thread +- `await` - suspend execution until the result of a `Future` is ready +- `break` - exit a loop immediately +- `const` - define constant items or constant raw pointers +- `continue` - continue to the next loop iteration +- `crate` - in a module path, refers to the crate root +- `dyn` - dynamic dispatch to a trait object +- `else` - fallback for `if` and `if let` control flow constructs +- `enum` - define an enumeration +- `extern` - link an external function or variable +- `false` - Boolean false literal +- `fn` - define a function or the function pointer type +- `for` - loop over items from an iterator, implement a trait, or specify a higher-ranked lifetime -* `if` - branch based on the result of a conditional expression -* `impl` - implement inherent or trait functionality -* `in` - part of `for` loop syntax -* `let` - bind a variable -* `loop` - loop unconditionally -* `match` - match a value to patterns -* `mod` - define a module -* `move` - make a closure take ownership of all its captures -* `mut` - denote mutability in references, raw pointers, or pattern bindings -* `pub` - denote public visibility in struct fields, `impl` blocks, or modules -* `ref` - bind by reference -* `return` - return from function -* `Self` - a type alias for the type we are defining or implementing -* `self` - method subject or current module -* `static` - global variable or lifetime lasting the entire program execution -* `struct` - define a structure -* `super` - parent module of the current module -* `trait` - define a trait -* `true` - Boolean true literal -* `type` - define a type alias or associated type -* `union` - define a [union] and is only a keyword when used in a union declaration -* `unsafe` - denote unsafe code, functions, traits, or implementations -* `use` - bring symbols into scope -* `where` - denote clauses that constrain a type -* `while` - loop conditionally based on the result of an expression +- `if` - branch based on the result of a conditional expression +- `impl` - implement inherent or trait functionality +- `in` - part of `for` loop syntax +- `let` - bind a variable +- `loop` - loop unconditionally +- `match` - match a value to patterns +- `mod` - define a module +- `move` - make a closure take ownership of all its captures +- `mut` - denote mutability in references, raw pointers, or pattern bindings +- `pub` - denote public visibility in struct fields, `impl` blocks, or modules +- `ref` - bind by reference +- `return` - return from function +- `Self` - a type alias for the type we are defining or implementing +- `self` - method subject or current module +- `static` - global variable or lifetime lasting the entire program execution +- `struct` - define a structure +- `super` - parent module of the current module +- `trait` - define a trait +- `true` - Boolean true literal +- `type` - define a type alias or associated type +- `union` - define a [union][union]; is only a keyword when used + in a union declaration +- `unsafe` - denote unsafe code, functions, traits, or implementations +- `use` - bring symbols into scope +- `where` - denote clauses that constrain a type +- `while` - loop conditionally based on the result of an expression [union]: ../reference/items/unions.html ### Keywords Reserved for Future Use -The following keywords do not have any functionality but are reserved by Rust -for potential future use. - -* `abstract` -* `become` -* `box` -* `do` -* `final` -* `macro` -* `override` -* `priv` -* `try` -* `typeof` -* `unsized` -* `virtual` -* `yield` +The following keywords do not yet have any functionality but are reserved by +Rust for potential future use. + +- `abstract` +- `become` +- `box` +- `do` +- `final` +- `macro` +- `override` +- `priv` +- `try` +- `typeof` +- `unsized` +- `virtual` +- `yield` ### Raw Identifiers -*Raw identifiers* are the syntax that lets you use keywords where they wouldn’t +_Raw identifiers_ are the syntax that lets you use keywords where they wouldn’t normally be allowed. You use a raw identifier by prefixing a keyword with `r#`. For example, `match` is a keyword. If you try to compile the following function @@ -123,9 +124,11 @@ This code will compile without any errors. Note the `r#` prefix on the function name in its definition as well as where the function is called in `main`. Raw identifiers allow you to use any word you choose as an identifier, even if -that word happens to be a reserved keyword. In addition, raw identifiers allow -you to use libraries written in a different Rust edition than your crate uses. -For example, `try` isn’t a keyword in the 2015 edition but is in the 2018 +that word happens to be a reserved keyword. This gives us more freedom to +choose identifier names, as well as lets us integrate with programs written in +a language where these words aren’t keywords. In addition, raw identifiers +allow you to use libraries written in a different Rust edition than your crate +uses. For example, `try` isn’t a keyword in the 2015 edition but is in the 2018 edition. If you depend on a library that’s written using the 2015 edition and has a `try` function, you’ll need to use the raw identifier syntax, `r#try` in this case, to call that function from your 2018 edition code. See [Appendix diff --git a/src/appendix-02-operators.md b/src/appendix-02-operators.md index ec1d2d3e0e..6c8b8d89db 100644 --- a/src/appendix-02-operators.md +++ b/src/appendix-02-operators.md @@ -13,158 +13,158 @@ overload that operator is listed. Table B-1: Operators -| Operator | Example | Explanation | Overloadable? | -|----------|---------|-------------|---------------| -| `!` | `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro expansion | | -| `!` | `!expr` | Bitwise or logical complement | `Not` | -| `!=` | `var != expr` | Nonequality comparison | `PartialEq` | -| `%` | `expr % expr` | Arithmetic remainder | `Rem` | -| `%=` | `var %= expr` | Arithmetic remainder and assignment | `RemAssign` | -| `&` | `&expr`, `&mut expr` | Borrow | | -| `&` | `&type`, `&mut type`, `&'a type`, `&'a mut type` | Borrowed pointer type | | -| `&` | `expr & expr` | Bitwise AND | `BitAnd` | -| `&=` | `var &= expr` | Bitwise AND and assignment | `BitAndAssign` | -| `&&` | `expr && expr` | Short-circuiting logical AND | | -| `*` | `expr * expr` | Arithmetic multiplication | `Mul` | -| `*=` | `var *= expr` | Arithmetic multiplication and assignment | `MulAssign` | -| `*` | `*expr` | Dereference | `Deref` | -| `*` | `*const type`, `*mut type` | Raw pointer | | -| `+` | `trait + trait`, `'a + trait` | Compound type constraint | | -| `+` | `expr + expr` | Arithmetic addition | `Add` | -| `+=` | `var += expr` | Arithmetic addition and assignment | `AddAssign` | -| `,` | `expr, expr` | Argument and element separator | | -| `-` | `- expr` | Arithmetic negation | `Neg` | -| `-` | `expr - expr` | Arithmetic subtraction | `Sub` | -| `-=` | `var -= expr` | Arithmetic subtraction and assignment | `SubAssign` | -| `->` | `fn(...) -> type`, |...| -> type | Function and closure return type | | -| `.` | `expr.ident` | Member access | | -| `..` | `..`, `expr..`, `..expr`, `expr..expr` | Right-exclusive range literal | `PartialOrd` | -| `..=` | `..=expr`, `expr..=expr` | Right-inclusive range literal | `PartialOrd` | -| `..` | `..expr` | Struct literal update syntax | | -| `..` | `variant(x, ..)`, `struct_type { x, .. }` | “And the rest” pattern binding | | -| `...` | `expr...expr` | (Deprecated, use `..=` instead) In a pattern: inclusive range pattern | | -| `/` | `expr / expr` | Arithmetic division | `Div` | -| `/=` | `var /= expr` | Arithmetic division and assignment | `DivAssign` | -| `:` | `pat: type`, `ident: type` | Constraints | | -| `:` | `ident: expr` | Struct field initializer | | -| `:` | `'a: loop {...}` | Loop label | | -| `;` | `expr;` | Statement and item terminator | | -| `;` | `[...; len]` | Part of fixed-size array syntax | | -| `<<` | `expr << expr` | Left-shift | `Shl` | -| `<<=` | `var <<= expr` | Left-shift and assignment | `ShlAssign` | -| `<` | `expr < expr` | Less than comparison | `PartialOrd` | -| `<=` | `expr <= expr` | Less than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | -| `=` | `var = expr`, `ident = type` | Assignment/equivalence | | -| `==` | `expr == expr` | Equality comparison | `PartialEq` | -| `=>` | `pat => expr` | Part of match arm syntax | | -| `>` | `expr > expr` | Greater than comparison | `PartialOrd` | -| `>=` | `expr >= expr` | Greater than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | -| `>>` | `expr >> expr` | Right-shift | `Shr` | -| `>>=` | `var >>= expr` | Right-shift and assignment | `ShrAssign` | -| `@` | `ident @ pat` | Pattern binding | | -| `^` | `expr ^ expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR | `BitXor` | -| `^=` | `var ^= expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment | `BitXorAssign` | -| | | pat | pat | Pattern alternatives | | -| | | expr | expr | Bitwise OR | `BitOr` | -| |= | var |= expr | Bitwise OR and assignment | `BitOrAssign` | -| || | expr || expr | Short-circuiting logical OR | | -| `?` | `expr?` | Error propagation | | +| Operator | Example | Explanation | Overloadable? | +| ------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------- | -------------- | +| `!` | `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro expansion | | +| `!` | `!expr` | Bitwise or logical complement | `Not` | +| `!=` | `expr != expr` | Nonequality comparison | `PartialEq` | +| `%` | `expr % expr` | Arithmetic remainder | `Rem` | +| `%=` | `var %= expr` | Arithmetic remainder and assignment | `RemAssign` | +| `&` | `&expr`, `&mut expr` | Borrow | | +| `&` | `&type`, `&mut type`, `&'a type`, `&'a mut type` | Borrowed pointer type | | +| `&` | `expr & expr` | Bitwise AND | `BitAnd` | +| `&=` | `var &= expr` | Bitwise AND and assignment | `BitAndAssign` | +| `&&` | `expr && expr` | Short-circuiting logical AND | | +| `*` | `expr * expr` | Arithmetic multiplication | `Mul` | +| `*=` | `var *= expr` | Arithmetic multiplication and assignment | `MulAssign` | +| `*` | `*expr` | Dereference | `Deref` | +| `*` | `*const type`, `*mut type` | Raw pointer | | +| `+` | `trait + trait`, `'a + trait` | Compound type constraint | | +| `+` | `expr + expr` | Arithmetic addition | `Add` | +| `+=` | `var += expr` | Arithmetic addition and assignment | `AddAssign` | +| `,` | `expr, expr` | Argument and element separator | | +| `-` | `- expr` | Arithmetic negation | `Neg` | +| `-` | `expr - expr` | Arithmetic subtraction | `Sub` | +| `-=` | `var -= expr` | Arithmetic subtraction and assignment | `SubAssign` | +| `->` | `fn(...) -> type`, |...| -> type | Function and closure return type | | +| `.` | `expr.ident` | Member access | | +| `..` | `..`, `expr..`, `..expr`, `expr..expr` | Right-exclusive range literal | `PartialOrd` | +| `..=` | `..=expr`, `expr..=expr` | Right-inclusive range literal | `PartialOrd` | +| `..` | `..expr` | Struct literal update syntax | | +| `..` | `variant(x, ..)`, `struct_type { x, .. }` | “And the rest” pattern binding | | +| `...` | `expr...expr` | (Deprecated, use `..=` instead) In a pattern: inclusive range pattern | | +| `/` | `expr / expr` | Arithmetic division | `Div` | +| `/=` | `var /= expr` | Arithmetic division and assignment | `DivAssign` | +| `:` | `pat: type`, `ident: type` | Constraints | | +| `:` | `ident: expr` | Struct field initializer | | +| `:` | `'a: loop {...}` | Loop label | | +| `;` | `expr;` | Statement and item terminator | | +| `;` | `[...; len]` | Part of fixed-size array syntax | | +| `<<` | `expr << expr` | Left-shift | `Shl` | +| `<<=` | `var <<= expr` | Left-shift and assignment | `ShlAssign` | +| `<` | `expr < expr` | Less than comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `<=` | `expr <= expr` | Less than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `=` | `var = expr`, `ident = type` | Assignment/equivalence | | +| `==` | `expr == expr` | Equality comparison | `PartialEq` | +| `=>` | `pat => expr` | Part of match arm syntax | | +| `>` | `expr > expr` | Greater than comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `>=` | `expr >= expr` | Greater than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` | +| `>>` | `expr >> expr` | Right-shift | `Shr` | +| `>>=` | `var >>= expr` | Right-shift and assignment | `ShrAssign` | +| `@` | `ident @ pat` | Pattern binding | | +| `^` | `expr ^ expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR | `BitXor` | +| `^=` | `var ^= expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment | `BitXorAssign` | +| | | pat | pat | Pattern alternatives | | +| | | expr | expr | Bitwise OR | `BitOr` | +| |= | var |= expr | Bitwise OR and assignment | `BitOrAssign` | +| || | expr || expr | Short-circuiting logical OR | | +| `?` | `expr?` | Error propagation | | ### Non-operator Symbols -The following list contains all non-letters that don’t function as operators; -that is, they don’t behave like a function or method call. +The following list contains all symbols that don’t function as operators; that +is, they don’t behave like a function or method call. Table B-2 shows symbols that appear on their own and are valid in a variety of locations. Table B-2: Stand-Alone Syntax -| Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `'ident` | Named lifetime or loop label | -| `...u8`, `...i32`, `...f64`, `...usize`, etc. | Numeric literal of specific type | -| `"..."` | String literal | -| `r"..."`, `r#"..."#`, `r##"..."##`, etc. | Raw string literal, escape characters not processed | -| `b"..."` | Byte string literal; constructs an array of bytes instead of a string | -| `br"..."`, `br#"..."#`, `br##"..."##`, etc. | Raw byte string literal, combination of raw and byte string literal | -| `'...'` | Character literal | -| `b'...'` | ASCII byte literal | -| |...| expr | Closure | -| `!` | Always empty bottom type for diverging functions | -| `_` | “Ignored” pattern binding; also used to make integer literals readable | +| Symbol | Explanation | +| --------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| `'ident` | Named lifetime or loop label | +| `...u8`, `...i32`, `...f64`, `...usize`, etc. | Numeric literal of specific type | +| `"..."` | String literal | +| `r"..."`, `r#"..."#`, `r##"..."##`, etc. | Raw string literal, escape characters not processed | +| `b"..."` | Byte string literal; constructs an array of bytes instead of a string | +| `br"..."`, `br#"..."#`, `br##"..."##`, etc. | Raw byte string literal, combination of raw and byte string literal | +| `'...'` | Character literal | +| `b'...'` | ASCII byte literal | +| |...| expr | Closure | +| `!` | Always empty bottom type for diverging functions | +| `_` | “Ignored” pattern binding; also used to make integer literals readable | Table B-3 shows symbols that appear in the context of a path through the module hierarchy to an item. Table B-3: Path-Related Syntax -| Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `ident::ident` | Namespace path | -| `::path` | Path relative to the crate root (i.e., an explicitly absolute path) | -| `self::path` | Path relative to the current module (i.e., an explicitly relative path). -| `super::path` | Path relative to the parent of the current module | -| `type::ident`, `::ident` | Associated constants, functions, and types | -| `::...` | Associated item for a type that cannot be directly named (e.g., `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, etc.) | -| `trait::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait that defines it | -| `type::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the type for which it’s defined | -| `::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait and type | +| Symbol | Explanation | +| --------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| `ident::ident` | Namespace path | +| `::path` | Path relative to the extern prelude, where all other crates are rooted (i.e., an explicitly absolute path including crate name) | +| `self::path` | Path relative to the current module (i.e., an explicitly relative path). | +| `super::path` | Path relative to the parent of the current module | +| `type::ident`, `::ident` | Associated constants, functions, and types | +| `::...` | Associated item for a type that cannot be directly named (e.g., `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, etc.) | +| `trait::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait that defines it | +| `type::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the type for which it’s defined | +| `::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait and type | Table B-4 shows symbols that appear in the context of using generic type parameters. Table B-4: Generics -| Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `path<...>` | Specifies parameters to generic type in a type (e.g., `Vec`) | +| Symbol | Explanation | +| ------------------------------ | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| `path<...>` | Specifies parameters to generic type in a type (e.g., `Vec`) | | `path::<...>`, `method::<...>` | Specifies parameters to generic type, function, or method in an expression; often referred to as turbofish (e.g., `"42".parse::()`) | -| `fn ident<...> ...` | Define generic function | -| `struct ident<...> ...` | Define generic structure | -| `enum ident<...> ...` | Define generic enumeration | -| `impl<...> ...` | Define generic implementation | -| `for<...> type` | Higher-ranked lifetime bounds | -| `type` | A generic type where one or more associated types have specific assignments (e.g., `Iterator`) | +| `fn ident<...> ...` | Define generic function | +| `struct ident<...> ...` | Define generic structure | +| `enum ident<...> ...` | Define generic enumeration | +| `impl<...> ...` | Define generic implementation | +| `for<...> type` | Higher-ranked lifetime bounds | +| `type` | A generic type where one or more associated types have specific assignments (e.g., `Iterator`) | Table B-5 shows symbols that appear in the context of constraining generic type parameters with trait bounds. Table B-5: Trait Bound Constraints -| Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `T: U` | Generic parameter `T` constrained to types that implement `U` | -| `T: 'a` | Generic type `T` must outlive lifetime `'a` (meaning the type cannot transitively contain any references with lifetimes shorter than `'a`) | -| `T: 'static` | Generic type `T` contains no borrowed references other than `'static` ones | -| `'b: 'a` | Generic lifetime `'b` must outlive lifetime `'a` | -| `T: ?Sized` | Allow generic type parameter to be a dynamically sized type | -| `'a + trait`, `trait + trait` | Compound type constraint | +| Symbol | Explanation | +| ----------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | +| `T: U` | Generic parameter `T` constrained to types that implement `U` | +| `T: 'a` | Generic type `T` must outlive lifetime `'a` (meaning the type cannot transitively contain any references with lifetimes shorter than `'a`) | +| `T: 'static` | Generic type `T` contains no borrowed references other than `'static` ones | +| `'b: 'a` | Generic lifetime `'b` must outlive lifetime `'a` | +| `T: ?Sized` | Allow generic type parameter to be a dynamically sized type | +| `'a + trait`, `trait + trait` | Compound type constraint | Table B-6 shows symbols that appear in the context of calling or defining macros and specifying attributes on an item. Table B-6: Macros and Attributes -| Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `#[meta]` | Outer attribute | -| `#![meta]` | Inner attribute | -| `$ident` | Macro substitution | -| `$ident:kind` | Macro capture | -| `$(…)…` | Macro repetition | -| `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro invocation | +| Symbol | Explanation | +| ------------------------------------------- | ------------------ | +| `#[meta]` | Outer attribute | +| `#![meta]` | Inner attribute | +| `$ident` | Macro substitution | +| `$ident:kind` | Macro capture | +| `$(…)…` | Macro repetition | +| `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro invocation | Table B-7 shows symbols that create comments. Table B-7: Comments -| Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `//` | Line comment | -| `//!` | Inner line doc comment | -| `///` | Outer line doc comment | -| `/*...*/` | Block comment | +| Symbol | Explanation | +| ---------- | ----------------------- | +| `//` | Line comment | +| `//!` | Inner line doc comment | +| `///` | Outer line doc comment | +| `/*...*/` | Block comment | | `/*!...*/` | Inner block doc comment | | `/**...*/` | Outer block doc comment | @@ -172,34 +172,34 @@ Table B-8 shows symbols that appear in the context of using tuples. Table B-8: Tuples -| Symbol | Explanation | -|--------|-------------| -| `()` | Empty tuple (aka unit), both literal and type | -| `(expr)` | Parenthesized expression | -| `(expr,)` | Single-element tuple expression | -| `(type,)` | Single-element tuple type | -| `(expr, ...)` | Tuple expression | -| `(type, ...)` | Tuple type | -| `expr(expr, ...)` | Function call expression; also used to initialize tuple `struct`s and tuple `enum` variants | -| `expr.0`, `expr.1`, etc. | Tuple indexing | +| Symbol | Explanation | +| ------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| `()` | Empty tuple (aka unit), both literal and type | +| `(expr)` | Parenthesized expression | +| `(expr,)` | Single-element tuple expression | +| `(type,)` | Single-element tuple type | +| `(expr, ...)` | Tuple expression | +| `(type, ...)` | Tuple type | +| `expr(expr, ...)` | Function call expression; also used to initialize tuple `struct`s and tuple `enum` variants | +| `expr.0`, `expr.1`, etc. | Tuple indexing | Table B-9 shows the contexts in which curly braces are used. Table B-9: Curly Brackets -| Context | Explanation | -|---------|-------------| -| `{...}` | Block expression | +| Context | Explanation | +| ------------ | ---------------- | +| `{...}` | Block expression | | `Type {...}` | `struct` literal | Table B-10 shows the contexts in which square brackets are used. Table B-10: Square Brackets -| Context | Explanation | -|---------|-------------| -| `[...]` | Array literal | -| `[expr; len]` | Array literal containing `len` copies of `expr` | -| `[type; len]` | Array type containing `len` instances of `type` | -| `expr[expr]` | Collection indexing. Overloadable (`Index`, `IndexMut`) | +| Context | Explanation | +| -------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | +| `[...]` | Array literal | +| `[expr; len]` | Array literal containing `len` copies of `expr` | +| `[type; len]` | Array type containing `len` instances of `type` | +| `expr[expr]` | Collection indexing. Overloadable (`Index`, `IndexMut`) | | `expr[..]`, `expr[a..]`, `expr[..b]`, `expr[a..b]` | Collection indexing pretending to be collection slicing, using `Range`, `RangeFrom`, `RangeTo`, or `RangeFull` as the “index” | diff --git a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md index bc20ab107e..2365ade130 100644 --- a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md +++ b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md @@ -8,20 +8,20 @@ type you’ve annotated with the `derive` syntax. In this appendix, we provide a reference of all the traits in the standard library that you can use with `derive`. Each section covers: -* What operators and methods deriving this trait will enable -* What the implementation of the trait provided by `derive` does -* What implementing the trait signifies about the type -* The conditions in which you’re allowed or not allowed to implement the trait -* Examples of operations that require the trait +- What operators and methods deriving this trait will enable +- What the implementation of the trait provided by `derive` does +- What implementing the trait signifies about the type +- The conditions in which you’re allowed or not allowed to implement the trait +- Examples of operations that require the trait If you want different behavior from that provided by the `derive` attribute, consult the [standard library documentation](../std/index.html) for each trait for details of how to manually implement them. -The rest of the traits defined in the standard library can’t be implemented on -your types using `derive`. These traits don’t have sensible default behavior, -so it’s up to you to implement them in the way that makes sense for what you’re -trying to accomplish. +These traits listed here are the only ones defined by the standard library that +can be implemented on your types using `derive`. Other traits defined in the +standard library don’t have sensible default behavior, so it’s up to you to +implement them in the way that makes sense for what you’re trying to accomplish. An example of a trait that can’t be derived is `Display`, which handles formatting for end users. You should always consider the appropriate way to @@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ The list of derivable traits provided in this appendix is not comprehensive: libraries can implement `derive` for their own traits, making the list of traits you can use `derive` with truly open-ended. Implementing `derive` involves using a procedural macro, which is covered in the -[“Macros”][macros] section of Chapter 19. +[“Macros”][macros] section of Chapter 20. ### `Debug` for Programmer Output @@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ The `Debug` trait allows you to print instances of a type for debugging purposes, so you and other programmers using your type can inspect an instance at a particular point in a program’s execution. -The `Debug` trait is required, for example, in use of the `assert_eq!` macro. +The `Debug` trait is required, for example, in using the `assert_eq!` macro. This macro prints the values of instances given as arguments if the equality assertion fails so programmers can see why the two instances weren’t equal. @@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ The `PartialEq` trait allows you to compare instances of a type to check for equality and enables use of the `==` and `!=` operators. Deriving `PartialEq` implements the `eq` method. When `PartialEq` is derived on -structs, two instances are equal only if *all* fields are equal, and the +structs, two instances are equal only if _all_ fields are equal, and the instances are not equal if any fields are not equal. When derived on enums, each variant is equal to itself and not equal to the other variants. @@ -178,10 +178,7 @@ The `Default` trait is required when you use the method `unwrap_or_default` on `unwrap_or_default` will return the result of `Default::default` for the type `T` stored in the `Option`. -[creating-instances-from-other-instances-with-struct-update-syntax]: -ch05-01-defining-structs.html#creating-instances-from-other-instances-with-struct-update-syntax -[stack-only-data-copy]: -ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#stack-only-data-copy -[ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone]: -ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[creating-instances-from-other-instances-with-struct-update-syntax]: ch05-01-defining-structs.html#creating-instances-from-other-instances-with-struct-update-syntax +[stack-only-data-copy]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#stack-only-data-copy +[ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/src/appendix-04-useful-development-tools.md b/src/appendix-04-useful-development-tools.md index 8338838fac..75e0c871b5 100644 --- a/src/appendix-04-useful-development-tools.md +++ b/src/appendix-04-useful-development-tools.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ warning fixes, a linter, and integrating with IDEs. ### Automatic Formatting with `rustfmt` -The `rustfmt` tool reformats your code according to the community code style. +The `rustfmt` tool reformats your code according to the community code style. Many collaborative projects use `rustfmt` to prevent arguments about which style to use when writing Rust: everyone formats their code using the tool. @@ -32,8 +32,9 @@ on `rustfmt`, see [its documentation][rustfmt]. ### Fix Your Code with `rustfix` The rustfix tool is included with Rust installations and can automatically fix -some compiler warnings. If you’ve written code in Rust, you’ve probably seen -compiler warnings. For example, consider this code: +compiler warnings that have a clear way to correct the problem that’s likely +what you want. It’s likely you’ve seen compiler warnings before. For example, +consider this code: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -76,7 +77,7 @@ $ cargo fix Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s ``` -When we look at *src/main.rs* again, we’ll see that `cargo fix` has changed the +When we look at _src/main.rs_ again, we’ll see that `cargo fix` has changed the code: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -94,7 +95,7 @@ fn main() { The `for` loop variable is now named `_i`, and the warning no longer appears. You can also use the `cargo fix` command to transition your code between -different Rust editions. Editions are covered in Appendix E. +different Rust editions. Editions are covered in [Appendix E][editions]. ### More Lints with Clippy @@ -129,20 +130,21 @@ fn main() { Running `cargo clippy` on this project results in this error: ```text -error: approximate value of `f{32, 64}::consts::PI` found. Consider using it directly +error: approximate value of `f{32, 64}::consts::PI` found --> src/main.rs:2:13 | 2 | let x = 3.1415; | ^^^^^^ | - = note: #[deny(clippy::approx_constant)] on by default - = help: for further information visit https://rust-lang-nursery.github.io/rust-clippy/master/index.html#approx_constant + = note: `#[deny(clippy::approx_constant)]` on by default + = help: consider using the constant directly + = help: for further information visit https://rust-lang.github.io/rust-clippy/master/index.html#approx_constant ``` -This error lets you know that Rust has this constant defined more precisely and -that your program would be more correct if you used the constant instead. You -would then change your code to use the `PI` constant. The following code -doesn’t result in any errors or warnings from Clippy: +This error lets you know that Rust already has a more precise `PI` constant +defined, and that your program would be more correct if you used the constant +instead. You would then change your code to use the `PI` constant. The +following code doesn’t result in any errors or warnings from Clippy: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -170,9 +172,10 @@ communicate with each other. Different clients can use `rust-analyzer`, such as [lsp]: http://langserver.org/ [vscode]: https://marketplace.visualstudio.com/items?itemName=rust-lang.rust-analyzer -Visit the `rust-analyzer` project’s [home page][rust-analyzer] for installation -instructions, then install the language server support in your particular IDE. -Your IDE will gain abilities such as autocompletion, jump to definition, and -inline errors. +Visit the `rust-analyzer` project’s [home page][rust-analyzer] +for installation instructions, then install the language server support in your +particular IDE. Your IDE will gain abilities such as autocompletion, jump to +definition, and inline errors. [rust-analyzer]: https://rust-analyzer.github.io +[editions]: appendix-05-editions.md diff --git a/src/appendix-05-editions.md b/src/appendix-05-editions.md index 90828ebbaf..ea9758ffa7 100644 --- a/src/appendix-05-editions.md +++ b/src/appendix-05-editions.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ ## Appendix E - Editions In Chapter 1, you saw that `cargo new` adds a bit of metadata to your -*Cargo.toml* file about an edition. This appendix talks about what that means! +_Cargo.toml_ file about an edition. This appendix talks about what that means! The Rust language and compiler have a six-week release cycle, meaning users get a constant stream of new features. Other programming languages release larger @@ -10,24 +10,24 @@ while, all of these tiny changes add up. But from release to release, it can be difficult to look back and say, “Wow, between Rust 1.10 and Rust 1.31, Rust has changed a lot!” -Every two or three years, the Rust team produces a new Rust *edition*. Each +Every two or three years, the Rust team produces a new Rust _edition_. Each edition brings together the features that have landed into a clear package with fully updated documentation and tooling. New editions ship as part of the usual six-week release process. Editions serve different purposes for different people: -* For active Rust users, a new edition brings together incremental changes into +- For active Rust users, a new edition brings together incremental changes into an easy-to-understand package. -* For non-users, a new edition signals that some major advancements have +- For non-users, a new edition signals that some major advancements have landed, which might make Rust worth another look. -* For those developing Rust, a new edition provides a rallying point for the +- For those developing Rust, a new edition provides a rallying point for the project as a whole. At the time of this writing, three Rust editions are available: Rust 2015, Rust 2018, and Rust 2021. This book is written using Rust 2021 edition idioms. -The `edition` key in *Cargo.toml* indicates which edition the compiler should +The `edition` key in _Cargo.toml_ indicates which edition the compiler should use for your code. If the key doesn’t exist, Rust uses `2015` as the edition value for backward compatibility reasons. @@ -51,7 +51,6 @@ made. However, in some cases, mainly when new keywords are added, some new features might only be available in later editions. You will need to switch editions if you want to take advantage of such features. -For more details, the [*Edition -Guide*](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/edition-guide/) is a complete book +For more details, the [_Edition Guide_](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/edition-guide/) is a complete book about editions that enumerates the differences between editions and explains how to automatically upgrade your code to a new edition via `cargo fix`. diff --git a/src/appendix-06-translation.md b/src/appendix-06-translation.md index 0bc6aabd99..0a8077b9db 100644 --- a/src/appendix-06-translation.md +++ b/src/appendix-06-translation.md @@ -9,9 +9,8 @@ For resources in languages other than English. Most are still in progress; see - [Português](https://github.com/nunojesus/rust-book-pt-pt) (PT) - [简体中文](https://github.com/KaiserY/trpl-zh-cn) - [正體中文](https://github.com/rust-tw/book-tw) -- [Українська](https://github.com/pavloslav/rust-book-uk-ua) -- [Español](https://github.com/thecodix/book), [alternate](https://github.com/ManRR/rust-book-es) -- [Italiano](https://github.com/Ciro-Fusco/book_it) +- [Українська](https://rust-lang-ua.github.io/rustbook_ukrainian) +- [Español](https://github.com/thecodix/book), [alternate](https://github.com/ManRR/rust-book-es), [Español por RustLangES](https://github.com/RustLangES/rust-book-es) - [Русский](https://github.com/rust-lang-ru/book) - [한국어](https://github.com/rinthel/rust-lang-book-ko) - [日本語](https://github.com/rust-lang-ja/book-ja) @@ -22,9 +21,8 @@ For resources in languages other than English. Most are still in progress; see - [Esperanto](https://github.com/psychoslave/Rust-libro) - [ελληνική](https://github.com/TChatzigiannakis/rust-book-greek) - [Svenska](https://github.com/sebras/book) -- [Farsi](https://github.com/pomokhtari/rust-book-fa) +- [Farsi](https://github.com/RustFarsi/book) - [Deutsch](https://github.com/rust-lang-de/rustbook-de) -- [Turkish](https://github.com/RustDili/dokuman/tree/master/ceviriler), [online](https://rustdili.github.io/) - [हिंदी](https://github.com/venkatarun95/rust-book-hindi) - [ไทย](https://github.com/rust-lang-th/book-th) - [Danske](https://github.com/DanKHansen/book-dk) diff --git a/src/appendix-07-nightly-rust.md b/src/appendix-07-nightly-rust.md index 46e619c815..5246d72825 100644 --- a/src/appendix-07-nightly-rust.md +++ b/src/appendix-07-nightly-rust.md @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ developer. ### Stability Without Stagnation -As a language, Rust cares a *lot* about the stability of your code. We want +As a language, Rust cares a _lot_ about the stability of your code. We want Rust to be a rock-solid foundation you can build on, and if things were constantly changing, that would be impossible. At the same time, if we can’t experiment with new features, we may not find out important flaws until after @@ -18,14 +18,14 @@ bring you new features, fewer bugs, and faster compile times. ### Choo, Choo! Release Channels and Riding the Trains -Rust development operates on a *train schedule*. That is, all development is +Rust development operates on a _train schedule_. That is, all development is done on the `master` branch of the Rust repository. Releases follow a software release train model, which has been used by Cisco IOS and other software -projects. There are three *release channels* for Rust: +projects. There are three _release channels_ for Rust: -* Nightly -* Beta -* Stable +- Nightly +- Beta +- Stable Most Rust developers primarily use the stable channel, but those who want to try out experimental new features may use nightly or beta. @@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ stable: * ``` Hooray! Rust 1.5 is done! However, we’ve forgotten one thing: because the six -weeks have gone by, we also need a new beta of the *next* version of Rust, 1.6. +weeks have gone by, we also need a new beta of the _next_ version of Rust, 1.6. So after `stable` branches off of `beta`, the next version of `beta` branches off of `nightly` again: @@ -114,12 +114,18 @@ work as expected, you can report it to the team and get it fixed before the next stable release happens! Breakage in a beta release is relatively rare, but `rustc` is still a piece of software, and bugs do exist. +### Maintenance time + +The Rust project supports the most recent stable version. When a new stable +version is released, the old version reaches its end of life (EOL). This means +each version is supported for six weeks. + ### Unstable Features There’s one more catch with this release model: unstable features. Rust uses a technique called “feature flags” to determine what features are enabled in a given release. If a new feature is under active development, it lands on -`master`, and therefore, in nightly, but behind a *feature flag*. If you, as a +`master`, and therefore, in nightly, but behind a _feature flag_. If you, as a user, wish to try out the work-in-progress feature, you can, but you must be using a nightly release of Rust and annotate your source code with the appropriate flag to opt in. @@ -145,7 +151,7 @@ install nightly, for example: $ rustup toolchain install nightly ``` -You can see all of the *toolchains* (releases of Rust and associated +You can see all of the _toolchains_ (releases of Rust and associated components) you have installed with `rustup` as well. Here’s an example on one of your authors’ Windows computer: @@ -168,20 +174,19 @@ $ rustup override set nightly ``` Now, every time you call `rustc` or `cargo` inside of -*~/projects/needs-nightly*, `rustup` will make sure that you are using nightly +_~/projects/needs-nightly_, `rustup` will make sure that you are using nightly Rust, rather than your default of stable Rust. This comes in handy when you have a lot of Rust projects! ### The RFC Process and Teams So how do you learn about these new features? Rust’s development model follows -a *Request For Comments (RFC) process*. If you’d like an improvement in Rust, +a _Request For Comments (RFC) process_. If you’d like an improvement in Rust, you can write up a proposal, called an RFC. Anyone can write RFCs to improve Rust, and the proposals are reviewed and discussed by the Rust team, which is comprised of many topic subteams. There’s -a full list of the teams [on Rust’s -website](https://www.rust-lang.org/governance), which includes teams for +a full list of the teams [on Rust’s website](https://www.rust-lang.org/governance), which includes teams for each area of the project: language design, compiler implementation, infrastructure, documentation, and more. The appropriate team reads the proposal and the comments, writes some comments of their own, and eventually, diff --git a/src/ch00-00-introduction.md b/src/ch00-00-introduction.md index 5319698a7d..c2c5fa6ec2 100644 --- a/src/ch00-00-introduction.md +++ b/src/ch00-00-introduction.md @@ -4,10 +4,10 @@ > Language][nsprust] available in print and ebook format from [No Starch > Press][nsp]. -[nsprust]: https://nostarch.com/rust +[nsprust]: https://nostarch.com/rust-programming-language-2nd-edition [nsp]: https://nostarch.com/ -Welcome to *The Rust Programming Language*, an introductory book about Rust. +Welcome to _The Rust Programming Language_, an introductory book about Rust. The Rust programming language helps you write faster, more reliable software. High-level ergonomics and low-level control are often at odds in programming language design; Rust challenges that conflict. Through balancing powerful @@ -24,8 +24,8 @@ the most important groups. Rust is proving to be a productive tool for collaborating among large teams of developers with varying levels of systems programming knowledge. Low-level code -is prone to a variety of subtle bugs, which in most other languages can be -caught only through extensive testing and careful code review by experienced +is prone to various subtle bugs, which in most other languages can be caught +only through extensive testing and careful code review by experienced developers. In Rust, the compiler plays a gatekeeper role by refusing to compile code with these elusive bugs, including concurrency bugs. By working alongside the compiler, the team can spend their time focusing on the program’s @@ -33,11 +33,12 @@ logic rather than chasing down bugs. Rust also brings contemporary developer tools to the systems programming world: -* Cargo, the included dependency manager and build tool, makes adding, +- Cargo, the included dependency manager and build tool, makes adding, compiling, and managing dependencies painless and consistent across the Rust ecosystem. -* Rustfmt ensures a consistent coding style across developers. -* The Rust Language Server powers Integrated Development Environment (IDE) +- The Rustfmt formatting tool ensures a consistent coding style across + developers. +- The rust-analyzer powers Integrated Development Environment (IDE) integration for code completion and inline error messages. By using these and other tools in the Rust ecosystem, developers can be @@ -55,8 +56,8 @@ programming. ### Companies Hundreds of companies, large and small, use Rust in production for a variety of -tasks. Those tasks include command line tools, web services, DevOps tooling, -embedded devices, audio and video analysis and transcoding, cryptocurrencies, +tasks, including command line tools, web services, DevOps tooling, embedded +devices, audio and video analysis and transcoding, cryptocurrencies, bioinformatics, search engines, Internet of Things applications, machine learning, and even major parts of the Firefox web browser. @@ -69,18 +70,18 @@ language. ### People Who Value Speed and Stability Rust is for people who crave speed and stability in a language. By speed, we -mean the speed of the programs that you can create with Rust and the speed at -which Rust lets you write them. The Rust compiler’s checks ensure stability -through feature additions and refactoring. This is in contrast to the brittle -legacy code in languages without these checks, which developers are often -afraid to modify. By striving for zero-cost abstractions, higher-level features -that compile to lower-level code as fast as code written manually, Rust -endeavors to make safe code be fast code as well. +mean both how quickly Rust code can run and the speed at which Rust lets you +write programs. The Rust compiler’s checks ensure stability through feature +additions and refactoring. This is in contrast to the brittle legacy code in +languages without these checks, which developers are often afraid to modify. By +striving for zero-cost abstractions, higher-level features that compile to +lower-level code as fast as code written manually, Rust endeavors to make safe +code be fast code as well. The Rust language hopes to support many other users as well; those mentioned here are merely some of the biggest stakeholders. Overall, Rust’s greatest ambition is to eliminate the trade-offs that programmers have accepted for -decades by providing safety *and* productivity, speed *and* ergonomics. Give +decades by providing safety _and_ productivity, speed _and_ ergonomics. Give Rust a try and see if its choices work for you. ## Who This Book Is For @@ -88,7 +89,7 @@ Rust a try and see if its choices work for you. This book assumes that you’ve written code in another programming language but doesn’t make any assumptions about which one. We’ve tried to make the material broadly accessible to those from a wide variety of programming backgrounds. We -don’t spend a lot of time talking about what programming *is* or how to think +don’t spend a lot of time talking about what programming _is_ or how to think about it. If you’re entirely new to programming, you would be better served by reading a book that specifically provides an introduction to programming. @@ -96,25 +97,25 @@ reading a book that specifically provides an introduction to programming. In general, this book assumes that you’re reading it in sequence from front to back. Later chapters build on concepts in earlier chapters, and earlier -chapters might not delve into details on a topic; we typically revisit the -topic in a later chapter. +chapters might not delve into details on a particular topic but will revisit +the topic in a later chapter. You’ll find two kinds of chapters in this book: concept chapters and project chapters. In concept chapters, you’ll learn about an aspect of Rust. In project chapters, we’ll build small programs together, applying what you’ve learned so -far. Chapters 2, 12, and 20 are project chapters; the rest are concept chapters. +far. Chapters 2, 12, and 21 are project chapters; the rest are concept chapters. Chapter 1 explains how to install Rust, how to write a “Hello, world!” program, and how to use Cargo, Rust’s package manager and build tool. Chapter 2 is a -hands-on introduction to the Rust language. Here we cover concepts at a high -level, and later chapters will provide additional detail. If you want to get -your hands dirty right away, Chapter 2 is the place for that. At first, you -might even want to skip Chapter 3, which covers Rust features similar to those -of other programming languages, and head straight to Chapter 4 to learn about -Rust’s ownership system. However, if you’re a particularly meticulous learner -who prefers to learn every detail before moving on to the next, you might want -to skip Chapter 2 and go straight to Chapter 3, returning to Chapter 2 when -you’d like to work on a project applying the details you’ve learned. +hands-on introduction to writing a program in Rust, having you build up a +number guessing game. Here we cover concepts at a high level, and later +chapters will provide additional detail. If you want to get your hands dirty +right away, Chapter 2 is the place for that. Chapter 3 covers Rust features +that are similar to those of other programming languages, and in Chapter 4 +you’ll learn about Rust’s ownership system. If you’re a particularly meticulous +learner who prefers to learn every detail before moving on to the next, you +might want to skip Chapter 2 and go straight to Chapter 3, returning to Chapter +2 when you’d like to work on a project applying the details you’ve learned. Chapter 5 discusses structs and methods, and Chapter 6 covers enums, `match` expressions, and the `if let` control flow construct. You’ll use structs and @@ -140,24 +141,29 @@ depth and talk about best practices for sharing your libraries with others. Chapter 15 discusses smart pointers that the standard library provides and the traits that enable their functionality. -In Chapter 16, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent programming -and talk about how Rust helps you to program in multiple threads fearlessly. -Chapter 17 looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented programming +In Chapter 16, we’ll walk through different models of concurrent programming and +talk about how Rust helps you to program in multiple threads fearlessly. In +Chapter 17, we will build on that by exploring Rust’s async and await syntax and +the lightweight concurrency model they support. + +Chapter 18 looks at how Rust idioms compare to object-oriented programming principles you might be familiar with. -Chapter 18 is a reference on patterns and pattern matching, which are powerful -ways of expressing ideas throughout Rust programs. Chapter 19 contains a +Chapter 19 is a reference on patterns and pattern matching, which are powerful +ways of expressing ideas throughout Rust programs. Chapter 20 contains a smorgasbord of advanced topics of interest, including unsafe Rust, macros, and more about lifetimes, traits, types, functions, and closures. -In Chapter 20, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a low-level +In Chapter 21, we’ll complete a project in which we’ll implement a low-level multithreaded web server! Finally, some appendices contain useful information about the language in a more reference-like format. Appendix A covers Rust’s keywords, Appendix B covers Rust’s operators and symbols, Appendix C covers derivable traits provided by the standard library, Appendix D covers some useful development -tools, and Appendix E explains Rust editions. +tools, and Appendix E explains Rust editions. In Appendix F, you can find +translations of the book, and in Appendix G we’ll cover how Rust is made and +what nightly Rust is. There is no wrong way to read this book: if you want to skip ahead, go for it! You might have to jump back to earlier chapters if you experience any @@ -174,7 +180,7 @@ surrounding text to see whether the example you’re trying to run is meant to error. Ferris will also help you distinguish code that isn’t meant to work: | Ferris | Meaning | -|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| +| ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------ | | Ferris with a question mark | This code does not compile! | | Ferris throwing up their hands | This code panics! | | Ferris with one claw up, shrugging | This code does not produce the desired behavior. | diff --git a/src/ch01-00-getting-started.md b/src/ch01-00-getting-started.md index ff5e324f7a..ccb10e884e 100644 --- a/src/ch01-00-getting-started.md +++ b/src/ch01-00-getting-started.md @@ -3,6 +3,6 @@ Let’s start your Rust journey! There’s a lot to learn, but every journey starts somewhere. In this chapter, we’ll discuss: -* Installing Rust on Linux, macOS, and Windows -* Writing a program that prints `Hello, world!` -* Using `cargo`, Rust’s package manager and build system +- Installing Rust on Linux, macOS, and Windows +- Writing a program that prints `Hello, world!` +- Using `cargo`, Rust’s package manager and build system diff --git a/src/ch01-01-installation.md b/src/ch01-01-installation.md index 122649478e..55636c09b3 100644 --- a/src/ch01-01-installation.md +++ b/src/ch01-01-installation.md @@ -7,30 +7,28 @@ an internet connection for the download. > Note: If you prefer not to use `rustup` for some reason, please see the > [Other Rust Installation Methods page][otherinstall] for more options. -[otherinstall]: https://forge.rust-lang.org/infra/other-installation-methods.html - The following steps install the latest stable version of the Rust compiler. Rust’s stability guarantees ensure that all the examples in the book that compile will continue to compile with newer Rust versions. The output might -differ slightly between versions, because Rust often improves error messages -and warnings. In other words, any newer, stable version of Rust you install -using these steps should work as expected with the content of this book. +differ slightly between versions because Rust often improves error messages and +warnings. In other words, any newer, stable version of Rust you install using +these steps should work as expected with the content of this book. > ### Command Line Notation > > In this chapter and throughout the book, we’ll show some commands used in the > terminal. Lines that you should enter in a terminal all start with `$`. You -> don’t need to type in the `$` character; it indicates the start of each -> command. Lines that don’t start with `$` typically show the output of the -> previous command. Additionally, PowerShell-specific examples will use `>` -> rather than `$`. +> don’t need to type the `$` character; it’s the command line prompt shown to +> indicate the start of each command. Lines that don’t start with `$` typically +> show the output of the previous command. Additionally, PowerShell-specific +> examples will use `>` rather than `$`. ### Installing `rustup` on Linux or macOS If you’re using Linux or macOS, open a terminal and enter the following command: ```console -$ curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.3 https://sh.rustup.rs -sSf | sh +$ curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.2 https://sh.rustup.rs -sSf | sh ``` The command downloads a script and starts the installation of the `rustup` @@ -41,7 +39,7 @@ for your password. If the install is successful, the following line will appear: Rust is installed now. Great! ``` -You will also need a linker, which is a program that Rust uses to join its +You will also need a _linker_, which is a program that Rust uses to join its compiled outputs into one file. It is likely you already have one. If you get linker errors, you should install a C compiler, which will typically include a linker. A C compiler is also useful because some common Rust packages depend on @@ -61,68 +59,91 @@ the `build-essential` package. On Windows, go to [https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install][install] and follow the instructions for installing Rust. At some point in the installation, you’ll -receive a message explaining that you’ll also need the C++ build tools for -Visual Studio 2013 or later. The easiest way to acquire the build tools is to -install [Build Tools for Visual Studio 2019][visualstudio]. When asked which -workloads to install make sure “C++ build tools” is selected and that the -Windows 10 SDK and the English language pack components are included. - -[install]: https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install -[visualstudio]: https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/visual-cpp-build-tools/ +be prompted to install Visual Studio. This provides a linker and the native +libraries needed to compile programs. If you need more help with this step, see +[https://rust-lang.github.io/rustup/installation/windows-msvc.html][msvc] -The rest of this book uses commands that work in both *cmd.exe* and PowerShell. +The rest of this book uses commands that work in both _cmd.exe_ and PowerShell. If there are specific differences, we’ll explain which to use. -### Updating and Uninstalling +### Troubleshooting -After you’ve installed Rust via `rustup`, updating to the latest version is -easy. From your shell, run the following update script: +To check whether you have Rust installed correctly, open a shell and enter this +line: ```console -$ rustup update +$ rustc --version ``` -To uninstall Rust and `rustup`, run the following uninstall script from your -shell: +You should see the version number, commit hash, and commit date for the latest +stable version that has been released, in the following format: + +```text +rustc x.y.z (abcabcabc yyyy-mm-dd) +``` + +If you see this information, you have installed Rust successfully! If you don’t +see this information, check that Rust is in your `%PATH%` system variable as +follows. + +In Windows CMD, use: ```console -$ rustup self uninstall +> echo %PATH% ``` -### Troubleshooting +In PowerShell, use: -To check whether you have Rust installed correctly, open a shell and enter this -line: +```powershell +> echo $env:Path +``` + +In Linux and macOS, use: ```console -$ rustc --version +$ echo $PATH ``` -You should see the version number, commit hash, and commit date for the latest -stable version that has been released in the following format: +If that’s all correct and Rust still isn’t working, there are a number of +places you can get help. Find out how to get in touch with other Rustaceans (a +silly nickname we call ourselves) on [the community page][community]. -```text -rustc x.y.z (abcabcabc yyyy-mm-dd) +### Updating and Uninstalling + +Once Rust is installed via `rustup`, updating to a newly released version is +easy. From your shell, run the following update script: + +```console +$ rustup update ``` -If you see this information, you have installed Rust successfully! If you don’t -see this information and you’re on Windows, check that Rust is in your `%PATH%` -system variable. If that’s all correct and Rust still isn’t working, there are -a number of places you can get help. The easiest is the #beginners channel on -[the official Rust Discord][discord]. There, you can chat with other Rustaceans -(a silly nickname we call ourselves) who can help you out. Other great -resources include [the Users forum][users] and [Stack Overflow][stackoverflow]. +To uninstall Rust and `rustup`, run the following uninstall script from your +shell: -[discord]: https://discord.gg/rust-lang -[users]: https://users.rust-lang.org/ -[stackoverflow]: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/rust +```console +$ rustup self uninstall +``` ### Local Documentation -The installation of Rust also includes a copy of the documentation locally, so -you can read it offline. Run `rustup doc` to open the local documentation in -your browser. +The installation of Rust also includes a local copy of the documentation so +that you can read it offline. Run `rustup doc` to open the local documentation +in your browser. Any time a type or function is provided by the standard library and you’re not sure what it does or how to use it, use the application programming interface (API) documentation to find out! + +### Text Editors and Integrated Development Environments + +This book makes no assumptions about what tools you use to author Rust code. +Just about any text editor will get the job done! However, many text editors and +integrated development environments (IDEs) have built-in support for Rust. You +can always find a fairly current list of many editors and IDEs on [the tools +page][tools] on the Rust website. + +[otherinstall]: https://forge.rust-lang.org/infra/other-installation-methods.html +[install]: https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install +[msvc]: https://rust-lang.github.io/rustup/installation/windows-msvc.html +[community]: https://www.rust-lang.org/community +[tools]: https://www.rust-lang.org/tools diff --git a/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md b/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md index e390768b9c..5779360b11 100644 --- a/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md +++ b/src/ch01-02-hello-world.md @@ -1,26 +1,26 @@ ## Hello, World! -Now that you’ve installed Rust, let’s write your first Rust program. It’s -traditional when learning a new language to write a little program that prints -the text `Hello, world!` to the screen, so we’ll do the same here! +Now that you’ve installed Rust, it’s time to write your first Rust program. +It’s traditional when learning a new language to write a little program that +prints the text `Hello, world!` to the screen, so we’ll do the same here! > Note: This book assumes basic familiarity with the command line. Rust makes > no specific demands about your editing or tooling or where your code lives, so > if you prefer to use an integrated development environment (IDE) instead of > the command line, feel free to use your favorite IDE. Many IDEs now have some -> degree of Rust support; check the IDE’s documentation for details. Recently, -> the Rust team has been focusing on enabling great IDE support, and progress -> has been made rapidly on that front! +> degree of Rust support; check the IDE’s documentation for details. The Rust +> team has been focusing on enabling great IDE support via `rust-analyzer`. See +> [Appendix D][devtools] for more details. ### Creating a Project Directory You’ll start by making a directory to store your Rust code. It doesn’t matter to Rust where your code lives, but for the exercises and projects in this book, -we suggest making a *projects* directory in your home directory and keeping all +we suggest making a _projects_ directory in your home directory and keeping all your projects there. -Open a terminal and enter the following commands to make a *projects* directory -and a directory for the “Hello, world!” project within the *projects* directory. +Open a terminal and enter the following commands to make a _projects_ directory +and a directory for the “Hello, world!” project within the _projects_ directory. For Linux, macOS, and PowerShell on Windows, enter this: @@ -42,14 +42,14 @@ For Windows CMD, enter this: ### Writing and Running a Rust Program -Next, make a new source file and call it *main.rs*. Rust files always end with -the *.rs* extension. If you’re using more than one word in your filename, use -an underscore to separate them. For example, use *hello_world.rs* rather than -*helloworld.rs*. +Next, make a new source file and call it _main.rs_. Rust files always end with +the _.rs_ extension. If you’re using more than one word in your filename, the +convention is to use an underscore to separate them. For example, use +_hello_world.rs_ rather than _helloworld.rs_. -Now open the *main.rs* file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. +Now open the _main.rs_ file you just created and enter the code in Listing 1-1. -Filename: main.rs + ```rust fn main() { @@ -57,10 +57,11 @@ fn main() { } ``` -Listing 1-1: A program that prints `Hello, world!` + -Save the file and go back to your terminal window. On Linux or macOS, enter -the following commands to compile and run the file: +Save the file and go back to your terminal window in the +_~/projects/hello_world_ directory. On Linux or macOS, enter the following +commands to compile and run the file: ```console $ rustc main.rs @@ -86,8 +87,8 @@ program. That makes you a Rust programmer—welcome! ### Anatomy of a Rust Program -Let’s review in detail what just happened in your “Hello, world!” program. -Here’s the first piece of the puzzle: +Let’s review this “Hello, world!” program in detail. Here’s the first piece of +the puzzle: ```rust fn main() { @@ -95,43 +96,41 @@ fn main() { } ``` -These lines define a function in Rust. The `main` function is special: it is -always the first code that runs in every executable Rust program. The first -line declares a function named `main` that has no parameters and returns -nothing. If there were parameters, they would go inside the parentheses, `()`. +These lines define a function named `main`. The `main` function is special: it +is always the first code that runs in every executable Rust program. Here, the +first line declares a function named `main` that has no parameters and returns +nothing. If there were parameters, they would go inside the parentheses `()`. -Also, note that the function body is wrapped in curly brackets, `{}`. Rust -requires these around all function bodies. It’s good style to place the opening -curly bracket on the same line as the function declaration, adding one space in -between. +The function body is wrapped in `{}`. Rust requires curly brackets around all +function bodies. It’s good style to place the opening curly bracket on the same +line as the function declaration, adding one space in between. -If you want to stick to a standard style across Rust projects, you can use an -automatic formatter tool called `rustfmt` to format your code in a particular -style. The Rust team has included this tool with the standard Rust distribution, -like `rustc`, so it should already be installed on your computer! Check the -online documentation for more details. +> Note: If you want to stick to a standard style across Rust projects, you can +> use an automatic formatter tool called `rustfmt` to format your code in a +> particular style (more on `rustfmt` in +> [Appendix D][devtools]). The Rust team has included this tool +> with the standard Rust distribution, as `rustc` is, so it should already be +> installed on your computer! -Inside the `main` function is the following code: +The body of the `main` function holds the following code: ```rust - println!("Hello, world!"); +println!("Hello, world!"); ``` This line does all the work in this little program: it prints text to the screen. There are four important details to notice here. -First, Rust style is to indent with four spaces, not a tab. - -Second, `println!` calls a Rust macro. If it called a function instead, it +First, `println!` calls a Rust macro. If it had called a function instead, it would be entered as `println` (without the `!`). We’ll discuss Rust macros in -more detail in Chapter 19. For now, you just need to know that using a `!` -means that you’re calling a macro instead of a normal function, and that macros +more detail in Chapter 20. For now, you just need to know that using a `!` +means that you’re calling a macro instead of a normal function and that macros don’t always follow the same rules as functions. -Third, you see the `"Hello, world!"` string. We pass this string as an argument +Second, you see the `"Hello, world!"` string. We pass this string as an argument to `println!`, and the string is printed to the screen. -Fourth, we end the line with a semicolon (`;`), which indicates that this +Third, we end the line with a semicolon (`;`), which indicates that this expression is over and the next one is ready to begin. Most lines of Rust code end with a semicolon. @@ -152,16 +151,16 @@ If you have a C or C++ background, you’ll notice that this is similar to `gcc` or `clang`. After compiling successfully, Rust outputs a binary executable. On Linux, macOS, and PowerShell on Windows, you can see the executable by -entering the `ls` command in your shell. On Linux and macOS, you’ll see two -files. With PowerShell on Windows, you’ll see the same three files that you -would see using CMD. +entering the `ls` command in your shell: ```console $ ls main main.rs ``` -With CMD on Windows, you would enter the following: +On Linux and macOS, you’ll see two files. With PowerShell on Windows, you’ll +see the same three files that you would see using CMD. With CMD on Windows, you +would enter the following: ```cmd > dir /B %= the /B option says to only show the file names =% @@ -170,24 +169,24 @@ main.pdb main.rs ``` -This shows the source code file with the *.rs* extension, the executable file -(*main.exe* on Windows, but *main* on all other platforms), and, when using -Windows, a file containing debugging information with the *.pdb* extension. -From here, you run the *main* or *main.exe* file, like this: +This shows the source code file with the _.rs_ extension, the executable file +(_main.exe_ on Windows, but _main_ on all other platforms), and, when using +Windows, a file containing debugging information with the _.pdb_ extension. +From here, you run the _main_ or _main.exe_ file, like this: ```console $ ./main # or .\main.exe on Windows ``` -If *main.rs* was your “Hello, world!” program, this line would print `Hello, +If your _main.rs_ is your “Hello, world!” program, this line prints `Hello, world!` to your terminal. If you’re more familiar with a dynamic language, such as Ruby, Python, or JavaScript, you might not be used to compiling and running a program as -separate steps. Rust is an *ahead-of-time compiled* language, meaning you can +separate steps. Rust is an _ahead-of-time compiled_ language, meaning you can compile a program and give the executable to someone else, and they can run it -even without having Rust installed. If you give someone a *.rb*, *.py*, or -*.js* file, they need to have a Ruby, Python, or JavaScript implementation +even without having Rust installed. If you give someone a _.rb_, _.py_, or +_.js_ file, they need to have a Ruby, Python, or JavaScript implementation installed (respectively). But in those languages, you only need one command to compile and run your program. Everything is a trade-off in language design. @@ -197,3 +196,4 @@ code. Next, we’ll introduce you to the Cargo tool, which will help you write real-world Rust programs. [troubleshooting]: ch01-01-installation.html#troubleshooting +[devtools]: appendix-04-useful-development-tools.html diff --git a/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md b/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md index eed0d088a4..048ee864c5 100644 --- a/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md +++ b/src/ch01-03-hello-cargo.md @@ -4,12 +4,12 @@ Cargo is Rust’s build system and package manager. Most Rustaceans use this too to manage their Rust projects because Cargo handles a lot of tasks for you, such as building your code, downloading the libraries your code depends on, and building those libraries. (We call the libraries that your code needs -*dependencies*.) +_dependencies_.) The simplest Rust programs, like the one we’ve written so far, don’t have any -dependencies. So if we had built the “Hello, world!” project with Cargo, it -would only use the part of Cargo that handles building your code. As you write -more complex Rust programs, you’ll add dependencies, and if you start a project +dependencies. If we had built the “Hello, world!” project with Cargo, it would +only use the part of Cargo that handles building your code. As you write more +complex Rust programs, you’ll add dependencies, and if you start a project using Cargo, adding dependencies will be much easier to do. Because the vast majority of Rust projects use Cargo, the rest of this book @@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ assumes that you’re using Cargo too. Cargo comes installed with Rust if you used the official installers discussed in the [“Installation”][installation] section. If you installed Rust through some other means, check whether Cargo is installed by entering the -following into your terminal: +following in your terminal: ```console $ cargo --version @@ -30,24 +30,24 @@ determine how to install Cargo separately. ### Creating a Project with Cargo Let’s create a new project using Cargo and look at how it differs from our -original “Hello, world!” project. Navigate back to your *projects* directory (or -wherever you decided to store your code). Then, on any operating system, run -the following: +original “Hello, world!” project. Navigate back to your _projects_ directory +(or wherever you decided to store your code). Then, on any operating system, +run the following: ```console $ cargo new hello_cargo $ cd hello_cargo ``` -The first command created a new directory called *hello_cargo*. We’ve named -our project *hello_cargo*, and Cargo creates its files in a directory of the -same name. +The first command creates a new directory and project called _hello_cargo_. +We’ve named our project _hello_cargo_, and Cargo creates its files in a +directory of the same name. -Go into the *hello_cargo* directory and list the files. You’ll see that Cargo -has generated two files and one directory for us: a *Cargo.toml* file and a -*src* directory with a *main.rs* file inside. +Go into the _hello_cargo_ directory and list the files. You’ll see that Cargo +has generated two files and one directory for us: a _Cargo.toml_ file and a +_src_ directory with a _main.rs_ file inside. -It has also initialized a new Git repository along with a *.gitignore* file. +It has also initialized a new Git repository along with a _.gitignore_ file. Git files won’t be generated if you run `cargo new` within an existing Git repository; you can override this behavior by using `cargo new --vcs=git`. @@ -55,10 +55,10 @@ repository; you can override this behavior by using `cargo new --vcs=git`. > use a different version control system or no version control system by using > the `--vcs` flag. Run `cargo new --help` to see the available options. -Open *Cargo.toml* in your text editor of choice. It should look similar to the +Open _Cargo.toml_ in your text editor of choice. It should look similar to the code in Listing 1-2. -Filename: Cargo.toml + ```toml [package] @@ -66,14 +66,15 @@ name = "hello_cargo" version = "0.1.0" edition = "2021" +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + [dependencies] ``` -Listing 1-2: Contents of *Cargo.toml* generated by `cargo -new` + -This file is in the [*TOML*](https://toml.io) (*Tom’s Obvious, -Minimal Language*) format, which is Cargo’s configuration format. +This file is in the [_TOML_][toml] (_Tom’s Obvious, Minimal +Language_) format, which is Cargo’s configuration format. The first line, `[package]`, is a section heading that indicates that the following statements are configuring a package. As we add more information to @@ -85,10 +86,10 @@ about the `edition` key in [Appendix E][appendix-e]. The last line, `[dependencies]`, is the start of a section for you to list any of your project’s dependencies. In Rust, packages of code are referred to as -*crates*. We won’t need any other crates for this project, but we will in the +_crates_. We won’t need any other crates for this project, but we will in the first project in Chapter 2, so we’ll use this dependencies section then. -Now open *src/main.rs* and take a look: +Now open _src/main.rs_ and take a look: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -99,11 +100,11 @@ fn main() { ``` Cargo has generated a “Hello, world!” program for you, just like the one we -wrote in Listing 1-1! So far, the differences between our previous project and -the project Cargo generated are that Cargo placed the code in the *src* -directory, and we have a *Cargo.toml* configuration file in the top directory. +wrote in Listing 1-1! So far, the differences between our project and the +project Cargo generated are that Cargo placed the code in the _src_ directory +and we have a _Cargo.toml_ configuration file in the top directory. -Cargo expects your source files to live inside the *src* directory. The +Cargo expects your source files to live inside the _src_ directory. The top-level project directory is just for README files, license information, configuration files, and anything else not related to your code. Using Cargo helps you organize your projects. There’s a place for everything, and @@ -111,13 +112,14 @@ everything is in its place. If you started a project that doesn’t use Cargo, as we did with the “Hello, world!” project, you can convert it to a project that does use Cargo. Move the -project code into the *src* directory and create an appropriate *Cargo.toml* -file. +project code into the _src_ directory and create an appropriate _Cargo.toml_ +file. One easy way to get that _Cargo.toml_ file is to run `cargo init`, which +will create it for you automatically. ### Building and Running a Cargo Project Now let’s look at what’s different when we build and run the “Hello, world!” -program with Cargo! From your *hello_cargo* directory, build your project by +program with Cargo! From your _hello_cargo_ directory, build your project by entering the following command: ```console @@ -126,9 +128,10 @@ $ cargo build Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.85 secs ``` -This command creates an executable file in *target/debug/hello_cargo* (or -*target\debug\hello_cargo.exe* on Windows) rather than in your current -directory. You can run the executable with this command: +This command creates an executable file in _target/debug/hello_cargo_ (or +_target\debug\hello_cargo.exe_ on Windows) rather than in your current +directory. Because the default build is a debug build, Cargo puts the binary in +a directory named _debug_. You can run the executable with this command: ```console $ ./target/debug/hello_cargo # or .\target\debug\hello_cargo.exe on Windows @@ -137,14 +140,14 @@ Hello, world! If all goes well, `Hello, world!` should print to the terminal. Running `cargo build` for the first time also causes Cargo to create a new file at the top -level: *Cargo.lock*. This file keeps track of the exact versions of +level: _Cargo.lock_. This file keeps track of the exact versions of dependencies in your project. This project doesn’t have dependencies, so the file is a bit sparse. You won’t ever need to change this file manually; Cargo manages its contents for you. We just built a project with `cargo build` and ran it with `./target/debug/hello_cargo`, but we can also use `cargo run` to compile the -code and then run the resulting executable all in one command: +code and then run the resultant executable all in one command: ```console $ cargo run @@ -153,10 +156,15 @@ $ cargo run Hello, world! ``` +Using `cargo run` is more convenient than having to remember to run `cargo +build` and then use the whole path to the binary, so most developers use `cargo +run`. + Notice that this time we didn’t see output indicating that Cargo was compiling -`hello_cargo`. Cargo figured out that the files hadn’t changed, so it just ran -the binary. If you had modified your source code, Cargo would have rebuilt the -project before running it, and you would have seen this output: +`hello_cargo`. Cargo figured out that the files hadn’t changed, so it didn’t +rebuild but just ran the binary. If you had modified your source code, Cargo +would have rebuilt the project before running it, and you would have seen this +output: ```console $ cargo run @@ -176,21 +184,22 @@ $ cargo check ``` Why would you not want an executable? Often, `cargo check` is much faster than -`cargo build`, because it skips the step of producing an executable. If you’re +`cargo build` because it skips the step of producing an executable. If you’re continually checking your work while writing the code, using `cargo check` will -speed up the process! As such, many Rustaceans run `cargo check` periodically -as they write their program to make sure it compiles. Then they run `cargo -build` when they’re ready to use the executable. +speed up the process of letting you know if your project is still compiling! As +such, many Rustaceans run `cargo check` periodically as they write their +program to make sure it compiles. Then they run `cargo build` when they’re +ready to use the executable. Let’s recap what we’ve learned so far about Cargo: -* We can create a project using `cargo new`. -* We can build a project using `cargo build`. -* We can build and run a project in one step using `cargo run`. -* We can build a project without producing a binary to check for errors using +- We can create a project using `cargo new`. +- We can build a project using `cargo build`. +- We can build and run a project in one step using `cargo run`. +- We can build a project without producing a binary to check for errors using `cargo check`. -* Instead of saving the result of the build in the same directory as our code, - Cargo stores it in the *target/debug* directory. +- Instead of saving the result of the build in the same directory as our code, + Cargo stores it in the _target/debug_ directory. An additional advantage of using Cargo is that the commands are the same no matter which operating system you’re working on. So, at this point, we’ll no @@ -200,21 +209,21 @@ longer provide specific instructions for Linux and macOS versus Windows. When your project is finally ready for release, you can use `cargo build --release` to compile it with optimizations. This command will create an -executable in *target/release* instead of *target/debug*. The optimizations +executable in _target/release_ instead of _target/debug_. The optimizations make your Rust code run faster, but turning them on lengthens the time it takes for your program to compile. This is why there are two different profiles: one for development, when you want to rebuild quickly and often, and another for building the final program you’ll give to a user that won’t be rebuilt repeatedly and that will run as fast as possible. If you’re benchmarking your code’s running time, be sure to run `cargo build --release` and benchmark with -the executable in *target/release*. +the executable in _target/release_. ### Cargo as Convention With simple projects, Cargo doesn’t provide a lot of value over just using `rustc`, but it will prove its worth as your programs become more intricate. -With complex projects composed of multiple crates, it’s much easier to let -Cargo coordinate the build. +Once programs grow to multiple files or need a dependency, it’s much easier to +let Cargo coordinate the build. Even though the `hello_cargo` project is simple, it now uses much of the real tooling you’ll use in the rest of your Rust career. In fact, to work on any @@ -227,20 +236,18 @@ $ cd someproject $ cargo build ``` -For more information about Cargo, check out [its documentation]. - -[its documentation]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/ +For more information about Cargo, check out [its documentation][cargo]. ## Summary You’re already off to a great start on your Rust journey! In this chapter, you’ve learned how to: -* Install the latest stable version of Rust using `rustup` -* Update to a newer Rust version -* Open locally installed documentation -* Write and run a “Hello, world!” program using `rustc` directly -* Create and run a new project using the conventions of Cargo +- Install the latest stable version of Rust using `rustup` +- Update to a newer Rust version +- Open locally installed documentation +- Write and run a “Hello, world!” program using `rustc` directly +- Create and run a new project using the conventions of Cargo This is a great time to build a more substantial program to get used to reading and writing Rust code. So, in Chapter 2, we’ll build a guessing game program. @@ -248,4 +255,6 @@ If you would rather start by learning how common programming concepts work in Rust, see Chapter 3 and then return to Chapter 2. [installation]: ch01-01-installation.html#installation +[toml]: https://toml.io [appendix-e]: appendix-05-editions.html +[cargo]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/ diff --git a/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md b/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md index 0b5c377406..e2e7054d83 100644 --- a/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md +++ b/src/ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ Let’s jump into Rust by working through a hands-on project together! This chapter introduces you to a few common Rust concepts by showing you how to use them in a real program. You’ll learn about `let`, `match`, methods, associated -functions, using external crates, and more! In the following chapters, we’ll -explore these ideas in more detail. In this chapter, you’ll practice the +functions, external crates, and more! In the following chapters, we’ll explore +these ideas in more detail. In this chapter, you’ll just practice the fundamentals. We’ll implement a classic beginner programming problem: a guessing game. Here’s @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ correct, the game will print a congratulatory message and exit. ## Setting Up a New Project -To set up a new project, go to the *projects* directory that you created in +To set up a new project, go to the _projects_ directory that you created in Chapter 1 and make a new project using Cargo, like so: ```console @@ -27,14 +27,15 @@ The first command, `cargo new`, takes the name of the project (`guessing_game`) as the first argument. The second command changes to the new project’s directory. -Look at the generated *Cargo.toml* file: +Look at the generated _Cargo.toml_ file: Filename: Cargo.toml @@ -44,7 +45,7 @@ cargo run ``` As you saw in Chapter 1, `cargo new` generates a “Hello, world!” program for -you. Check out the *src/main.rs* file: +you. Check out the _src/main.rs_ file: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -63,36 +64,35 @@ The `run` command comes in handy when you need to rapidly iterate on a project, as we’ll do in this game, quickly testing each iteration before moving on to the next one. -Reopen the *src/main.rs* file. You’ll be writing all the code in this file. +Reopen the _src/main.rs_ file. You’ll be writing all the code in this file. ## Processing a Guess The first part of the guessing game program will ask for user input, process that input, and check that the input is in the expected form. To start, we’ll allow the player to input a guess. Enter the code in Listing 2-1 into -*src/main.rs*. +_src/main.rs_. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs:all}} ``` -Listing 2-1: Code that gets a guess from the user and -prints it + This code contains a lot of information, so let’s go over it line by line. To obtain user input and then print the result as output, we need to bring the -`io` input/output library into scope. The `io` library comes from the -standard library, known as `std`: +`io` input/output library into scope. The `io` library comes from the standard +library, known as `std`: ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs:io}} ``` -By default, Rust has a set of items defined in the standard library that it brings -into the scope of every program. This set is called the *prelude*, and you can -see everything in it [in the standard library documentation][prelude]. +By default, Rust has a set of items defined in the standard library that it +brings into the scope of every program. This set is called the _prelude_, and +you can see everything in it [in the standard library documentation][prelude]. If a type you want to use isn’t in the prelude, you have to bring that type into scope explicitly with a `use` statement. Using the `std::io` library @@ -106,8 +106,8 @@ program: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs:main}} ``` -The `fn` syntax declares a new function, the parentheses, `()`, indicate there -are no parameters, and the curly bracket, `{`, starts the body of the function. +The `fn` syntax declares a new function; the parentheses, `()`, indicate there +are no parameters; and the curly bracket, `{`, starts the body of the function. As you also learned in Chapter 1, `println!` is a macro that prints a string to the screen: @@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ from the user. ### Storing Values with Variables -Next, we’ll create a *variable* to store the user input, like this: +Next, we’ll create a _variable_ to store the user input, like this: ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs:string}} @@ -136,7 +136,7 @@ let apples = 5; This line creates a new variable named `apples` and binds it to the value 5. In Rust, variables are immutable by default, meaning once we give the variable a -value, the value won't change. We’ll be discussing this concept in detail in +value, the value won’t change. We’ll be discussing this concept in detail in the [“Variables and Mutability”][variables-and-mutability] section in Chapter 3. To make a variable mutable, we add `mut` before the variable name: @@ -152,16 +152,16 @@ let mut bananas = 5; // mutable Returning to the guessing game program, you now know that `let mut guess` will introduce a mutable variable named `guess`. The equal sign (`=`) tells Rust we -want to bind something to the variable now. On the right of the equals sign is +want to bind something to the variable now. On the right of the equal sign is the value that `guess` is bound to, which is the result of calling `String::new`, a function that returns a new instance of a `String`. [`String`][string] is a string type provided by the standard library that is a growable, UTF-8 encoded bit of text. The `::` syntax in the `::new` line indicates that `new` is an associated -function of the `String` type. An *associated function* is a function that’s +function of the `String` type. An _associated function_ is a function that’s implemented on a type, in this case `String`. This `new` function creates a -new, empty string. You’ll find a `new` function on many types, because it’s a +new, empty string. You’ll find a `new` function on many types because it’s a common name for a function that makes a new value of some kind. In full, the `let mut guess = String::new();` line has created a mutable @@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ input: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-01/src/main.rs:read}} ``` -If we hadn’t imported the `io` library with `use std::io` at the beginning of +If we hadn’t imported the `io` library with `use std::io;` at the beginning of the program, we could still use the function by writing this function call as `std::io::stdin`. The `stdin` function returns an instance of [`std::io::Stdin`][iostdin], which is a type that represents a @@ -193,17 +193,21 @@ whatever the user types into standard input and append that into a string argument. The string argument needs to be mutable so the method can change the string’s content. -The `&` indicates that this argument is a *reference*, which gives you a way to +The `&` indicates that this argument is a _reference_, which gives you a way to let multiple parts of your code access one piece of data without needing to copy that data into memory multiple times. References are a complex feature, and one of Rust’s major advantages is how safe and easy it is to use references. You don’t need to know a lot of those details to finish this -program. For now, all you need to know is that like variables, references are +program. For now, all you need to know is that, like variables, references are immutable by default. Hence, you need to write `&mut guess` rather than `&guess` to make it mutable. (Chapter 4 will explain references more thoroughly.) -### Handling Potential Failure with the `Result` Type + + + + +### Handling Potential Failure with `Result` We’re still working on this line of code. We’re now discussing a third line of text, but note that it’s still part of a single logical line of code. The next @@ -226,14 +230,14 @@ discuss what this line does. As mentioned earlier, `read_line` puts whatever the user enters into the string we pass to it, but it also returns a `Result` value. [`Result`][result] is an [*enumeration*][enums], often called an *enum*, +ignore --> is an [_enumeration_][enums], often called an _enum_, which is a type that can be in one of multiple possible states. We call each -possible state a *variant*. +possible state a _variant_. -Chapter 6 will cover enums in more detail. The purpose of these `Result` types -is to encode error-handling information. +[Chapter 6][enums] will cover enums in more detail. The purpose +of these `Result` types is to encode error-handling information. -`Result`'s variants are `Ok` and `Err`. The `Ok` variant indicates the +`Result`’s variants are `Ok` and `Err`. The `Ok` variant indicates the operation was successful, and inside `Ok` is the successfully generated value. The `Err` variant means the operation failed, and `Err` contains information about how or why the operation failed. @@ -257,9 +261,9 @@ If you don’t call `expect`, the program will compile, but you’ll get a warni Rust warns that you haven’t used the `Result` value returned from `read_line`, indicating that the program hasn’t handled a possible error. -The right way to suppress the warning is to actually write error handling, but -in our case we just want to crash this program when a problem occurs, so we can -use `expect`. You’ll learn about recovering from errors in [Chapter +The right way to suppress the warning is to actually write error-handling code, +but in our case we just want to crash this program when a problem occurs, so we +can use `expect`. You’ll learn about recovering from errors in [Chapter 9][recover]. ### Printing Values with `println!` Placeholders @@ -273,19 +277,21 @@ the code so far: This line prints the string that now contains the user’s input. The `{}` set of curly brackets is a placeholder: think of `{}` as little crab pincers that hold -a value in place. You can print more than one value using curly brackets: the -first set of curly brackets holds the first value listed after the format -string, the second set holds the second value, and so on. Printing multiple -values in one call to `println!` would look like this: +a value in place. When printing the value of a variable, the variable name can +go inside the curly brackets. When printing the result of evaluating an +expression, place empty curly brackets in the format string, then follow the +format string with a comma-separated list of expressions to print in each empty +curly bracket placeholder in the same order. Printing a variable and the result +of an expression in one call to `println!` would look like this: ```rust let x = 5; let y = 10; -println!("x = {} and y = {}", x, y); +println!("x = {x} and y + 2 = {}", y + 2); ``` -This code would print `x = 5 and y = 10`. +This code would print `x = 5 and y + 2 = 12`. ### Testing the First Part @@ -300,7 +306,7 @@ input 6 --> ```console $ cargo run Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 6.44s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 6.44s Running `target/debug/guessing_game` Guess the number! Please input your guess. @@ -323,16 +329,16 @@ said functionality. ### Using a Crate to Get More Functionality Remember that a crate is a collection of Rust source code files. The project -we’ve been building is a *binary crate*, which is an executable. The `rand` -crate is a *library crate*, which contains code intended to be used in other -programs and can't be executed on its own. +we’ve been building is a _binary crate_, which is an executable. The `rand` +crate is a _library crate_, which contains code that is intended to be used in +other programs and can’t be executed on its own. Cargo’s coordination of external crates is where Cargo really shines. Before we -can write code that uses `rand`, we need to modify the *Cargo.toml* file to +can write code that uses `rand`, we need to modify the _Cargo.toml_ file to include the `rand` crate as a dependency. Open that file now and add the -following line to the bottom beneath the `[dependencies]` section header that +following line to the bottom, beneath the `[dependencies]` section header that Cargo created for you. Be sure to specify `rand` exactly as we have here, with -this version number, or the code examples in this tutorial may not work. +this version number, or the code examples in this tutorial may not work: (sometimes called *SemVer*), which is a -standard for writing version numbers. The number `0.8.3` is actually shorthand -for `^0.8.3`, which means any version that is at least `0.8.3` but below -`0.9.0`. +semantic version specifier `0.8.5`. Cargo understands [Semantic +Versioning][semver] (sometimes called _SemVer_), which is a +standard for writing version numbers. The specifier `0.8.5` is actually +shorthand for `^0.8.5`, which means any version that is at least 0.8.5 but +below 0.9.0. Cargo considers these versions to have public APIs compatible with version -`0.8.3`, and this specification ensures you’ll get the latest patch release -that will still compile with the code in this chapter. Any version `0.9.0` or -greater is not guaranteed to have the same API as what the following examples -use. +0.8.5, and this specification ensures you’ll get the latest patch release that +will still compile with the code in this chapter. Any version 0.9.0 or greater +is not guaranteed to have the same API as what the following examples use. Now, without changing any of the code, let’s build the project, as shown in Listing 2-2. ++ ```console $ cargo build Updating crates.io index - Downloaded rand v0.8.3 - Downloaded libc v0.2.86 - Downloaded getrandom v0.2.2 - Downloaded cfg-if v1.0.0 - Downloaded ppv-lite86 v0.2.10 - Downloaded rand_chacha v0.3.0 - Downloaded rand_core v0.6.2 - Compiling rand_core v0.6.2 - Compiling libc v0.2.86 - Compiling getrandom v0.2.2 + Locking 16 packages to latest compatible versions + Adding wasi v0.11.0+wasi-snapshot-preview1 (latest: v0.13.3+wasi-0.2.2) + Adding zerocopy v0.7.35 (latest: v0.8.9) + Adding zerocopy-derive v0.7.35 (latest: v0.8.9) + Downloaded syn v2.0.87 + Downloaded 1 crate (278.1 KB) in 0.16s + Compiling proc-macro2 v1.0.89 + Compiling unicode-ident v1.0.13 + Compiling libc v0.2.161 Compiling cfg-if v1.0.0 - Compiling ppv-lite86 v0.2.10 - Compiling rand_chacha v0.3.0 - Compiling rand v0.8.3 + Compiling byteorder v1.5.0 + Compiling getrandom v0.2.15 + Compiling rand_core v0.6.4 + Compiling quote v1.0.37 + Compiling syn v2.0.87 + Compiling zerocopy-derive v0.7.35 + Compiling zerocopy v0.7.35 + Compiling ppv-lite86 v0.2.20 + Compiling rand_chacha v0.3.1 + Compiling rand v0.8.5 Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 3.69s ``` -Listing 2-2: The output from running `cargo build` after -adding the rand crate as a dependency + You may see different version numbers (but they will all be compatible with the -code, thanks to SemVer!), different lines (depending on the operating system), -and the lines may be in a different order. +code, thanks to SemVer!) and different lines (depending on the operating +system), and the lines may be in a different order. When we include an external dependency, Cargo fetches the latest versions of -everything that dependency needs from the *registry*, which is a copy of data +everything that dependency needs from the _registry_, which is a copy of data from [Crates.io][cratesio]. Crates.io is where people in the Rust ecosystem post their open source Rust projects for others to use. @@ -412,12 +425,12 @@ them and then compiles the project with the dependencies available. If you immediately run `cargo build` again without making any changes, you won’t get any output aside from the `Finished` line. Cargo knows it has already downloaded and compiled the dependencies, and you haven’t changed anything -about them in your *Cargo.toml* file. Cargo also knows that you haven’t changed +about them in your _Cargo.toml_ file. Cargo also knows that you haven’t changed anything about your code, so it doesn’t recompile that either. With nothing to do, it simply exits. -If you open up the *src/main.rs* file, make a trivial change, and then save it -and build again, you’ll only see two lines of output: +If you open the _src/main.rs_ file, make a trivial change, and then save it and +build again, you’ll only see two lines of output: ```console $ cargo build Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53 secs + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.13s ``` -These lines show Cargo only updates the build with your tiny change to the -*src/main.rs* file. Your dependencies haven’t changed, so Cargo knows it can +These lines show that Cargo only updates the build with your tiny change to the +_src/main.rs_ file. Your dependencies haven’t changed, so Cargo knows it can reuse what it has already downloaded and compiled for those. -#### Ensuring Reproducible Builds with the *Cargo.lock* File +#### Ensuring Reproducible Builds with the _Cargo.lock_ File Cargo has a mechanism that ensures you can rebuild the same artifact every time you or anyone else builds your code: Cargo will use only the versions of the dependencies you specified until you indicate otherwise. For example, say that -next week version 0.8.4 of the `rand` crate comes out, and that version +next week version 0.8.6 of the `rand` crate comes out, and that version contains an important bug fix, but it also contains a regression that will -break your code. To handle this, Rust creates the *Cargo.lock* file the first -time you run `cargo build`, so we now have this in the *guessing_game* +break your code. To handle this, Rust creates the _Cargo.lock_ file the first +time you run `cargo build`, so we now have this in the _guessing_game_ directory. -When you build a project for the first time, Cargo figures out all the -versions of the dependencies that fit the criteria and then writes them to -the *Cargo.lock* file. When you build your project in the future, Cargo will -see that the *Cargo.lock* file exists and use the versions specified there +When you build a project for the first time, Cargo figures out all the versions +of the dependencies that fit the criteria and then writes them to the +_Cargo.lock_ file. When you build your project in the future, Cargo will see +that the _Cargo.lock_ file exists and will use the versions specified there rather than doing all the work of figuring out versions again. This lets you have a reproducible build automatically. In other words, your project will -remain at `0.8.3` until you explicitly upgrade, thanks to the *Cargo.lock* -file. Because the *Cargo.lock* file is important for reproducible builds, it's -often checked into source control with the rest of the code in your project. +remain at 0.8.5 until you explicitly upgrade, thanks to the _Cargo.lock_ file. +Because the _Cargo.lock_ file is important for reproducible builds, it’s often +checked into source control with the rest of the code in your project. #### Updating a Crate to Get a New Version -When you *do* want to update a crate, Cargo provides the command `update`, -which will ignore the *Cargo.lock* file and figure out all the latest versions -that fit your specifications in *Cargo.toml*. Cargo will then write those -versions to the *Cargo.lock* file. Otherwise, by default, Cargo will only look -for versions greater than `0.8.3` and less than `0.9.0`. If the `rand` crate -has released the two new versions `0.8.4` and `0.9.0` you would see the -following if you ran `cargo update`: +When you _do_ want to update a crate, Cargo provides the command `update`, +which will ignore the _Cargo.lock_ file and figure out all the latest versions +that fit your specifications in _Cargo.toml_. Cargo will then write those +versions to the _Cargo.lock_ file. In this case, Cargo will only look for +versions greater than 0.8.5 and less than 0.9.0. If the `rand` crate has +released the two new versions 0.8.6 and 0.9.0, you would see the following if +you ran `cargo update`: ```console $ cargo update Updating crates.io index - Updating rand v0.8.3 -> v0.8.4 + Updating rand v0.8.5 -> v0.8.6 ``` -Cargo ignores the `0.9.0` release. At this point, you would also notice a -change in your *Cargo.lock* file noting that the version of the `rand` crate -you are now using is `0.8.4`. To use `rand` version `0.9.0` or any version in -the `0.9.x` series, you’d have to update the *Cargo.toml* file to look like -this instead: +Cargo ignores the 0.9.0 release. At this point, you would also notice a change +in your _Cargo.lock_ file noting that the version of the `rand` crate you are +now using is 0.8.6. To use `rand` version 0.9.0 or any version in the 0.9._x_ +series, you’d have to update the _Cargo.toml_ file to look like this instead: ```toml [dependencies] @@ -493,7 +505,7 @@ available and reevaluate your `rand` requirements according to the new version you have specified. There’s a lot more to say about [Cargo][doccargo] and [its -ecosystem][doccratesio] which we’ll discuss in Chapter 14, but +ecosystem][doccratesio], which we’ll discuss in Chapter 14, but for now, that’s all you need to know. Cargo makes it very easy to reuse libraries, so Rustaceans are able to write smaller projects that are assembled from a number of packages. @@ -501,27 +513,26 @@ from a number of packages. ### Generating a Random Number Let’s start using `rand` to generate a number to guess. The next step is to -update *src/main.rs*, as shown in Listing 2-3. +update _src/main.rs_, as shown in Listing 2-3. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-03/src/main.rs:all}} ``` -Listing 2-3: Adding code to generate a random -number + -First, we add the line `use rand::Rng`. The `Rng` trait defines methods that +First we add the line `use rand::Rng;`. The `Rng` trait defines methods that random number generators implement, and this trait must be in scope for us to use those methods. Chapter 10 will cover traits in detail. Next, we’re adding two lines in the middle. In the first line, we call the `rand::thread_rng` function that gives us the particular random number -generator that we’re going to use: one that is local to the current thread of -execution and seeded by the operating system. Then we call the `gen_range` +generator we’re going to use: one that is local to the current thread of +execution and is seeded by the operating system. Then we call the `gen_range` method on the random number generator. This method is defined by the `Rng` -trait that we brought into scope with the `use rand::Rng` statement. The +trait that we brought into scope with the `use rand::Rng;` statement. The `gen_range` method takes a range expression as an argument and generates a random number in the range. The kind of range expression we’re using here takes the form `start..=end` and is inclusive on the lower and upper bounds, so we @@ -530,7 +541,7 @@ need to specify `1..=100` to request a number between 1 and 100. > Note: You won’t just know which traits to use and which methods and functions > to call from a crate, so each crate has documentation with instructions for > using it. Another neat feature of Cargo is that running the `cargo doc -> --open` command will build documentation provided by all of your dependencies +> --open` command will build documentation provided by all your dependencies > locally and open it in your browser. If you’re interested in other > functionality in the `rand` crate, for example, run `cargo doc --open` and > click `rand` in the sidebar on the left. @@ -553,7 +564,7 @@ cargo run ```console $ cargo run Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 2.53s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.02s Running `target/debug/guessing_game` Guess the number! The secret number is: 7 @@ -562,7 +573,7 @@ Please input your guess. You guessed: 4 $ cargo run - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.02s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.02s Running `target/debug/guessing_game` Guess the number! The secret number is: 83 @@ -577,17 +588,16 @@ You should get different random numbers, and they should all be numbers between ## Comparing the Guess to the Secret Number Now that we have user input and a random number, we can compare them. That step -is shown in Listing 2-4. Note that this code won’t compile quite yet, as we -will explain. +is shown in Listing 2-4. Note that this code won’t compile just yet, as we will +explain. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 2-4: Handling the possible return values of -comparing two numbers + First we add another `use` statement, bringing a type called `std::cmp::Ordering` into scope from the standard library. The `Ordering` type @@ -597,40 +607,47 @@ the three outcomes that are possible when you compare two values. Then we add five new lines at the bottom that use the `Ordering` type. The `cmp` method compares two values and can be called on anything that can be compared. It takes a reference to whatever you want to compare with: here it’s -comparing the `guess` to the `secret_number`. Then it returns a variant of the +comparing `guess` to `secret_number`. Then it returns a variant of the `Ordering` enum we brought into scope with the `use` statement. We use a [`match`][match] expression to decide what to do next based on which variant of `Ordering` was returned from the call to `cmp` with the values in `guess` and `secret_number`. -A `match` expression is made up of *arms*. An arm consists of a *pattern* to +A `match` expression is made up of _arms_. An arm consists of a _pattern_ to match against, and the code that should be run if the value given to `match` fits that arm’s pattern. Rust takes the value given to `match` and looks through each arm’s pattern in turn. Patterns and the `match` construct are -powerful Rust features that let you express a variety of situations your code -might encounter and make sure that you handle them all. These features will be -covered in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter 18, respectively. +powerful Rust features: they let you express a variety of situations your code +might encounter and they make sure you handle them all. These features will be +covered in detail in Chapter 6 and Chapter 19, respectively. Let’s walk through an example with the `match` expression we use here. Say that the user has guessed 50 and the randomly generated secret number this time is -38. When the code compares 50 to 38, the `cmp` method will return -`Ordering::Greater`, because 50 is greater than 38. The `match` expression gets +38. + +When the code compares 50 to 38, the `cmp` method will return +`Ordering::Greater` because 50 is greater than 38. The `match` expression gets the `Ordering::Greater` value and starts checking each arm’s pattern. It looks at the first arm’s pattern, `Ordering::Less`, and sees that the value `Ordering::Greater` does not match `Ordering::Less`, so it ignores the code in that arm and moves to the next arm. The next arm’s pattern is -`Ordering::Greater`, which *does* match `Ordering::Greater`! The associated +`Ordering::Greater`, which _does_ match `Ordering::Greater`! The associated code in that arm will execute and print `Too big!` to the screen. The `match` expression ends after the first successful match, so it won’t look at the last arm in this scenario. However, the code in Listing 2-4 won’t compile yet. Let’s try it: + + ```console {{#include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-04/output.txt}} ``` -The core of the error states that there are *mismatched types*. Rust has a +The core of the error states that there are _mismatched types_. Rust has a strong, static type system. However, it also has type inference. When we wrote `let mut guess = String::new()`, Rust was able to infer that `guess` should be a `String` and didn’t make us write the type. The `secret_number`, on the other @@ -642,8 +659,8 @@ elsewhere that would cause Rust to infer a different numerical type. The reason for the error is that Rust cannot compare a string and a number type. Ultimately, we want to convert the `String` the program reads as input into a -real number type so we can compare it numerically to the secret number. We do so -by adding this line to the `main` function body: +number type so we can compare it numerically to the secret number. We do so by +adding this line to the `main` function body: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -658,25 +675,24 @@ let guess: u32 = guess.trim().parse().expect("Please type a number!"); ``` We create a variable named `guess`. But wait, doesn’t the program already have -a variable named `guess`? It does, but helpfully Rust allows us to *shadow* the -previous value of `guess` with a new one. Shadowing lets us reuse the `guess` +a variable named `guess`? It does, but helpfully Rust allows us to shadow the +previous value of `guess` with a new one. _Shadowing_ lets us reuse the `guess` variable name rather than forcing us to create two unique variables, such as -`guess_str` and `guess` for example. We’ll cover this in more detail in Chapter -3, but for now know that this feature is often used when you want to convert a -value from one type to another type. +`guess_str` and `guess`, for example. We’ll cover this in more detail in +[Chapter 3][shadowing], but for now, know that this feature is +often used when you want to convert a value from one type to another type. We bind this new variable to the expression `guess.trim().parse()`. The `guess` in the expression refers to the original `guess` variable that contained the input as a string. The `trim` method on a `String` instance will eliminate any -whitespace at the beginning and end, which we must do to be able to compare the -string to the `u32`, which can only contain numerical data. The user must press -enter to satisfy `read_line` and input their -guess, which adds a newline character to the string. For example, if the user -types 5 and presses enter, `guess` looks like this: `5\n`. The `\n` -represents “newline”. (On Windows, pressing enter results in a carriage return and a newline, -`\r\n`). The `trim` method eliminates `\n` or `\r\n`, resulting in just `5`. +whitespace at the beginning and end, which we must do before we can convert the +string to a `u32`, which can only contain numerical data. The user must press +enter to satisfy `read_line` and input their guess, which adds a +newline character to the string. For example, if the user types 5 and +presses enter, `guess` looks like this: `5\n`. The `\n` represents +“newline.” (On Windows, pressing enter results in a carriage return +and a newline, `\r\n`.) The `trim` method eliminates `\n` or `\r\n`, resulting +in just `5`. The [`parse` method on strings][parse] converts a string to another type. Here, we use it to convert from a string to a number. We need to @@ -684,28 +700,31 @@ tell Rust the exact number type we want by using `let guess: u32`. The colon (`:`) after `guess` tells Rust we’ll annotate the variable’s type. Rust has a few built-in number types; the `u32` seen here is an unsigned, 32-bit integer. It’s a good default choice for a small positive number. You’ll learn about -other number types in Chapter 3. Additionally, the `u32` annotation in this -example program and the comparison with `secret_number` means that Rust will -infer that `secret_number` should be a `u32` as well. So now the comparison -will be between two values of the same type! +other number types in [Chapter 3][integers]. + +Additionally, the `u32` annotation in this example program and the comparison +with `secret_number` means Rust will infer that `secret_number` should be a +`u32` as well. So now the comparison will be between two values of the same +type! The `parse` method will only work on characters that can logically be converted into numbers and so can easily cause errors. If, for example, the string contained `A👍%`, there would be no way to convert that to a number. Because it might fail, the `parse` method returns a `Result` type, much as the `read_line` -method does (discussed earlier in [“Handling Potential Failure with the -`Result` Type”](#handling-potential-failure-with-the-result-type)). We’ll treat this `Result` the same way by using the `expect` method -again. If `parse` returns an `Err` `Result` variant because it couldn’t create -a number from the string, the `expect` call will crash the game and print the -message we give it. If `parse` can successfully convert the string to a number, -it will return the `Ok` variant of `Result`, and `expect` will return the -number that we want from the `Ok` value. +method does (discussed earlier in [“Handling Potential Failure with +`Result`”](#handling-potential-failure-with-result)). We’ll treat +this `Result` the same way by using the `expect` method again. If `parse` +returns an `Err` `Result` variant because it couldn’t create a number from the +string, the `expect` call will crash the game and print the message we give it. +If `parse` can successfully convert the string to a number, it will return the +`Ok` variant of `Result`, and `expect` will return the number that we want from +the `Ok` value. -Let’s run the program now! +Let’s run the program now: @@ -713,7 +732,7 @@ cargo run ```console $ cargo run Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.43s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.26s Running `target/debug/guessing_game` Guess the number! The secret number is: 58 @@ -748,14 +767,15 @@ and run the program again. The program will now ask for another guess forever, which actually introduces a new problem. It doesn’t seem like the user can quit! The user could always interrupt the program by using the keyboard shortcut -ctrl-c. But there’s another way to escape this -insatiable monster, as mentioned in the `parse` discussion in [“Comparing the -Guess to the Secret Number”](#comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number): if the user enters a non-number answer, the program will crash. We -can take advantage of that to allow the user to quit, as shown here: +ctrl-c. But there’s another way to escape this insatiable +monster, as mentioned in the `parse` discussion in [“Comparing the Guess to the +Secret Number”](#comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number): if +the user enters a non-number answer, the program will crash. We can take +advantage of that to allow the user to quit, as shown here: section, by default +Variables”][storing-values-with-variables] section, by default, variables are immutable. This is one of many nudges Rust gives you to write your code in a way that takes advantage of the safety and easy concurrency that Rust offers. However, you still have the option to make your variables mutable. @@ -9,12 +9,11 @@ Let’s explore how and why Rust encourages you to favor immutability and why sometimes you might want to opt out. When a variable is immutable, once a value is bound to a name, you can’t change -that value. To illustrate this, let’s generate a new project called *variables* -in your *projects* directory by using `cargo new variables`. +that value. To illustrate this, generate a new project called _variables_ in +your _projects_ directory by using `cargo new variables`. -Then, in your new *variables* directory, open *src/main.rs* and replace its -code with the following code. This code won’t compile just yet, we’ll first -examine the immutability error. +Then, in your new _variables_ directory, open _src/main.rs_ and replace its +code with the following code, which won’t compile just yet: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -22,8 +21,8 @@ examine the immutability error. {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/src/main.rs}} ``` -Save and run the program using `cargo run`. You should receive an error -message, as shown in this output: +Save and run the program using `cargo run`. You should receive an error message +regarding an immutability error, as shown in this output: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-01-variables-are-immutable/output.txt}} @@ -31,12 +30,10 @@ message, as shown in this output: This example shows how the compiler helps you find errors in your programs. Compiler errors can be frustrating, but really they only mean your program -isn’t safely doing what you want it to do yet; they do *not* mean that you’re +isn’t safely doing what you want it to do yet; they do _not_ mean that you’re not a good programmer! Experienced Rustaceans still get compiler errors. -The error message indicates that the cause of the error is that you `` cannot -assign twice to immutable variable `x` ``, because you tried to assign a second -value to the immutable `x` variable. +You received the error message `` cannot assign twice to immutable variable `x` `` because you tried to assign a second value to the immutable `x` variable. It’s important that we get compile-time errors when we attempt to change a value that’s designated as immutable because this very situation can lead to @@ -44,18 +41,19 @@ bugs. If one part of our code operates on the assumption that a value will never change and another part of our code changes that value, it’s possible that the first part of the code won’t do what it was designed to do. The cause of this kind of bug can be difficult to track down after the fact, especially -when the second piece of code changes the value only *sometimes*. The Rust -compiler guarantees that when you state a value won’t change, it really won’t -change, so you don’t have to keep track of it yourself. Your code is thus +when the second piece of code changes the value only _sometimes_. The Rust +compiler guarantees that when you state that a value won’t change, it really +won’t change, so you don’t have to keep track of it yourself. Your code is thus easier to reason through. But mutability can be very useful, and can make code more convenient to write. -Variables are immutable only by default; as you did in Chapter 2, you can make -them mutable by adding `mut` in front of the variable name. Adding `mut` also -conveys intent to future readers of the code by indicating that other parts of -the code will be changing this variable’s value. +Although variables are immutable by default, you can make them mutable by +adding `mut` in front of the variable name as you did in [Chapter +2][storing-values-with-variables]. Adding `mut` also conveys +intent to future readers of the code by indicating that other parts of the code +will be changing this variable’s value. -For example, let’s change *src/main.rs* to the following: +For example, let’s change _src/main.rs_ to the following: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -69,22 +67,22 @@ When we run the program now, we get this: {{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-02-adding-mut/output.txt}} ``` -We’re allowed to change the value bound to `x` from `5` to `6` when `mut` -is used. Ultimately, deciding whether to use mutability or not is up to you and +We’re allowed to change the value bound to `x` from `5` to `6` when `mut` is +used. Ultimately, deciding whether to use mutability or not is up to you and depends on what you think is clearest in that particular situation. ### Constants -Like immutable variables, *constants* are values that are bound to a name and +Like immutable variables, _constants_ are values that are bound to a name and are not allowed to change, but there are a few differences between constants and variables. First, you aren’t allowed to use `mut` with constants. Constants aren’t just immutable by default—they’re always immutable. You declare constants using the -`const` keyword instead of the `let` keyword, and the type of the value *must* -be annotated. We’re about to cover types and type annotations in the next -section, [“Data Types,”][data-types] so don’t worry about the -details right now. Just know that you must always annotate the type. +`const` keyword instead of the `let` keyword, and the type of the value _must_ +be annotated. We’ll cover types and type annotations in the next section, +[“Data Types”][data-types], so don’t worry about the details +right now. Just know that you must always annotate the type. Constants can be declared in any scope, including the global scope, which makes them useful for values that many parts of code need to know about. @@ -109,11 +107,11 @@ to the value 10,800. See the [Rust Reference’s section on constant evaluation][const-eval] for more information on what operations can be used when declaring constants. -Constants are valid for the entire time a program runs, within the scope they -were declared in. This property makes constants useful for values in your -application domain that multiple parts of the program might need to know about, -such as the maximum number of points any player of a game is allowed to earn or -the speed of light. +Constants are valid for the entire time a program runs, within the scope in +which they were declared. This property makes constants useful for values in +your application domain that multiple parts of the program might need to know +about, such as the maximum number of points any player of a game is allowed to +earn, or the speed of light. Naming hardcoded values used throughout your program as constants is useful in conveying the meaning of that value to future maintainers of the code. It also @@ -125,7 +123,7 @@ hardcoded value needed to be updated in the future. As you saw in the guessing game tutorial in [Chapter 2][comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number], you can declare a new variable with the same name as a previous variable. Rustaceans say that the -first variable is *shadowed* by the second, which means that the second +first variable is _shadowed_ by the second, which means that the second variable is what the compiler will see when you use the name of the variable. In effect, the second variable overshadows the first, taking any uses of the variable name to itself until either it itself is shadowed or the scope ends. @@ -150,7 +148,7 @@ When we run this program, it will output the following: {{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-03-shadowing/output.txt}} ``` -Shadowing is different from marking a variable as `mut`, because we’ll get a +Shadowing is different from marking a variable as `mut` because we’ll get a compile-time error if we accidentally try to reassign to this variable without using the `let` keyword. By using `let`, we can perform a few transformations on a value but have the variable be immutable after those transformations have @@ -185,8 +183,7 @@ The error says we’re not allowed to mutate a variable’s type: Now that we’ve explored how variables work, let’s look at more data types they can have. -[comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number]: -ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number +[comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number [data-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#data-types [storing-values-with-variables]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#storing-values-with-variables [const-eval]: ../reference/const_eval.html diff --git a/src/ch03-02-data-types.md b/src/ch03-02-data-types.md index 47c00adc8f..e6d88fbb1d 100644 --- a/src/ch03-02-data-types.md +++ b/src/ch03-02-data-types.md @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ ## Data Types -Every value in Rust is of a certain *data type*, which tells Rust what kind of +Every value in Rust is of a certain _data type_, which tells Rust what kind of data is being specified so it knows how to work with that data. We’ll look at two data type subsets: scalar and compound. -Keep in mind that Rust is a *statically typed* language, which means that it +Keep in mind that Rust is a _statically typed_ language, which means that it must know the types of all variables at compile time. The compiler can usually infer what type we want to use based on the value and how we use it. In cases when many types are possible, such as when we converted a `String` to a numeric @@ -16,9 +16,9 @@ Chapter 2, we must add a type annotation, like this: let guess: u32 = "42".parse().expect("Not a number!"); ``` -If we don’t add the `: u32` type annotation above, Rust will display the -following error, which means the compiler needs more information from us to -know which type we want to use: +If we don’t add the `: u32` type annotation shown in the preceding code, Rust +will display the following error, which means the compiler needs more +information from us to know which type we want to use: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/output-only-01-no-type-annotations/output.txt}} @@ -28,23 +28,23 @@ You’ll see different type annotations for other data types. ### Scalar Types -A *scalar* type represents a single value. Rust has four primary scalar types: +A _scalar_ type represents a single value. Rust has four primary scalar types: integers, floating-point numbers, Booleans, and characters. You may recognize these from other programming languages. Let’s jump into how they work in Rust. #### Integer Types -An *integer* is a number without a fractional component. We used one integer +An _integer_ is a number without a fractional component. We used one integer type in Chapter 2, the `u32` type. This type declaration indicates that the value it’s associated with should be an unsigned integer (signed integer types -start with `i`, instead of `u`) that takes up 32 bits of space. Table 3-1 shows +start with `i` instead of `u`) that takes up 32 bits of space. Table 3-1 shows the built-in integer types in Rust. We can use any of these variants to declare the type of an integer value. Table 3-1: Integer Types in Rust | Length | Signed | Unsigned | -|---------|---------|----------| +| ------- | ------- | -------- | | 8-bit | `i8` | `u8` | | 16-bit | `i16` | `u16` | | 32-bit | `i32` | `u32` | @@ -53,18 +53,17 @@ the type of an integer value. | arch | `isize` | `usize` | Each variant can be either signed or unsigned and has an explicit size. -*Signed* and *unsigned* refer to whether it’s possible for the number to be +_Signed_ and _unsigned_ refer to whether it’s possible for the number to be negative—in other words, whether the number needs to have a sign with it (signed) or whether it will only ever be positive and can therefore be represented without a sign (unsigned). It’s like writing numbers on paper: when the sign matters, a number is shown with a plus sign or a minus sign; however, when it’s safe to assume the number is positive, it’s shown with no sign. -Signed numbers are stored using [two’s -complement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement) -representation. +Signed numbers are stored using [two’s complement][twos-complement] representation. Each signed variant can store numbers from -(2n - 1) to 2n - -1 - 1 inclusive, where *n* is the number of bits that variant uses. So an +1 - 1 inclusive, where _n_ is the number of bits that variant uses. So an `i8` can store numbers from -(27) to 27 - 1, which equals -128 to 127. Unsigned variants can store numbers from 0 to 2n - 1, so a `u8` can store numbers from 0 to 28 - 1, which equals 0 to 255. @@ -83,7 +82,7 @@ have the same value as if you had specified `1000`. Table 3-2: Integer Literals in Rust | Number literals | Example | -|------------------|---------------| +| ---------------- | ------------- | | Decimal | `98_222` | | Hex | `0xff` | | Octal | `0o77` | @@ -98,18 +97,18 @@ some sort of collection. > ##### Integer Overflow > > Let’s say you have a variable of type `u8` that can hold values between 0 and -> 255. If you try to change the variable to a value outside of that range, such -> as 256, *integer overflow* will occur, which can result in one of two -> behaviors. When you’re compiling in debug mode, Rust includes checks for -> integer overflow that cause your program to *panic* at runtime if this -> behavior occurs. Rust uses the term panicking when a program exits with an -> error; we’ll discuss panics in more depth in the [“Unrecoverable Errors with +> 255. If you try to change the variable to a value outside that range, such as +> 256, _integer overflow_ will occur, which can result in one of two behaviors. +> When you’re compiling in debug mode, Rust includes checks for integer overflow +> that cause your program to _panic_ at runtime if this behavior occurs. Rust +> uses the term _panicking_ when a program exits with an error; we’ll discuss +> panics in more depth in the [“Unrecoverable Errors with > `panic!`”][unrecoverable-errors-with-panic] section in Chapter > 9. > > When you’re compiling in release mode with the `--release` flag, Rust does -> *not* include checks for integer overflow that cause panics. Instead, if -> overflow occurs, Rust performs *two’s complement wrapping*. In short, values +> _not_ include checks for integer overflow that cause panics. Instead, if +> overflow occurs, Rust performs _two’s complement wrapping_. In short, values > greater than the maximum value the type can hold “wrap around” to the minimum > of the values the type can hold. In the case of a `u8`, the value 256 becomes > 0, the value 257 becomes 1, and so on. The program won’t panic, but the @@ -119,19 +118,19 @@ some sort of collection. > To explicitly handle the possibility of overflow, you can use these families > of methods provided by the standard library for primitive numeric types: > -> - Wrap in all modes with the `wrapping_*` methods, such as `wrapping_add` -> - Return the `None` value if there is overflow with the `checked_*` methods +> - Wrap in all modes with the `wrapping_*` methods, such as `wrapping_add`. +> - Return the `None` value if there is overflow with the `checked_*` methods. > - Return the value and a boolean indicating whether there was overflow with -> the `overflowing_*` methods -> - Saturate at the value’s minimum or maximum values with `saturating_*` -> methods +> the `overflowing_*` methods. +> - Saturate at the value’s minimum or maximum values with the `saturating_*` +> methods. #### Floating-Point Types -Rust also has two primitive types for *floating-point numbers*, which are +Rust also has two primitive types for _floating-point numbers_, which are numbers with decimal points. Rust’s floating-point types are `f32` and `f64`, which are 32 bits and 64 bits in size, respectively. The default type is `f64` -because on modern CPUs it’s roughly the same speed as `f32` but is capable of +because on modern CPUs, it’s roughly the same speed as `f32` but is capable of more precision. All floating-point types are signed. Here’s an example that shows floating-point numbers in action: @@ -142,14 +141,13 @@ Here’s an example that shows floating-point numbers in action: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-06-floating-point/src/main.rs}} ``` -Floating-point numbers are represented according to the IEEE-754 standard. The -`f32` type is a single-precision float, and `f64` has double precision. +Floating-point numbers are represented according to the IEEE-754 standard. #### Numeric Operations -Rust supports the basic mathematical operations you’d expect for all of the -number types: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and remainder. -Integer division rounds down to the nearest integer. The following code shows +Rust supports the basic mathematical operations you’d expect for all the number +types: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and remainder. Integer +division truncates toward zero to the nearest integer. The following code shows how you’d use each numeric operation in a `let` statement: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -159,8 +157,9 @@ how you’d use each numeric operation in a `let` statement: ``` Each expression in these statements uses a mathematical operator and evaluates -to a single value, which is then bound to a variable. [Appendix B][appendix_b] contains a -list of all operators that Rust provides. +to a single value, which is then bound to a variable. [Appendix +B][appendix_b] contains a list of all operators that Rust +provides. #### The Boolean Type @@ -180,7 +179,7 @@ Flow”][control-flow] section. #### The Character Type -Rust’s `char` type is the language’s most primitive alphabetic type. Here’s +Rust’s `char` type is the language’s most primitive alphabetic type. Here are some examples of declaring `char` values: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -202,14 +201,14 @@ Strings”][strings] in Chapter 8. ### Compound Types -*Compound types* can group multiple values into one type. Rust has two +_Compound types_ can group multiple values into one type. Rust has two primitive compound types: tuples and arrays. #### The Tuple Type -A tuple is a general way of grouping together a number of values with a variety -of types into one compound type. Tuples have a fixed length: once declared, -they cannot grow or shrink in size. +A _tuple_ is a general way of grouping together a number of values with a +variety of types into one compound type. Tuples have a fixed length: once +declared, they cannot grow or shrink in size. We create a tuple by writing a comma-separated list of values inside parentheses. Each position in the tuple has a type, and the types of the @@ -222,7 +221,7 @@ type annotations in this example: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-10-tuples/src/main.rs}} ``` -The variable `tup` binds to the entire tuple, because a tuple is considered a +The variable `tup` binds to the entire tuple because a tuple is considered a single compound element. To get the individual values out of a tuple, we can use pattern matching to destructure a tuple value, like this: @@ -234,7 +233,7 @@ use pattern matching to destructure a tuple value, like this: This program first creates a tuple and binds it to the variable `tup`. It then uses a pattern with `let` to take `tup` and turn it into three separate -variables, `x`, `y`, and `z`. This is called *destructuring*, because it breaks +variables, `x`, `y`, and `z`. This is called _destructuring_ because it breaks the single tuple into three parts. Finally, the program prints the value of `y`, which is `6.4`. @@ -251,14 +250,14 @@ This program creates the tuple `x` and then accesses each element of the tuple using their respective indices. As with most programming languages, the first index in a tuple is 0. -The tuple without any values has a special name, *unit*. This value and its +The tuple without any values has a special name, _unit_. This value and its corresponding type are both written `()` and represent an empty value or an empty return type. Expressions implicitly return the unit value if they don’t return any other value. #### The Array Type -Another way to have a collection of multiple values is with an *array*. Unlike +Another way to have a collection of multiple values is with an _array_. Unlike a tuple, every element of an array must have the same type. Unlike arrays in some other languages, arrays in Rust have a fixed length. @@ -271,14 +270,14 @@ brackets: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-13-arrays/src/main.rs}} ``` -Arrays are useful when you want your data allocated on the stack rather than -the heap (we will discuss the stack and the heap more in [Chapter -4][stack-and-heap]) or when you want to ensure you always have a -fixed number of elements. An array isn’t as flexible as the vector type, -though. A vector is a similar collection type provided by the standard library -that *is* allowed to grow or shrink in size. If you’re unsure whether to use an -array or a vector, chances are you should use a vector. [Chapter -8][vectors] discusses vectors in more detail. +Arrays are useful when you want your data allocated on the stack, the same as +the other types we have seen so far, rather than the heap (we will discuss the +stack and the heap more in [Chapter 4][stack-and-heap]) or when +you want to ensure you always have a fixed number of elements. An array isn’t as +flexible as the vector type, though. A _vector_ is a similar collection type +provided by the standard library that _is_ allowed to grow or shrink in size. If +you’re unsure whether to use an array or a vector, chances are you should use a +vector. [Chapter 8][vectors] discusses vectors in more detail. However, arrays are more useful when you know the number of elements will not need to change. For example, if you were using the names of the month in a @@ -324,9 +323,9 @@ like this: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-14-array-indexing/src/main.rs}} ``` -In this example, the variable named `first` will get the value `1`, because -that is the value at index `[0]` in the array. The variable named `second` will -get the value `2` from index `[1]` in the array. +In this example, the variable named `first` will get the value `1` because that +is the value at index `[0]` in the array. The variable named `second` will get +the value `2` from index `[1]` in the array. ##### Invalid Array Element Access @@ -341,9 +340,9 @@ Chapter 2, to get an array index from the user: ``` This code compiles successfully. If you run this code using `cargo run` and -enter 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, the program will print out the corresponding value at -that index in the array. If you instead enter a number past the end of the -array, such as 10, you’ll see output like this: +enter `0`, `1`, `2`, `3`, or `4`, the program will print out the corresponding +value at that index in the array. If you instead enter a number past the end of +the array, such as `10`, you’ll see output like this: ```console -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 5 but the index is 10', src/main.rs:19:19 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:19:19: +index out of bounds: the len is 5 but the index is 10 note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace ``` -The program resulted in a *runtime* error at the point of using an invalid +The program resulted in a _runtime_ error at the point of using an invalid value in the indexing operation. The program exited with an error message and didn’t execute the final `println!` statement. When you attempt to access an element using indexing, Rust will check that the index you’ve specified is less @@ -372,12 +372,11 @@ kind of error by immediately exiting instead of allowing the memory access and continuing. Chapter 9 discusses more of Rust’s error handling and how you can write readable, safe code that neither panics nor allows invalid memory access. -[comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number]: -ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number +[comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number +[twos-complement]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement [control-flow]: ch03-05-control-flow.html#control-flow [strings]: ch08-02-strings.html#storing-utf-8-encoded-text-with-strings [stack-and-heap]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#the-stack-and-the-heap [vectors]: ch08-01-vectors.html [unrecoverable-errors-with-panic]: ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.html -[wrapping]: ../std/num/struct.Wrapping.html [appendix_b]: appendix-02-operators.md diff --git a/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md b/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md index c698853cea..8442825ab1 100644 --- a/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md +++ b/src/ch03-03-how-functions-work.md @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ important functions in the language: the `main` function, which is the entry point of many programs. You’ve also seen the `fn` keyword, which allows you to declare new functions. -Rust code uses *snake case* as the conventional style for function and variable +Rust code uses _snake case_ as the conventional style for function and variable names, in which all letters are lowercase and underscores separate words. Here’s a program that contains an example function definition: @@ -22,12 +22,12 @@ body begins and ends. We can call any function we’ve defined by entering its name followed by a set of parentheses. Because `another_function` is defined in the program, it can be called from inside the `main` function. Note that we defined `another_function` -*after* the `main` function in the source code; we could have defined it before +_after_ the `main` function in the source code; we could have defined it before as well. Rust doesn’t care where you define your functions, only that they’re defined somewhere in a scope that can be seen by the caller. -Let’s start a new binary project named *functions* to explore functions -further. Place the `another_function` example in *src/main.rs* and run it. You +Let’s start a new binary project named _functions_ to explore functions +further. Place the `another_function` example in _src/main.rs_ and run it. You should see the following output: ```console @@ -35,16 +35,16 @@ should see the following output: ``` The lines execute in the order in which they appear in the `main` function. -First, the “Hello, world!” message prints, and then `another_function` is -called and its message is printed. +First the “Hello, world!” message prints, and then `another_function` is called +and its message is printed. ### Parameters -We can define functions to have *parameters*, which are special variables that +We can define functions to have _parameters_, which are special variables that are part of a function’s signature. When a function has parameters, you can provide it with concrete values for those parameters. Technically, the concrete -values are called *arguments*, but in casual conversation, people tend to use -the words *parameter* and *argument* interchangeably for either the variables +values are called _arguments_, but in casual conversation, people tend to use +the words _parameter_ and _argument_ interchangeably for either the variables in a function’s definition or the concrete values passed in when you call a function. @@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ The declaration of `another_function` has one parameter named `x`. The type of `println!` macro puts `5` where the pair of curly brackets containing `x` was in the format string. -In function signatures, you *must* declare the type of each parameter. This is +In function signatures, you _must_ declare the type of each parameter. This is a deliberate decision in Rust’s design: requiring type annotations in function definitions means the compiler almost never needs you to use them elsewhere in the code to figure out what type you mean. The compiler is also able to give @@ -87,8 +87,8 @@ parameters. The first parameter is named `value` and is an `i32`. The second is named `unit_label` and is type `char`. The function then prints text containing both the `value` and the `unit_label`. -Let’s try running this code. Replace the program currently in your *functions* -project’s *src/main.rs* file with the preceding example and run it using `cargo +Let’s try running this code. Replace the program currently in your _functions_ +project’s _src/main.rs_ file with the preceding example and run it using `cargo run`: ```console @@ -108,23 +108,25 @@ understand. Other languages don’t have the same distinctions, so let’s look what statements and expressions are and how their differences affect the bodies of functions. -*Statements* are instructions that perform some action and do not return a -value. *Expressions* evaluate to a resulting value. Let’s look at some examples. +- **Statements** are instructions that perform some action and do not return + a value. +- **Expressions** evaluate to a resultant value. Let’s look at some examples. We’ve actually already used statements and expressions. Creating a variable and assigning a value to it with the `let` keyword is a statement. In Listing 3-1, `let y = 6;` is a statement. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 3-1: A `main` function declaration containing one statement + Function definitions are also statements; the entire preceding example is a -statement in itself. +statement in itself. (As we will see below, _calling_ a function is not a +statement.) Statements do not return values. Therefore, you can’t assign a `let` statement to another variable, as the following code tries to do; you’ll get an error: @@ -172,10 +174,11 @@ This expression: is a block that, in this case, evaluates to `4`. That value gets bound to `y` as part of the `let` statement. Note that the `x + 1` line doesn’t have a -semicolon at the end, unlike most of the lines you’ve seen so far. Expressions -do not include ending semicolons. If you add a semicolon to the end of an -expression, you turn it into a statement, and it will then not return a value. -Keep this in mind as you explore function return values and expressions next. +semicolon at the end, which is unlike most of the lines you’ve seen so far. +Expressions do not include ending semicolons. If you add a semicolon to the end +of an expression, you turn it into a statement, and it will then not return a +value. Keep this in mind as you explore function return values and expressions +next. ### Functions with Return Values @@ -226,7 +229,7 @@ Let’s look at another example: Running this code will print `The value of x is: 6`. But if we place a semicolon at the end of the line containing `x + 1`, changing it from an -expression to a statement, we’ll get an error. +expression to a statement, we’ll get an error: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -240,7 +243,7 @@ Compiling this code produces an error, as follows: {{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-23-statements-dont-return-values/output.txt}} ``` -The main error message, “mismatched types,” reveals the core issue with this +The main error message, `mismatched types`, reveals the core issue with this code. The definition of the function `plus_one` says that it will return an `i32`, but statements don’t evaluate to a value, which is expressed by `()`, the unit type. Therefore, nothing is returned, which contradicts the function diff --git a/src/ch03-04-comments.md b/src/ch03-04-comments.md index 6af0ce175c..01978d605f 100644 --- a/src/ch03-04-comments.md +++ b/src/ch03-04-comments.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ ## Comments All programmers strive to make their code easy to understand, but sometimes -extra explanation is warranted. In these cases, programmers leave *comments* in +extra explanation is warranted. In these cases, programmers leave _comments_ in their source code that the compiler will ignore but people reading the source code may find useful. @@ -39,4 +39,7 @@ separate line above the code it’s annotating: ``` Rust also has another kind of comment, documentation comments, which we’ll -discuss in the “Publishing a Crate to Crates.io” section of Chapter 14. +discuss in the [“Publishing a Crate to Crates.io”][publishing] +section of Chapter 14. + +[publishing]: ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html diff --git a/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md b/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md index 100bfb3e38..ac89726fde 100644 --- a/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md +++ b/src/ch03-05-control-flow.md @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ ## Control Flow -The ability to run some code depending on if a condition is true, or run some -code repeatedly while a condition is true, are basic building blocks in most -programming languages. The most common constructs that let you control the flow -of execution of Rust code are `if` expressions and loops. +The ability to run some code depending on whether a condition is `true` and to +run some code repeatedly while a condition is `true` are basic building blocks +in most programming languages. The most common constructs that let you control +the flow of execution of Rust code are `if` expressions and loops. ### `if` Expressions @@ -11,8 +11,8 @@ An `if` expression allows you to branch your code depending on conditions. You provide a condition and then state, “If this condition is met, run this block of code. If the condition is not met, do not run this block of code.” -Create a new project called *branches* in your *projects* directory to explore -the `if` expression. In the *src/main.rs* file, input the following: +Create a new project called _branches_ in your _projects_ directory to explore +the `if` expression. In the _src/main.rs_ file, input the following: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -22,17 +22,17 @@ the `if` expression. In the *src/main.rs* file, input the following: All `if` expressions start with the keyword `if`, followed by a condition. In this case, the condition checks whether or not the variable `number` has a -value less than 5. We place the block of code to execute if the condition is true -immediately after the condition inside curly brackets. Blocks of code -associated with the conditions in `if` expressions are sometimes called *arms*, +value less than 5. We place the block of code to execute if the condition is +`true` immediately after the condition inside curly brackets. Blocks of code +associated with the conditions in `if` expressions are sometimes called _arms_, just like the arms in `match` expressions that we discussed in the [“Comparing the Guess to the Secret Number”][comparing-the-guess-to-the-secret-number] section of Chapter 2. -Optionally, we can also include an `else` expression, which we chose -to do here, to give the program an alternative block of code to execute should -the condition evaluate to false. If you don’t provide an `else` expression and -the condition is false, the program will just skip the `if` block and move on +Optionally, we can also include an `else` expression, which we chose to do +here, to give the program an alternative block of code to execute should the +condition evaluate to `false`. If you don’t provide an `else` expression and +the condition is `false`, the program will just skip the `if` block and move on to the next bit of code. Try running this code; you should see the following output: @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ Run the program again, and look at the output: {{#include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/no-listing-27-if-false/output.txt}} ``` -It’s also worth noting that the condition in this code *must* be a `bool`. If +It’s also worth noting that the condition in this code _must_ be a `bool`. If the condition isn’t a `bool`, we’ll get an error. For example, try running the following code: @@ -105,11 +105,11 @@ see the following output: ``` When this program executes, it checks each `if` expression in turn and executes -the first body for which the condition holds true. Note that even though 6 is -divisible by 2, we don’t see the output `number is divisible by 2`, nor do we -see the `number is not divisible by 4, 3, or 2` text from the `else` block. -That’s because Rust only executes the block for the first true condition, and -once it finds one, it doesn’t even check the rest. +the first body for which the condition evaluates to `true`. Note that even +though 6 is divisible by 2, we don’t see the output `number is divisible by 2`, +nor do we see the `number is not divisible by 4, 3, or 2` text from the `else` +block. That’s because Rust only executes the block for the first `true` +condition, and once it finds one, it doesn’t even check the rest. Using too many `else if` expressions can clutter your code, so if you have more than one, you might want to refactor your code. Chapter 6 describes a powerful @@ -120,14 +120,13 @@ Rust branching construct called `match` for these cases. Because `if` is an expression, we can use it on the right side of a `let` statement to assign the outcome to a variable, as in Listing 3-2. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch03-common-programming-concepts/listing-03-02/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 3-2: Assigning the result of an `if` expression -to a variable + The `number` variable will be bound to a value based on the outcome of the `if` expression. Run this code to see what happens: @@ -170,9 +169,9 @@ if it had to keep track of multiple hypothetical types for any variable. ### Repetition with Loops It’s often useful to execute a block of code more than once. For this task, -Rust provides several *loops*, which will run through the code inside the loop -body to the end and then start immediately back at the beginning. To -experiment with loops, let’s make a new project called *loops*. +Rust provides several _loops_, which will run through the code inside the loop +body to the end and then start immediately back at the beginning. To experiment +with loops, let’s make a new project called _loops_. Rust has three kinds of loops: `loop`, `while`, and `for`. Let’s try each one. @@ -181,7 +180,7 @@ Rust has three kinds of loops: `loop`, `while`, and `for`. Let’s try each one. The `loop` keyword tells Rust to execute a block of code over and over again forever or until you explicitly tell it to stop. -As an example, change the *src/main.rs* file in your *loops* directory to look +As an example, change the _src/main.rs_ file in your _loops_ directory to look like this: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -192,8 +191,8 @@ like this: When we run this program, we’ll see `again!` printed over and over continuously until we stop the program manually. Most terminals support the keyboard shortcut -ctrl-c to interrupt a program that is stuck in -a continual loop. Give it a try: +ctrl-c to interrupt a program that is stuck in a continual +loop. Give it a try: section -of Chapter 3. The types covered previously are all a known size, can be stored +of Chapter 3. The types covered previously are of a known size, can be stored on the stack and popped off the stack when their scope is over, and can be quickly and trivially copied to make a new, independent instance if another part of code needs to use the same value in a different scope. But we want to @@ -162,18 +163,18 @@ let s = String::from("hello"); The double colon `::` operator allows us to namespace this particular `from` function under the `String` type rather than using some sort of name like `string_from`. We’ll discuss this syntax more in the [“Method -Syntax”][method-syntax] section of Chapter 5 and when we talk +Syntax”][method-syntax] section of Chapter 5, and when we talk about namespacing with modules in [“Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree”][paths-module-tree] in Chapter 7. -This kind of string *can* be mutated: +This kind of string _can_ be mutated: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-01-can-mutate-string/src/main.rs:here}} ``` So, what’s the difference here? Why can `String` be mutated but literals -cannot? The difference is how these two types deal with memory. +cannot? The difference is in how these two types deal with memory. ### Memory and Allocation @@ -188,18 +189,18 @@ With the `String` type, in order to support a mutable, growable piece of text, we need to allocate an amount of memory on the heap, unknown at compile time, to hold the contents. This means: -* The memory must be requested from the memory allocator at runtime. -* We need a way of returning this memory to the allocator when we’re - done with our `String`. +- The memory must be requested from the memory allocator at runtime. +- We need a way of returning this memory to the allocator when we’re done with + our `String`. That first part is done by us: when we call `String::from`, its implementation requests the memory it needs. This is pretty much universal in programming languages. -However, the second part is different. In languages with a *garbage collector -(GC)*, the GC keeps track of and cleans up memory that isn’t being used +However, the second part is different. In languages with a _garbage collector +(GC)_, the GC keeps track of and cleans up memory that isn’t being used anymore, and we don’t need to think about it. In most languages without a GC, -it’s our responsibility to identify when memory is no longer being used and +it’s our responsibility to identify when memory is no longer being used and to call code to explicitly free it, just as we did to request it. Doing this correctly has historically been a difficult programming problem. If we forget, we’ll waste memory. If we do it too early, we’ll have an invalid variable. If @@ -222,7 +223,7 @@ the code to return the memory. Rust calls `drop` automatically at the closing curly bracket. > Note: In C++, this pattern of deallocating resources at the end of an item’s -> lifetime is sometimes called *Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII)*. +> lifetime is sometimes called _Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII)_. > The `drop` function in Rust will be familiar to you if you’ve used RAII > patterns. @@ -231,17 +232,22 @@ simple right now, but the behavior of code can be unexpected in more complicated situations when we want to have multiple variables use the data we’ve allocated on the heap. Let’s explore some of those situations now. -#### Ways Variables and Data Interact: Move + + + + +#### Variables and Data Interacting with Move Multiple variables can interact with the same data in different ways in Rust. Let’s look at an example using an integer in Listing 4-2. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 4-2: Assigning the integer value of variable `x` -to `y` + We can probably guess what this is doing: “bind the value `5` to `x`; then make a copy of the value in `x` and bind it to `y`.” We now have two variables, `x` @@ -265,33 +271,41 @@ the memory that holds the contents of the string, a length, and a capacity. This group of data is stored on the stack. On the right is the memory on the heap that holds the contents. -String in memory +Two tables: the first table contains the representation of s1 on the +stack, consisting of its length (5), capacity (5), and a pointer to the first +value in the second table. The second table contains the representation of the +string data on the heap, byte by byte. Figure 4-1: Representation in memory of a `String` holding the value `"hello"` bound to `s1` -The length is how much memory, in bytes, the contents of the `String` is +The length is how much memory, in bytes, the contents of the `String` are currently using. The capacity is the total amount of memory, in bytes, that the -`String` has received from the allocator. The difference between length -and capacity matters, but not in this context, so for now, it’s fine to ignore -the capacity. +`String` has received from the allocator. The difference between length and +capacity matters, but not in this context, so for now, it’s fine to ignore the +capacity. When we assign `s1` to `s2`, the `String` data is copied, meaning we copy the pointer, the length, and the capacity that are on the stack. We do not copy the data on the heap that the pointer refers to. In other words, the data representation in memory looks like Figure 4-2. -s1 and s2 pointing to the same value +Three tables: tables s1 and s2 representing those strings on the +stack, respectively, and both pointing to the same string data on the heap. Figure 4-2: Representation in memory of the variable `s2` that has a copy of the pointer, length, and capacity of `s1` -The representation does *not* look like Figure 4-3, which is what memory would +The representation does _not_ look like Figure 4-3, which is what memory would look like if Rust instead copied the heap data as well. If Rust did this, the operation `s2 = s1` could be very expensive in terms of runtime performance if the data on the heap were large. -s1 and s2 to two places +Four tables: two tables representing the stack data for s1 and s2, +and each points to its own copy of string data on the heap. Figure 4-3: Another possibility for what `s2 = s1` might do if Rust copied the heap data as well @@ -300,11 +314,11 @@ Earlier, we said that when a variable goes out of scope, Rust automatically calls the `drop` function and cleans up the heap memory for that variable. But Figure 4-2 shows both data pointers pointing to the same location. This is a problem: when `s2` and `s1` go out of scope, they will both try to free the -same memory. This is known as a *double free* error and is one of the memory +same memory. This is known as a _double free_ error and is one of the memory safety bugs we mentioned previously. Freeing memory twice can lead to memory corruption, which can potentially lead to security vulnerabilities. -To ensure memory safety, after the line `let s2 = s1`, Rust considers `s1` as +To ensure memory safety, after the line `let s2 = s1;`, Rust considers `s1` as no longer valid. Therefore, Rust doesn’t need to free anything when `s1` goes out of scope. Check out what happens when you try to use `s1` after `s2` is created; it won’t work: @@ -320,28 +334,67 @@ invalidated reference: {{#include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04-cant-use-after-move/output.txt}} ``` -If you’ve heard the terms *shallow copy* and *deep copy* while working with +If you’ve heard the terms _shallow copy_ and _deep copy_ while working with other languages, the concept of copying the pointer, length, and capacity without copying the data probably sounds like making a shallow copy. But -because Rust also invalidates the first variable, instead of calling it a -shallow copy, it’s known as a *move*. In this example, we would say that -`s1` was *moved* into `s2`. So what actually happens is shown in Figure 4-4. +because Rust also invalidates the first variable, instead of being called a +shallow copy, it’s known as a _move_. In this example, we would say that `s1` +was _moved_ into `s2`. So, what actually happens is shown in Figure 4-4. -s1 moved to s2 +Three tables: tables s1 and s2 representing those strings on the +stack, respectively, and both pointing to the same string data on the heap. +Table s1 is grayed out be-cause s1 is no longer valid; only s2 can be used to +access the heap data. Figure 4-4: Representation in memory after `s1` has been invalidated -That solves our problem! With only `s2` valid, when it goes out of scope, it +That solves our problem! With only `s2` valid, when it goes out of scope it alone will free the memory, and we’re done. In addition, there’s a design choice that’s implied by this: Rust will never -automatically create “deep” copies of your data. Therefore, any *automatic* +automatically create “deep” copies of your data. Therefore, any _automatic_ copying can be assumed to be inexpensive in terms of runtime performance. -#### Ways Variables and Data Interact: Clone +#### Scope and Assignment + +The inverse of this is true for the relationship between scoping, ownership, and +memory being freed via the `drop` function as well. When you assign a completely +new value to an existing variable, Rust will call `drop` and free the original +value’s memory immediately. Consider this code, for example: + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-04b-replacement-drop/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +We initially declare a variable `s` and bind it to a `String` with the value +`"hello"`. Then we immediately create a new `String` with the value `"ahoy"` and +assign it to `s`. At this point, nothing is referring to the original value on +the heap at all. + +One table s representing the string value on the stack, pointing to +the second piece of string data (ahoy) on the heap, with the original string +data (hello) grayed out because it cannot be accessed anymore. + +Figure 4-5: Representation in memory after the initial +value has been replaced in its entirety. + +The original string thus immediately goes out of scope. Rust will run the `drop` +function on it and its memory will be freed right away. When we print the value +at the end, it will be `"ahoy, world!"`. + + + + + +#### Variables and Data Interacting with Clone -If we *do* want to deeply copy the heap data of the `String`, not just the +If we _do_ want to deeply copy the heap data of the `String`, not just the stack data, we can use a common method called `clone`. We’ll discuss method syntax in Chapter 5, but because methods are a common feature in many programming languages, you’ve probably seen them before. @@ -353,7 +406,7 @@ Here’s an example of the `clone` method in action: ``` This works just fine and explicitly produces the behavior shown in Figure 4-3, -where the heap data *does* get copied. +where the heap data _does_ get copied. When you see a call to `clone`, you know that some arbitrary code is being executed and that code may be expensive. It’s a visual indicator that something @@ -361,8 +414,8 @@ different is going on. #### Stack-Only Data: Copy -There’s another wrinkle we haven’t talked about yet. This code using integers – -part of which was shown in Listing 4-2 – works and is valid: +There’s another wrinkle we haven’t talked about yet. This code using +integers—part of which was shown in Listing 4-2—works and is valid: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-06-copy/src/main.rs:here}} @@ -376,7 +429,7 @@ time are stored entirely on the stack, so copies of the actual values are quick to make. That means there’s no reason we would want to prevent `x` from being valid after we create the variable `y`. In other words, there’s no difference between deep and shallow copying here, so calling `clone` wouldn’t do anything -different from the usual shallow copying and we can leave it out. +different from the usual shallow copying, and we can leave it out. Rust has a special annotation called the `Copy` trait that we can place on types that are stored on the stack, as integers are (we’ll talk more about @@ -391,17 +444,17 @@ we’ll get a compile-time error. To learn about how to add the `Copy` annotatio to your type to implement the trait, see [“Derivable Traits”][derivable-traits] in Appendix C. -So what types implement the `Copy` trait? You can check the documentation for +So, what types implement the `Copy` trait? You can check the documentation for the given type to be sure, but as a general rule, any group of simple scalar values can implement `Copy`, and nothing that requires allocation or is some form of resource can implement `Copy`. Here are some of the types that implement `Copy`: -* All the integer types, such as `u32`. -* The Boolean type, `bool`, with values `true` and `false`. -* All the floating point types, such as `f64`. -* The character type, `char`. -* Tuples, if they only contain types that also implement `Copy`. For example, +- All the integer types, such as `u32`. +- The Boolean type, `bool`, with values `true` and `false`. +- All the floating-point types, such as `f64`. +- The character type, `char`. +- Tuples, if they only contain types that also implement `Copy`. For example, `(i32, i32)` implements `Copy`, but `(i32, String)` does not. ### Ownership and Functions @@ -411,14 +464,13 @@ assigning a value to a variable. Passing a variable to a function will move or copy, just as assignment does. Listing 4-3 has an example with some annotations showing where variables go into and out of scope. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-03/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 4-3: Functions with ownership and scope -annotated + If we tried to use `s` after the call to `takes_ownership`, Rust would throw a compile-time error. These static checks protect us from mistakes. Try adding @@ -427,18 +479,17 @@ the ownership rules prevent you from doing so. ### Return Values and Scope -Returning values can also transfer ownership. Listing 4-4 shows an example -of a function that returns some value, with similar annotations as those in -Listing 4-3. +Returning values can also transfer ownership. Listing 4-4 shows an example of a +function that returns some value, with similar annotations as those in Listing +4-3. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-04/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 4-4: Transferring ownership of return -values + The ownership of a variable follows the same pattern every time: assigning a value to another variable moves it. When a variable that includes data on the @@ -453,17 +504,17 @@ from the body of the function that we might want to return as well. Rust does let us return multiple values using a tuple, as shown in Listing 4-5. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-05/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 4-5: Returning ownership of parameters + But this is too much ceremony and a lot of work for a concept that should be common. Luckily for us, Rust has a feature for using a value without -transferring ownership, called *references*. +transferring ownership, called _references_. [data-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#data-types [ch8]: ch08-02-strings.html diff --git a/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md b/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md index 060c344bb2..22ceb2bdb1 100644 --- a/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md +++ b/src/ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.md @@ -4,33 +4,36 @@ The issue with the tuple code in Listing 4-5 is that we have to return the `String` to the calling function so we can still use the `String` after the call to `calculate_length`, because the `String` was moved into `calculate_length`. Instead, we can provide a reference to the `String` value. -A *reference* is like a pointer in that it’s an address we can follow to access +A _reference_ is like a pointer in that it’s an address we can follow to access the data stored at that address; that data is owned by some other variable. Unlike a pointer, a reference is guaranteed to point to a valid value of a particular type for the life of that reference. -Here is how you would define and use a `calculate_length` function that -has a reference to an object as a parameter instead of taking ownership of the -value: +Here is how you would define and use a `calculate_length` function that has a +reference to an object as a parameter instead of taking ownership of the value: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-07-reference/src/main.rs:all}} ``` + + First, notice that all the tuple code in the variable declaration and the function return value is gone. Second, note that we pass `&s1` into `calculate_length` and, in its definition, we take `&String` rather than -`String`. These ampersands represent *references*, and they allow you to refer -to some value without taking ownership of it. Figure 4-5 depicts this concept. +`String`. These ampersands represent _references_, and they allow you to refer +to some value without taking ownership of it. Figure 4-6 depicts this concept. -&String s pointing at String s1 +Three tables: the table for s contains only a pointer to the table +for s1. The table for s1 contains the stack data for s1 and points to the +string data on the heap. -Figure 4-5: A diagram of `&String s` pointing at `String +Figure 4-6: A diagram of `&String s` pointing at `String s1` -> Note: The opposite of referencing by using `&` is *dereferencing*, which is +> Note: The opposite of referencing by using `&` is _dereferencing_, which is > accomplished with the dereference operator, `*`. We’ll see some uses of the > dereference operator in Chapter 8 and discuss details of dereferencing in > Chapter 15. @@ -41,9 +44,9 @@ Let’s take a closer look at the function call here: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-07-reference/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -The `&s1` syntax lets us create a reference that *refers* to the value of `s1` -but does not own it. Because it does not own it, the value it points to will -not be dropped when the reference stops being used. +The `&s1` syntax lets us create a reference that _refers_ to the value of `s1` +but does not own it. Because the reference does not own it, the value it points +to will not be dropped when the reference stops being used. Likewise, the signature of the function uses `&` to indicate that the type of the parameter `s` is a reference. Let’s add some explanatory annotations: @@ -54,25 +57,25 @@ the parameter `s` is a reference. Let’s add some explanatory annotations: The scope in which the variable `s` is valid is the same as any function parameter’s scope, but the value pointed to by the reference is not dropped -when `s` stops being used because `s` doesn’t have ownership. When functions +when `s` stops being used, because `s` doesn’t have ownership. When functions have references as parameters instead of the actual values, we won’t need to return the values in order to give back ownership, because we never had ownership. -We call the action of creating a reference *borrowing*. As in real life, if a +We call the action of creating a reference _borrowing_. As in real life, if a person owns something, you can borrow it from them. When you’re done, you have to give it back. You don’t own it. -So what happens if we try to modify something we’re borrowing? Try the code in +So, what happens if we try to modify something we’re borrowing? Try the code in Listing 4-6. Spoiler alert: it doesn’t work! -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-06/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 4-6: Attempting to modify a borrowed value + Here’s the error: @@ -86,15 +89,17 @@ allowed to modify something we have a reference to. ### Mutable References We can fix the code from Listing 4-6 to allow us to modify a borrowed value -with just a few small tweaks that use, instead, a *mutable reference*: +with just a few small tweaks that use, instead, a _mutable reference_: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-09-fixes-listing-04-06/src/main.rs}} ``` -First, we change `s` to be `mut`. Then we create a mutable reference with `&mut + + +First we change `s` to be `mut`. Then we create a mutable reference with `&mut s` where we call the `change` function, and update the function signature to accept a mutable reference with `some_string: &mut String`. This makes it very clear that the `change` function will mutate the value it borrows. @@ -103,12 +108,14 @@ Mutable references have one big restriction: if you have a mutable reference to a value, you can have no other references to that value. This code that attempts to create two mutable references to `s` will fail: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-10-multiple-mut-not-allowed/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + Here’s the error: ```console @@ -123,21 +130,21 @@ in `r2` that borrows the same data as `r1`. The restriction preventing multiple mutable references to the same data at the same time allows for mutation but in a very controlled fashion. It’s something -that new Rustaceans struggle with, because most languages let you mutate +that new Rustaceans struggle with because most languages let you mutate whenever you’d like. The benefit of having this restriction is that Rust can -prevent data races at compile time. A *data race* is similar to a race +prevent data races at compile time. A _data race_ is similar to a race condition and happens when these three behaviors occur: -* Two or more pointers access the same data at the same time. -* At least one of the pointers is being used to write to the data. -* There’s no mechanism being used to synchronize access to the data. +- Two or more pointers access the same data at the same time. +- At least one of the pointers is being used to write to the data. +- There’s no mechanism being used to synchronize access to the data. Data races cause undefined behavior and can be difficult to diagnose and fix -when you’re trying to track them down at runtime; Rust prevents this problem -by refusing to compile code with data races! +when you’re trying to track them down at runtime; Rust prevents this problem by +refusing to compile code with data races! As always, we can use curly brackets to create a new scope, allowing for -multiple mutable references, just not *simultaneous* ones: +multiple mutable references, just not _simultaneous_ ones: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-11-muts-in-separate-scopes/src/main.rs:here}} @@ -156,7 +163,7 @@ Here’s the error: {{#include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-12-immutable-and-mutable-not-allowed/output.txt}} ``` -Whew! We *also* cannot have a mutable reference while we have an immutable one +Whew! We _also_ cannot have a mutable reference while we have an immutable one to the same value. Users of an immutable reference don’t expect the value to suddenly change out @@ -175,10 +182,9 @@ occurs before the mutable reference is introduced: The scopes of the immutable references `r1` and `r2` end after the `println!` where they are last used, which is before the mutable reference `r3` is -created. These scopes don’t overlap, so this code is allowed. The ability of -the compiler to tell that a reference is no longer being used at a point before -the end of the scope is called *Non-Lexical Lifetimes* (NLL for short), and you -can read more about it in [The Edition Guide][nll]. +created. These scopes don’t overlap, so this code is allowed: the compiler can +tell that the reference is no longer being used at a point before the end of +the scope. Even though borrowing errors may be frustrating at times, remember that it’s the Rust compiler pointing out a potential bug early (at compile time rather @@ -187,10 +193,10 @@ have to track down why your data isn’t what you thought it was. ### Dangling References -In languages with pointers, it’s easy to erroneously create a *dangling -pointer*--a pointer that references a location in memory that may have been -given to someone else--by freeing some memory while preserving a pointer to -that memory. In Rust, by contrast, the compiler guarantees that references will +In languages with pointers, it’s easy to erroneously create a _dangling +pointer_—a pointer that references a location in memory that may have been +given to someone else—by freeing some memory while preserving a pointer to that +memory. In Rust, by contrast, the compiler guarantees that references will never be dangling references: if you have a reference to some data, the compiler will ensure that the data will not go out of scope before the reference to the data does. @@ -198,12 +204,14 @@ reference to the data does. Let’s try to create a dangling reference to see how Rust prevents them with a compile-time error: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-14-dangling-reference/src/main.rs}} ``` + + Here’s the error: ```console @@ -222,12 +230,14 @@ for it to be borrowed from Let’s take a closer look at exactly what’s happening at each stage of our `dangle` code: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-15-dangling-reference-annotated/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + Because `s` is created inside `dangle`, when the code of `dangle` is finished, `s` will be deallocated. But we tried to return a reference to it. That means this reference would be pointing to an invalid `String`. That’s no good! Rust @@ -246,10 +256,8 @@ deallocated. Let’s recap what we’ve discussed about references: -* At any given time, you can have *either* one mutable reference *or* any +- At any given time, you can have _either_ one mutable reference _or_ any number of immutable references. -* References must always be valid. +- References must always be valid. Next, we’ll look at a different kind of reference: slices. - -[nll]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/edition-guide/rust-2018/ownership-and-lifetimes/non-lexical-lifetimes.html diff --git a/src/ch04-03-slices.md b/src/ch04-03-slices.md index afb6f76b10..6a0bb0815d 100644 --- a/src/ch04-03-slices.md +++ b/src/ch04-03-slices.md @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ ## The Slice Type -*Slices* let you reference a contiguous sequence of elements in a collection -rather than the whole collection. A slice is a kind of reference, so it does -not have ownership. +_Slices_ let you reference a contiguous sequence of elements in a +[collection](ch08-00-common-collections.md) rather than the whole collection. A +slice is a kind of reference, so it does not have ownership. Here’s a small programming problem: write a function that takes a string of words separated by spaces and returns the first word it finds in that string. @@ -18,21 +18,20 @@ fn first_word(s: &String) -> ? The `first_word` function has a `&String` as a parameter. We don’t want ownership, so this is fine. But what should we return? We don’t really have a -way to talk about *part* of a string. However, we could return the index of the +way to talk about _part_ of a string. However, we could return the index of the end of the word, indicated by a space. Let’s try that, as shown in Listing 4-7. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 4-7: The `first_word` function that returns a -byte index value into the `String` parameter + Because we need to go through the `String` element by element and check whether a value is a space, we’ll convert our `String` to an array of bytes using the -`as_bytes` method: +`as_bytes` method. ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-07/src/main.rs:as_bytes}} @@ -60,7 +59,7 @@ Because we get a reference to the element from `.iter().enumerate()`, we use Inside the `for` loop, we search for the byte that represents the space by using the byte literal syntax. If we find a space, we return the position. -Otherwise, we return the length of the string by using `s.len()`: +Otherwise, we return the length of the string by using `s.len()`. ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-07/src/main.rs:inside_for}} @@ -73,14 +72,13 @@ because it’s a separate value from the `String`, there’s no guarantee that i will still be valid in the future. Consider the program in Listing 4-8 that uses the `first_word` function from Listing 4-7. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 4-8: Storing the result from calling the -`first_word` function and then changing the `String` contents + This program compiles without any errors and would also do so if we used `word` after calling `s.clear()`. Because `word` isn’t connected to the state of `s` @@ -96,16 +94,16 @@ we write a `second_word` function. Its signature would have to look like this: fn second_word(s: &String) -> (usize, usize) { ``` -Now we’re tracking a starting *and* an ending index, and we have even more +Now we’re tracking a starting _and_ an ending index, and we have even more values that were calculated from data in a particular state but aren’t tied to -that state at all. We have three unrelated variables floating around that -need to be kept in sync. +that state at all. We have three unrelated variables floating around that need +to be kept in sync. Luckily, Rust has a solution to this problem: string slices. ### String Slices -A *string slice* is a reference to part of a `String`, and it looks like this: +A _string slice_ is a reference to part of a `String`, and it looks like this: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-17-slice/src/main.rs:here}} @@ -117,18 +115,22 @@ using a range within brackets by specifying `[starting_index..ending_index]`, where `starting_index` is the first position in the slice and `ending_index` is one more than the last position in the slice. Internally, the slice data structure stores the starting position and the length of the slice, which -corresponds to `ending_index` minus `starting_index`. So in the case of `let +corresponds to `ending_index` minus `starting_index`. So, in the case of `let world = &s[6..11];`, `world` would be a slice that contains a pointer to the -byte at index 6 of `s` with a length value of 5. +byte at index 6 of `s` with a length value of `5`. -Figure 4-6 shows this in a diagram. +Figure 4-7 shows this in a diagram. -world containing a pointer to the byte at index 6 of String s and a length 5 +Three tables: a table representing the stack data of s, which points +to the byte at index 0 in a table of the string data "hello world" on +the heap. The third table rep-resents the stack data of the slice world, which +has a length value of 5 and points to byte 6 of the heap data table. -Figure 4-6: String slice referring to part of a +Figure 4-7: String slice referring to part of a `String` -With Rust’s `..` range syntax, if you want to start at index zero, you can drop +With Rust’s `..` range syntax, if you want to start at index 0, you can drop the value before the two periods. In other words, these are equal: ```rust @@ -172,16 +174,18 @@ let slice = &s[..]; With all this information in mind, let’s rewrite `first_word` to return a slice. The type that signifies “string slice” is written as `&str`: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-18-first-word-slice/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -We get the index for the end of the word in the same way as we did in Listing -4-7, by looking for the first occurrence of a space. When we find a space, we -return a string slice using the start of the string and the index of the space -as the starting and ending indices. + + +We get the index for the end of the word the same way we did in Listing 4-7, by +looking for the first occurrence of a space. When we find a space, we return a +string slice using the start of the string and the index of the space as the +starting and ending indices. Now when we call `first_word`, we get back a single value that is tied to the underlying data. The value is made up of a reference to the starting point of @@ -193,7 +197,7 @@ Returning a slice would also work for a `second_word` function: fn second_word(s: &String) -> &str { ``` -We now have a straightforward API that’s much harder to mess up, because the +We now have a straightforward API that’s much harder to mess up because the compiler will ensure the references into the `String` remain valid. Remember the bug in the program in Listing 4-8, when we got the index to the end of the first word but then cleared the string so our index was invalid? That code was @@ -203,12 +207,14 @@ string. Slices make this bug impossible and let us know we have a problem with our code much sooner. Using the slice version of `first_word` will throw a compile-time error: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/no-listing-19-slice-error/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + Here’s the compiler error: ```console @@ -224,7 +230,11 @@ reference in `clear` and the immutable reference in `word` from existing at the same time, and compilation fails. Not only has Rust made our API easier to use, but it has also eliminated an entire class of errors at compile time! -#### String Literals Are Slices + + + + +#### String Literals as Slices Recall that we talked about string literals being stored inside the binary. Now that we know about slices, we can properly understand string literals: @@ -250,38 +260,42 @@ A more experienced Rustacean would write the signature shown in Listing 4-9 instead because it allows us to use the same function on both `&String` values and `&str` values. ++ ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 4-9: Improving the `first_word` function by using -a string slice for the type of the `s` parameter + If we have a string slice, we can pass that directly. If we have a `String`, we can pass a slice of the `String` or a reference to the `String`. This -flexibility takes advantage of *deref coercions*, a feature we will cover in -the [“Implicit Deref Coercions with Functions and -Methods”][deref-coercions] section of Chapter 15. Defining a -function to take a string slice instead of a reference to a `String` makes our -API more general and useful without losing any functionality: +flexibility takes advantage of _deref coercions_, a feature we will cover in the +[“Implicit Deref Coercions with Functions and +Methods”][deref-coercions] section of Chapter 15. + +Defining a function to take a string slice instead of a reference to a `String` +makes our API more general and useful without losing any functionality: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch04-understanding-ownership/listing-04-09/src/main.rs:usage}} ``` + + ### Other Slices String slices, as you might imagine, are specific to strings. But there’s a -more general slice type, too. Consider this array: +more general slice type too. Consider this array: ```rust let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; ``` -Just as we might want to refer to a part of a string, we might want to refer -to part of an array. We’d do so like this: +Just as we might want to refer to part of a string, we might want to refer to +part of an array. We’d do so like this: ```rust let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; diff --git a/src/ch05-00-structs.md b/src/ch05-00-structs.md index ff540b77db..ee064224d9 100644 --- a/src/ch05-00-structs.md +++ b/src/ch05-00-structs.md @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ # Using Structs to Structure Related Data -A *struct*, or *structure*, is a custom data type that lets you package +A _struct_, or _structure_, is a custom data type that lets you package together and name multiple related values that make up a meaningful group. If -you’re familiar with an object-oriented language, a *struct* is like an +you’re familiar with an object-oriented language, a _struct_ is like an object’s data attributes. In this chapter, we’ll compare and contrast tuples with structs to build on what you already know and demonstrate when structs are a better way to group data. We’ll demonstrate how to define and instantiate structs. We’ll discuss how to define associated functions, especially the kind of associated functions called -*methods*, to specify behavior associated with a struct type. Structs and enums +_methods_, to specify behavior associated with a struct type. Structs and enums (discussed in Chapter 6) are the building blocks for creating new types in your -program’s domain to take full advantage of Rust’s compile time type checking. +program’s domain to take full advantage of Rust’s compile-time type checking. diff --git a/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md b/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md index 7a50f99a5f..91a9392436 100644 --- a/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md +++ b/src/ch05-01-defining-structs.md @@ -10,31 +10,34 @@ on the order of the data to specify or access the values of an instance. To define a struct, we enter the keyword `struct` and name the entire struct. A struct’s name should describe the significance of the pieces of data being grouped together. Then, inside curly brackets, we define the names and types of -the pieces of data, which we call *fields*. For example, Listing 5-1 shows a +the pieces of data, which we call _fields_. For example, Listing 5-1 shows a struct that stores information about a user account. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-01/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-1: A `User` struct definition + -To use a struct after we’ve defined it, we create an *instance* of that struct +To use a struct after we’ve defined it, we create an _instance_ of that struct by specifying concrete values for each of the fields. We create an instance by -stating the name of the struct and then add curly brackets containing `key: -value` pairs, where the keys are the names of the fields and the values are the +stating the name of the struct and then add curly brackets containing _key: +value_ pairs, where the keys are the names of the fields and the values are the data we want to store in those fields. We don’t have to specify the fields in the same order in which we declared them in the struct. In other words, the struct definition is like a general template for the type, and instances fill in that template with particular data to create values of the type. For example, we can declare a particular user as shown in Listing 5-2. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-2: Creating an instance of the `User` -struct + To get a specific value from a struct, we use dot notation. For example, to access this user’s email address, we use `user1.email`. If the instance is @@ -42,12 +45,13 @@ mutable, we can change a value by using the dot notation and assigning into a particular field. Listing 5-3 shows how to change the value in the `email` field of a mutable `User` instance. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-3: Changing the value in the `email` field of a -`User` instance + Note that the entire instance must be mutable; Rust doesn’t allow us to mark only certain fields as mutable. As with any expression, we can construct a new @@ -58,33 +62,37 @@ Listing 5-4 shows a `build_user` function that returns a `User` instance with the given email and username. The `active` field gets the value of `true`, and the `sign_in_count` gets a value of `1`. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-4: A `build_user` function that takes an email -and username and returns a `User` instance + It makes sense to name the function parameters with the same name as the struct fields, but having to repeat the `email` and `username` field names and variables is a bit tedious. If the struct had more fields, repeating each name would get even more annoying. Luckily, there’s a convenient shorthand! + + + ### Using the Field Init Shorthand Because the parameter names and the struct field names are exactly the same in -Listing 5-4, we can use the *field init shorthand* syntax to rewrite -`build_user` so that it behaves exactly the same but doesn’t have the -repetition of `email` and `username`, as shown in Listing 5-5. +Listing 5-4, we can use the _field init shorthand_ syntax to rewrite +`build_user` so it behaves exactly the same but doesn’t have the repetition of +`username` and `email`, as shown in Listing 5-5. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-5: A `build_user` function that uses field init -shorthand because the `email` and `username` parameters have the same name as -struct fields + Here, we’re creating a new instance of the `User` struct, which has a field named `email`. We want to set the `email` field’s value to the value in the @@ -92,34 +100,35 @@ named `email`. We want to set the `email` field’s value to the value in the the `email` parameter have the same name, we only need to write `email` rather than `email: email`. -### Creating Instances From Other Instances With Struct Update Syntax +### Creating Instances from Other Instances with Struct Update Syntax It’s often useful to create a new instance of a struct that includes most of the values from another instance, but changes some. You can do this using -*struct update syntax*. +_struct update syntax_. First, in Listing 5-6 we show how to create a new `User` instance in `user2` regularly, without the update syntax. We set a new value for `email` but otherwise use the same values from `user1` that we created in Listing 5-2. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-6: Creating a new `User` instance using one of -the values from `user1` + Using struct update syntax, we can achieve the same effect with less code, as shown in Listing 5-7. The syntax `..` specifies that the remaining fields not explicitly set should have the same value as the fields in the given instance. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-7: Using struct update syntax to set a new -`email` value for a `User` instance but use the rest of the values from -`user1` + The code in Listing 5-7 also creates an instance in `user2` that has a different value for `email` but has the same values for the `username`, @@ -129,59 +138,70 @@ corresponding fields in `user1`, but we can choose to specify values for as many fields as we want in any order, regardless of the order of the fields in the struct’s definition. -Note that the struct update syntax uses `=` like an assignment; this is -because it moves the data, just as we saw in the [“Ways Variables and Data -Interact: Move”][move] section. In this example, we can no -longer use `user1` after creating `user2` because the `String` in the +Note that the struct update syntax uses `=` like an assignment; this is because +it moves the data, just as we saw in the [“Variables and Data Interacting with +Move”][move] section. In this example, we can no longer use +`user1` as a whole after creating `user2` because the `String` in the `username` field of `user1` was moved into `user2`. If we had given `user2` new `String` values for both `email` and `username`, and thus only used the `active` and `sign_in_count` values from `user1`, then `user1` would still be -valid after creating `user2`. The types of `active` and `sign_in_count` are -types that implement the `Copy` trait, so the behavior we discussed in the -[“Stack-Only Data: Copy”][copy] section would apply. - -### Using Tuple Structs without Named Fields to Create Different Types - -Rust also supports structs that look similar to tuples, called *tuple -structs*. Tuple structs have the added meaning the struct name provides but -don’t have names associated with their fields; rather, they just have the types -of the fields. Tuple structs are useful when you want to give the whole tuple a -name and make the tuple a different type from other tuples, and when naming each +valid after creating `user2`. Both `active` and `sign_in_count` are types that +implement the `Copy` trait, so the behavior we discussed in the [“Stack-Only +Data: Copy”][copy] section would apply. We can still use +`user1.email` in this example, since its value was _not_ moved out. + +### Using Tuple Structs Without Named Fields to Create Different Types + +Rust also supports structs that look similar to tuples, called _tuple structs_. +Tuple structs have the added meaning the struct name provides but don’t have +names associated with their fields; rather, they just have the types of the +fields. Tuple structs are useful when you want to give the whole tuple a name +and make the tuple a different type from other tuples, and when naming each field as in a regular struct would be verbose or redundant. To define a tuple struct, start with the `struct` keyword and the struct name -followed by the types in the tuple. For example, here we define and use -two tuple structs named `Color` and `Point`: +followed by the types in the tuple. For example, here we define and use two +tuple structs named `Color` and `Point`: + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-01-tuple-structs/src/main.rs}} ``` -Note that the `black` and `origin` values are different types, because they’re + + +Note that the `black` and `origin` values are different types because they’re instances of different tuple structs. Each struct you define is its own type, even though the fields within the struct might have the same types. For example, a function that takes a parameter of type `Color` cannot take a `Point` as an argument, even though both types are made up of three `i32` values. Otherwise, tuple struct instances are similar to tuples in that you can destructure them into their individual pieces, and you can use a `.` followed -by the index to access an individual value. +by the index to access an individual value. Unlike tuples, tuple structs +require you to name the type of the struct when you destructure them. For +example, we would write `let Point(x, y, z) = point`. ### Unit-Like Structs Without Any Fields You can also define structs that don’t have any fields! These are called -*unit-like structs* because they behave similarly to `()`, the unit type that +_unit-like structs_ because they behave similarly to `()`, the unit type that we mentioned in [“The Tuple Type”][tuples] section. Unit-like structs can be useful when you need to implement a trait on some type but don’t have any data that you want to store in the type itself. We’ll discuss traits in Chapter 10. Here’s an example of declaring and instantiating a unit struct named `AlwaysEqual`: ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-04-unit-like-structs/src/main.rs}} ``` -To define `AlwaysEqual`, we use the `struct` keyword, the name we want, then a -semicolon. No need for curly brackets or parentheses! Then we can get an + + +To define `AlwaysEqual`, we use the `struct` keyword, the name we want, and +then a semicolon. No need for curly brackets or parentheses! Then we can get an instance of `AlwaysEqual` in the `subject` variable in a similar way: using the name we defined, without any curly brackets or parentheses. Imagine that later we’ll implement behavior for this type such that every instance of @@ -198,12 +218,12 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > that data to be valid for as long as the entire struct is valid. > > It’s also possible for structs to store references to data owned by something -> else, but to do so requires the use of *lifetimes*, a Rust feature that we’ll +> else, but to do so requires the use of _lifetimes_, a Rust feature that we’ll > discuss in Chapter 10. Lifetimes ensure that the data referenced by a struct > is valid for as long as the struct is. Let’s say you try to store a reference > in a struct without specifying lifetimes, like the following; this won’t work: > -> Filename: src/main.rs +> > > > @@ -217,14 +237,16 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > > fn main() { > let user1 = User { -> email: "someone@example.com", -> username: "someusername123", > active: true, +> username: "someusername123", +> email: "someone@example.com", > sign_in_count: 1, > }; > } > ``` > +> +> > The compiler will complain that it needs lifetime specifiers: > > ```console @@ -258,7 +280,7 @@ implement them on any type, including unit-like structs. > | > > For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0106`. -> error: could not compile `structs` due to 2 previous errors +> error: could not compile `structs` (bin "structs") due to 2 previous errors > ``` > > In Chapter 10, we’ll discuss how to fix these errors so you can store @@ -273,5 +295,5 @@ paste above add `> ` before every line --> [tuples]: ch03-02-data-types.html#the-tuple-type -[move]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#ways-variables-and-data-interact-move +[move]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#variables-and-data-interacting-with-move [copy]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#stack-only-data-copy diff --git a/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md b/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md index a83fa05646..49a109c6cf 100644 --- a/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md +++ b/src/ch05-02-example-structs.md @@ -4,19 +4,18 @@ To understand when we might want to use structs, let’s write a program that calculates the area of a rectangle. We’ll start by using single variables, and then refactor the program until we’re using structs instead. -Let’s make a new binary project with Cargo called *rectangles* that will take +Let’s make a new binary project with Cargo called _rectangles_ that will take the width and height of a rectangle specified in pixels and calculate the area of the rectangle. Listing 5-8 shows a short program with one way of doing -exactly that in our project’s *src/main.rs*. +exactly that in our project’s _src/main.rs_. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-08/src/main.rs:all}} ``` -Listing 5-8: Calculating the area of a rectangle -specified by separate width and height variables + Now, run this program using `cargo run`: @@ -45,14 +44,13 @@ of Chapter 3: by using tuples. Listing 5-9 shows another version of our program that uses tuples. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-09/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 5-9: Specifying the width and height of the -rectangle with a tuple + In one way, this program is better. Tuples let us add a bit of structure, and we’re now passing just one argument. But in another way, this version is less @@ -72,18 +70,18 @@ We use structs to add meaning by labeling the data. We can transform the tuple we’re using into a struct with a name for the whole as well as names for the parts, as shown in Listing 5-10. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-10/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 5-10: Defining a `Rectangle` struct + Here we’ve defined a struct and named it `Rectangle`. Inside the curly brackets, we defined the fields as `width` and `height`, both of which have -type `u32`. Then in `main`, we created a particular instance of `Rectangle` -that has a width of 30 and a height of 50. +type `u32`. Then, in `main`, we created a particular instance of `Rectangle` +that has a width of `30` and a height of `50`. Our `area` function is now defined with one parameter, which we’ve named `rectangle`, whose type is an immutable borrow of a struct `Rectangle` @@ -108,14 +106,13 @@ debugging our program and see the values for all its fields. Listing 5-11 tries using the [`println!` macro][println] as we have used in previous chapters. This won’t work, however. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-11/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 5-11: Attempting to print a `Rectangle` -instance + When we compile this code, we get an error with this core message: @@ -126,7 +123,7 @@ When we compile this code, we get an error with this core message: The `println!` macro can do many kinds of formatting, and by default, the curly brackets tell `println!` to use formatting known as `Display`: output intended for direct end user consumption. The primitive types we’ve seen so far -implement `Display` by default, because there’s only one way you’d want to show +implement `Display` by default because there’s only one way you’d want to show a `1` or any other primitive type to a user. But with structs, the way `println!` should format the output is less clear because there are more display possibilities: Do you want commas or not? Do you want to print the @@ -141,7 +138,7 @@ If we continue reading the errors, we’ll find this helpful note: ``` Let’s try it! The `println!` macro call will now look like `println!("rect1 is -{:?}", rect1);`. Putting the specifier `:?` inside the curly brackets tells +{rect1:?}");`. Putting the specifier `:?` inside the curly brackets tells `println!` we want to use an output format called `Debug`. The `Debug` trait enables us to print our struct in a way that is useful for developers so we can see its value while we’re debugging our code. @@ -158,19 +155,18 @@ But again, the compiler gives us a helpful note: {{#include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-01-debug/output.txt:9:10}} ``` -Rust *does* include functionality to print out debugging information, but we +Rust _does_ include functionality to print out debugging information, but we have to explicitly opt in to make that functionality available for our struct. To do that, we add the outer attribute `#[derive(Debug)]` just before the struct definition, as shown in Listing 5-12. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-12/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 5-12: Adding the attribute to derive the `Debug` -trait and printing the `Rectangle` instance using debug formatting + Now when we run the program, we won’t get any errors, and we’ll see the following output: @@ -182,8 +178,8 @@ following output: Nice! It’s not the prettiest output, but it shows the values of all the fields for this instance, which would definitely help during debugging. When we have larger structs, it’s useful to have output that’s a bit easier to read; in -those cases, we can use `{:#?}` instead of `{:?}` in the `println!` string. -In this example, using the `{:#?}` style will output: +those cases, we can use `{:#?}` instead of `{:?}` in the `println!` string. In +this example, using the `{:#?}` style will output the following: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/output-only-02-pretty-debug/output.txt}} @@ -191,15 +187,15 @@ In this example, using the `{:#?}` style will output: Another way to print out a value using the `Debug` format is to use the [`dbg!` macro][dbg], which takes ownership of an expression (as opposed -to `println!` that takes a reference), prints the file and line number of where -that `dbg!` macro call occurs in your code along with the resulting value of -that expression, and returns ownership of the value. +to `println!`, which takes a reference), prints the file and line number of +where that `dbg!` macro call occurs in your code along with the resultant value +of that expression, and returns ownership of the value. > Note: Calling the `dbg!` macro prints to the standard error console stream -> (`stderr`), as opposed to `println!` which prints to the standard output +> (`stderr`), as opposed to `println!`, which prints to the standard output > console stream (`stdout`). We’ll talk more about `stderr` and `stdout` in the -> “[“Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard -> Output” section in Chapter 12][err]. +> [“Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output” +> section in Chapter 12][err]. Here’s an example where we’re interested in the value that gets assigned to the `width` field, as well as the value of the whole struct in `rect1`: @@ -218,10 +214,10 @@ Here’s what the output of this example looks like: {{#include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-05-dbg-macro/output.txt}} ``` -We can see the first bit of output came from *src/main.rs* line 10, where we’re -debugging the expression `30 * scale`, and its resulting value is 60 (the +We can see the first bit of output came from _src/main.rs_ line 10 where we’re +debugging the expression `30 * scale`, and its resultant value is `60` (the `Debug` formatting implemented for integers is to print only their value). The -`dbg!` call on line 14 of *src/main.rs* outputs the value of `&rect1`, which is +`dbg!` call on line 14 of _src/main.rs_ outputs the value of `&rect1`, which is the `Rectangle` struct. This output uses the pretty `Debug` formatting of the `Rectangle` type. The `dbg!` macro can be really helpful when you’re trying to figure out what your code is doing! @@ -235,10 +231,10 @@ attributes other than `derive`; for more information, see [the “Attributes” section of the Rust Reference][attributes]. Our `area` function is very specific: it only computes the area of rectangles. -It would be helpful to tie this behavior more closely to our `Rectangle` -struct, because it won’t work with any other type. Let’s look at how we can -continue to refactor this code by turning the `area` function into an `area` -*method* defined on our `Rectangle` type. +It would be helpful to tie this behavior more closely to our `Rectangle` struct +because it won’t work with any other type. Let’s look at how we can continue to +refactor this code by turning the `area` function into an `area` _method_ +defined on our `Rectangle` type. [the-tuple-type]: ch03-02-data-types.html#the-tuple-type [app-c]: appendix-03-derivable-traits.md diff --git a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md index e300d0104f..542f07d517 100644 --- a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md @@ -1,12 +1,13 @@ ## Method Syntax -*Methods* are similar to functions: we declare them with the `fn` keyword and a +_Methods_ are similar to functions: we declare them with the `fn` keyword and a name, they can have parameters and a return value, and they contain some code that’s run when the method is called from somewhere else. Unlike functions, methods are defined within the context of a struct (or an enum or a trait -object, which we cover in Chapters 6 and 17, respectively), and their first -parameter is always `self`, which represents the instance of the struct the -method is being called on. +object, which we cover in [Chapter 6][enums] and [Chapter +17][trait-objects], respectively), and their first parameter is +always `self`, which represents the instance of the struct the method is being +called on. ### Defining Methods @@ -14,14 +15,13 @@ Let’s change the `area` function that has a `Rectangle` instance as a paramete and instead make an `area` method defined on the `Rectangle` struct, as shown in Listing 5-13. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-13/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 5-13: Defining an `area` method on the -`Rectangle` struct + To define the function within the context of `Rectangle`, we start an `impl` (implementation) block for `Rectangle`. Everything within this `impl` block @@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ will be associated with the `Rectangle` type. Then we move the `area` function within the `impl` curly brackets and change the first (and in this case, only) parameter to be `self` in the signature and everywhere within the body. In `main`, where we called the `area` function and passed `rect1` as an argument, -we can instead use *method syntax* to call the `area` method on our `Rectangle` +we can instead use _method syntax_ to call the `area` method on our `Rectangle` instance. The method syntax goes after an instance: we add a dot followed by the method name, parentheses, and any arguments. @@ -39,49 +39,54 @@ type `Self` is an alias for the type that the `impl` block is for. Methods must have a parameter named `self` of type `Self` for their first parameter, so Rust lets you abbreviate this with only the name `self` in the first parameter spot. Note that we still need to use the `&` in front of the `self` shorthand to -indicate this method borrows the `Self` instance, just as we did in `rectangle: -&Rectangle`. Methods can take ownership of `self`, borrow `self` immutably as -we’ve done here, or borrow `self` mutably, just as they can any other parameter. - -We’ve chosen `&self` here for the same reason we used `&Rectangle` in the -function version: we don’t want to take ownership, and we just want to read the -data in the struct, not write to it. If we wanted to change the instance that -we’ve called the method on as part of what the method does, we’d use `&mut -self` as the first parameter. Having a method that takes ownership of the -instance by using just `self` as the first parameter is rare; this technique is -usually used when the method transforms `self` into something else and you want -to prevent the caller from using the original instance after the transformation. - -The main reason for using methods instead of functions, in addition to providing -method syntax and not having to repeat the type of `self` in every method’s -signature, is for organization. We’ve put all the things we can do with an -instance of a type in one `impl` block rather than making future users of our -code search for capabilities of `Rectangle` in various places in the library we -provide. +indicate that this method borrows the `Self` instance, just as we did in +`rectangle: &Rectangle`. Methods can take ownership of `self`, borrow `self` +immutably, as we’ve done here, or borrow `self` mutably, just as they can any +other parameter. + +We chose `&self` here for the same reason we used `&Rectangle` in the function +version: we don’t want to take ownership, and we just want to read the data in +the struct, not write to it. If we wanted to change the instance that we’ve +called the method on as part of what the method does, we’d use `&mut self` as +the first parameter. Having a method that takes ownership of the instance by +using just `self` as the first parameter is rare; this technique is usually +used when the method transforms `self` into something else and you want to +prevent the caller from using the original instance after the transformation. + +The main reason for using methods instead of functions, in addition to +providing method syntax and not having to repeat the type of `self` in every +method’s signature, is for organization. We’ve put all the things we can do +with an instance of a type in one `impl` block rather than making future users +of our code search for capabilities of `Rectangle` in various places in the +library we provide. Note that we can choose to give a method the same name as one of the struct’s -fields. For example, we can define a method on `Rectangle` also named `width`: +fields. For example, we can define a method on `Rectangle` that is also named +`width`: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/no-listing-06-method-field-interaction/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + Here, we’re choosing to make the `width` method return `true` if the value in -the instance’s `width` field is greater than 0, and `false` if the value is 0: -we can use a field within a method of the same name for any purpose. In `main`, -when we follow `rect1.width` with parentheses, Rust knows we mean the method -`width`. When we don’t use parentheses, Rust knows we mean the field `width`. - -Often, but not always, when we give methods with the same name as a field we -want it to only return the value in the field and do nothing else. Methods like -this are called *getters*, and Rust does not implement them automatically for -struct fields as some other languages do. Getters are useful because you can -make the field private but the method public and thus enable read-only access -to that field as part of the type’s public API. We will be discussing what -public and private are and how to designate a field or method as public or -private in Chapter 7. +the instance’s `width` field is greater than `0` and `false` if the value is +`0`: we can use a field within a method of the same name for any purpose. In +`main`, when we follow `rect1.width` with parentheses, Rust knows we mean the +method `width`. When we don’t use parentheses, Rust knows we mean the field +`width`. + +Often, but not always, when we give a method the same name as a field we want +it to only return the value in the field and do nothing else. Methods like this +are called _getters_, and Rust does not implement them automatically for struct +fields as some other languages do. Getters are useful because you can make the +field private but the method public, and thus enable read-only access to that +field as part of the type’s public API. We will discuss what public and private +are and how to designate a field or method as public or private in [Chapter +7][public]. > ### Where’s the `->` Operator? > @@ -92,7 +97,7 @@ private in Chapter 7. > `object->something()` is similar to `(*object).something()`. > > Rust doesn’t have an equivalent to the `->` operator; instead, Rust has a -> feature called *automatic referencing and dereferencing*. Calling methods is +> feature called _automatic referencing and dereferencing_. Calling methods is > one of the few places in Rust that has this behavior. > > Here’s how it works: when you call a method with `object.something()`, Rust @@ -100,6 +105,7 @@ private in Chapter 7. > the method. In other words, the following are the same: > > +> > ```rust > # #[derive(Debug,Copy,Clone)] > # struct Point { @@ -131,23 +137,22 @@ private in Chapter 7. ### Methods with More Parameters Let’s practice using methods by implementing a second method on the `Rectangle` -struct. This time, we want an instance of `Rectangle` to take another instance +struct. This time we want an instance of `Rectangle` to take another instance of `Rectangle` and return `true` if the second `Rectangle` can fit completely -within `self` (the first `Rectangle`); otherwise it should return `false`. That -is, once we’ve defined the `can_hold` method, we want to be able to write the -program shown in Listing 5-14. +within `self` (the first `Rectangle`); otherwise, it should return `false`. +That is, once we’ve defined the `can_hold` method, we want to be able to write +the program shown in Listing 5-14. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-14/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 5-14: Using the as-yet-unwritten `can_hold` -method + -And the expected output would look like the following, because both dimensions -of `rect2` are smaller than the dimensions of `rect1` but `rect3` is wider than +The expected output would look like the following because both dimensions of +`rect2` are smaller than the dimensions of `rect1`, but `rect3` is wider than `rect1`: ```text @@ -165,18 +170,17 @@ read `rect2` (rather than write, which would mean we’d need a mutable borrow), and we want `main` to retain ownership of `rect2` so we can use it again after calling the `can_hold` method. The return value of `can_hold` will be a Boolean, and the implementation will check whether the width and height of -`self` are both greater than the width and height of the other `Rectangle`, +`self` are greater than the width and height of the other `Rectangle`, respectively. Let’s add the new `can_hold` method to the `impl` block from Listing 5-13, shown in Listing 5-15. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-15/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-15: Implementing the `can_hold` method on -`Rectangle` that takes another `Rectangle` instance as a parameter + When we run this code with the `main` function in Listing 5-14, we’ll get our desired output. Methods can take multiple parameters that we add to the @@ -185,7 +189,7 @@ parameters in functions. ### Associated Functions -All functions defined within an `impl` block are called *associated functions* +All functions defined within an `impl` block are called _associated functions_ because they’re associated with the type named after the `impl`. We can define associated functions that don’t have `self` as their first parameter (and thus are not methods) because they don’t need an instance of the type to work with. @@ -213,20 +217,22 @@ is `Rectangle`. To call this associated function, we use the `::` syntax with the struct name; `let sq = Rectangle::square(3);` is an example. This function is namespaced by the struct: the `::` syntax is used for both associated functions and -namespaces created by modules. We’ll discuss modules in Chapter 7. +namespaces created by modules. We’ll discuss modules in [Chapter +7][modules]. ### Multiple `impl` Blocks Each struct is allowed to have multiple `impl` blocks. For example, Listing -5-15 is equivalent to the code shown in Listing 5-16, which has each method -in its own `impl` block. +5-15 is equivalent to the code shown in Listing 5-16, which has each method in +its own `impl` block. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch05-using-structs-to-structure-related-data/listing-05-16/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 5-16: Rewriting Listing 5-15 using multiple `impl` -blocks + There’s no reason to separate these methods into multiple `impl` blocks here, but this is valid syntax. We’ll see a case in which multiple `impl` blocks are @@ -243,3 +249,8 @@ structs have. But structs aren’t the only way you can create custom types: let’s turn to Rust’s enum feature to add another tool to your toolbox. + +[enums]: ch06-00-enums.html +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.md +[public]: ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html#exposing-paths-with-the-pub-keyword +[modules]: ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html diff --git a/src/ch06-00-enums.md b/src/ch06-00-enums.md index e207aa7bd0..0b9fc7806c 100644 --- a/src/ch06-00-enums.md +++ b/src/ch06-00-enums.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ # Enums and Pattern Matching -In this chapter we’ll look at *enumerations*, also referred to as *enums*. -Enums allow you to define a type by enumerating its possible *variants*. First, +In this chapter, we’ll look at _enumerations_, also referred to as _enums_. +Enums allow you to define a type by enumerating its possible _variants_. First we’ll define and use an enum to show how an enum can encode meaning along with data. Next, we’ll explore a particularly useful enum, called `Option`, which expresses that a value can be either something or nothing. Then we’ll look at diff --git a/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md b/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md index cb5d73097b..d61578777e 100644 --- a/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md +++ b/src/ch06-01-defining-an-enum.md @@ -10,12 +10,12 @@ Let’s look at a situation we might want to express in code and see why enums are useful and more appropriate than structs in this case. Say we need to work with IP addresses. Currently, two major standards are used for IP addresses: version four and version six. Because these are the only possibilities for an -IP address that our program will come across, we can *enumerate* all possible +IP address that our program will come across, we can _enumerate_ all possible variants, which is where enumeration gets its name. Any IP address can be either a version four or a version six address, but not both at the same time. That property of IP addresses makes the enum data -structure appropriate, because an enum value can only be one of its variants. +structure appropriate because an enum value can only be one of its variants. Both version four and version six addresses are still fundamentally IP addresses, so they should be treated as the same type when the code is handling situations that apply to any kind of IP address. @@ -54,17 +54,18 @@ And we can call this function with either variant: ``` Using enums has even more advantages. Thinking more about our IP address type, -at the moment we don’t have a way to store the actual IP address *data*; we -only know what *kind* it is. Given that you just learned about structs in +at the moment we don’t have a way to store the actual IP address _data_; we +only know what _kind_ it is. Given that you just learned about structs in Chapter 5, you might be tempted to tackle this problem with structs as shown in Listing 6-1. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-01/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 6-1: Storing the data and `IpAddrKind` variant of -an IP address using a `struct` + Here, we’ve defined a struct `IpAddr` that has two fields: a `kind` field that is of type `IpAddrKind` (the enum we defined previously) and an `address` field @@ -85,7 +86,7 @@ variants will have associated `String` values: ``` We attach data to each variant of the enum directly, so there is no need for an -extra struct. Here it’s also easier to see another detail of how enums work: +extra struct. Here, it’s also easier to see another detail of how enums work: the name of each enum variant that we define also becomes a function that constructs an instance of the enum. That is, `IpAddr::V4()` is a function call that takes a `String` argument and returns an instance of the `IpAddr` type. We @@ -93,7 +94,7 @@ automatically get this constructor function defined as a result of defining the enum. There’s another advantage to using an enum rather than a struct: each variant -can have different types and amounts of associated data. Version four type IP +can have different types and amounts of associated data. Version four IP addresses will always have four numeric components that will have values between 0 and 255. If we wanted to store `V4` addresses as four `u8` values but still express `V6` addresses as one `String` value, we wouldn’t be able to with @@ -140,19 +141,20 @@ more about bringing types into scope in Chapter 7. Let’s look at another example of an enum in Listing 6-2: this one has a wide variety of types embedded in its variants. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 6-2: A `Message` enum whose variants each store -different amounts and types of values + This enum has four variants with different types: -* `Quit` has no data associated with it at all. -* `Move` has named fields like a struct does. -* `Write` includes a single `String`. -* `ChangeColor` includes three `i32` values. +- `Quit` has no data associated with it at all. +- `Move` has named fields, like a struct does. +- `Write` includes a single `String`. +- `ChangeColor` includes three `i32` values. Defining an enum with variants such as the ones in Listing 6-2 is similar to defining different kinds of struct definitions, except the enum doesn’t use the @@ -164,7 +166,7 @@ variants hold: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-04-structs-similar-to-message-enum/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -But if we used the different structs, which each have their own type, we +But if we used the different structs, each of which has its own type, we couldn’t as easily define a function to take any of these kinds of messages as we could with the `Message` enum defined in Listing 6-2, which is a single type. @@ -190,8 +192,8 @@ This section explores a case study of `Option`, which is another enum defined by the standard library. The `Option` type encodes the very common scenario in which a value could be something or it could be nothing. -For example, if you request the first of a list containing items, you would get -a value. If you request the first item of an empty list, you would get nothing. +For example, if you request the first item in a non-empty list, you would get +a value. If you request the first item in an empty list, you would get nothing. Expressing this concept in terms of the type system means the compiler can check whether you’ve handled all the cases you should be handling; this functionality can prevent bugs that are extremely common in other programming @@ -199,7 +201,7 @@ languages. Programming language design is often thought of in terms of which features you include, but the features you exclude are important too. Rust doesn’t have the -null feature that many other languages have. *Null* is a value that means there +null feature that many other languages have. _Null_ is a value that means there is no value there. In languages with null, variables can always be in one of two states: null or not-null. @@ -243,11 +245,11 @@ prefix. The `Option` enum is still just a regular enum, and `Some(T)` and The `` syntax is a feature of Rust we haven’t talked about yet. It’s a generic type parameter, and we’ll cover generics in more detail in Chapter 10. -For now, all you need to know is that `` means the `Some` variant of the -`Option` enum can hold one piece of data of any type, and that each concrete -type that gets used in place of `T` makes the overall `Option` type a -different type. Here are some examples of using `Option` values to hold number -types and string types: +For now, all you need to know is that `` means that the `Some` variant of +the `Option` enum can hold one piece of data of any type, and that each +concrete type that gets used in place of `T` makes the overall `Option` type +a different type. Here are some examples of using `Option` values to hold +number types and string types: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-06-option-examples/src/main.rs:here}} @@ -262,20 +264,20 @@ type that the corresponding `Some` variant will hold by looking only at a `Option`. When we have a `Some` value, we know that a value is present and the value is -held within the `Some`. When we have a `None` value, in some sense, it means -the same thing as null: we don’t have a valid value. So why is having -`Option` any better than having null? +held within the `Some`. When we have a `None` value, in some sense it means the +same thing as null: we don’t have a valid value. So why is having `Option` +any better than having null? In short, because `Option` and `T` (where `T` can be any type) are different types, the compiler won’t let us use an `Option` value as if it were -definitely a valid value. For example, this code won’t compile because it’s +definitely a valid value. For example, this code won’t compile, because it’s trying to add an `i8` to an `Option`: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -If we run this code, we get an error message like this: +If we run this code, we get an error message like this one: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-07-cant-use-option-directly/output.txt}} @@ -292,32 +294,32 @@ using the value. In other words, you have to convert an `Option` to a `T` before you can perform `T` operations with it. Generally, this helps catch one of the most -common issues with null: assuming that something isn’t null when it actually -is. +common issues with null: assuming that something isn’t null when it actually is. Eliminating the risk of incorrectly assuming a not-null value helps you to be more confident in your code. In order to have a value that can possibly be null, you must explicitly opt in by making the type of that value `Option`. Then, when you use that value, you are required to explicitly handle the case when the value is null. Everywhere that a value has a type that isn’t an -`Option`, you *can* safely assume that the value isn’t null. This was a +`Option`, you _can_ safely assume that the value isn’t null. This was a deliberate design decision for Rust to limit null’s pervasiveness and increase the safety of Rust code. -So, how do you get the `T` value out of a `Some` variant when you have a value -of type `Option` so you can use that value? The `Option` enum has a large -number of methods that are useful in a variety of situations; you can check -them out in [its documentation][docs]. Becoming familiar with -the methods on `Option` will be extremely useful in your journey with Rust. +So how do you get the `T` value out of a `Some` variant when you have a value +of type `Option` so that you can use that value? The `Option` enum has a +large number of methods that are useful in a variety of situations; you can +check them out in [its documentation][docs]. Becoming familiar +with the methods on `Option` will be extremely useful in your journey with +Rust. In general, in order to use an `Option` value, you want to have code that will handle each variant. You want some code that will run only when you have a `Some(T)` value, and this code is allowed to use the inner `T`. You want some -other code to run if you have a `None` value, and that code doesn’t have a `T` -value available. The `match` expression is a control flow construct that does -just this when used with enums: it will run different code depending on which -variant of the enum it has, and that code can use the data inside the matching -value. +other code to run only if you have a `None` value, and that code doesn’t have a +`T` value available. The `match` expression is a control flow construct that +does just this when used with enums: it will run different code depending on +which variant of the enum it has, and that code can use the data inside the +matching value. [IpAddr]: ../std/net/enum.IpAddr.html [option]: ../std/option/enum.Option.html diff --git a/src/ch06-02-match.md b/src/ch06-02-match.md index a249368294..7cbae3edf9 100644 --- a/src/ch06-02-match.md +++ b/src/ch06-02-match.md @@ -1,13 +1,17 @@ + + + ## The `match` Control Flow Construct -Rust has an extremely powerful control flow construct called `match` that allows -you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute code based -on which pattern matches. Patterns can be made up of literal values, variable -names, wildcards, and many other things; Chapter 18 covers all the different -kinds of patterns and what they do. The power of `match` comes from the -expressiveness of the patterns and the fact that the compiler confirms that all -possible cases are handled. +Rust has an extremely powerful control flow construct called `match` that +allows you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute +code based on which pattern matches. Patterns can be made up of literal values, +variable names, wildcards, and many other things; [Chapter +18][ch19-00-patterns] covers all the different kinds of patterns +and what they do. The power of `match` comes from the expressiveness of the +patterns and the fact that the compiler confirms that all possible cases are +handled. Think of a `match` expression as being like a coin-sorting machine: coins slide down a track with variously sized holes along it, and each coin falls through @@ -16,36 +20,37 @@ through each pattern in a `match`, and at the first pattern the value “fits, the value falls into the associated code block to be used during execution. Speaking of coins, let’s use them as an example using `match`! We can write a -function that takes an unknown United States coin and, in a similar way as the -counting machine, determines which coin it is and return its value in cents, as -shown here in Listing 6-3. +function that takes an unknown US coin and, in a similar way as the counting +machine, determines which coin it is and returns its value in cents, as shown +in Listing 6-3. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 6-3: An enum and a `match` expression that has -the variants of the enum as its patterns + -Let’s break down the `match` in the `value_in_cents` function. First, we list +Let’s break down the `match` in the `value_in_cents` function. First we list the `match` keyword followed by an expression, which in this case is the value -`coin`. This seems very similar to an expression used with `if`, but there’s a -big difference: with `if`, the expression needs to return a Boolean value, but -here, it can return any type. The type of `coin` in this example is the `Coin` -enum that we defined on the first line. +`coin`. This seems very similar to a conditional expression used with `if`, but +there’s a big difference: with `if`, the condition needs to evaluate to a +Boolean value, but here it can be any type. The type of `coin` in this example +is the `Coin` enum that we defined on the first line. Next are the `match` arms. An arm has two parts: a pattern and some code. The first arm here has a pattern that is the value `Coin::Penny` and then the `=>` operator that separates the pattern and the code to run. The code in this case is just the value `1`. Each arm is separated from the next with a comma. -When the `match` expression executes, it compares the resulting value against +When the `match` expression executes, it compares the resultant value against the pattern of each arm, in order. If a pattern matches the value, the code associated with that pattern is executed. If that pattern doesn’t match the value, execution continues to the next arm, much as in a coin-sorting machine. We can have as many arms as we need: in Listing 6-3, our `match` has four arms. -The code associated with each arm is an expression, and the resulting value of +The code associated with each arm is an expression, and the resultant value of the expression in the matching arm is the value that gets returned for the entire `match` expression. @@ -60,7 +65,7 @@ returns the last value of the block, `1`: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-08-match-arm-multiple-lines/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -### Patterns that Bind to Values +### Patterns That Bind to Values Another useful feature of match arms is that they can bind to the parts of the values that match the pattern. This is how we can extract values out of enum @@ -70,20 +75,21 @@ As an example, let’s change one of our enum variants to hold data inside it. From 1999 through 2008, the United States minted quarters with different designs for each of the 50 states on one side. No other coins got state designs, so only quarters have this extra value. We can add this information to -our `enum` by changing the `Quarter` variant to include a `UsState` value stored -inside it, which we’ve done here in Listing 6-4. +our `enum` by changing the `Quarter` variant to include a `UsState` value +stored inside it, which we’ve done in Listing 6-4. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 6-4: A `Coin` enum in which the `Quarter` variant -also holds a `UsState` value + Let’s imagine that a friend is trying to collect all 50 state quarters. While we sort our loose change by coin type, we’ll also call out the name of the -state associated with each quarter so if it’s one our friend doesn’t have, they -can add it to their collection. +state associated with each quarter so that if it’s one our friend doesn’t have, +they can add it to their collection. In the match expression for this code, we add a variable called `state` to the pattern that matches values of the variant `Coin::Quarter`. When a @@ -104,10 +110,10 @@ state value out of the `Coin` enum variant for `Quarter`. ### Matching with `Option` In the previous section, we wanted to get the inner `T` value out of the `Some` -case when using `Option`; we can also handle `Option` using `match` as we -did with the `Coin` enum! Instead of comparing coins, we’ll compare the -variants of `Option`, but the way that the `match` expression works remains -the same. +case when using `Option`; we can also handle `Option` using `match`, as +we did with the `Coin` enum! Instead of comparing coins, we’ll compare the +variants of `Option`, but the way the `match` expression works remains the +same. Let’s say we want to write a function that takes an `Option` and, if there’s a value inside, adds 1 to that value. If there isn’t a value inside, @@ -117,35 +123,36 @@ operations. This function is very easy to write, thanks to `match`, and will look like Listing 6-5. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 6-5: A function that uses a `match` expression on -an `Option` + Let’s examine the first execution of `plus_one` in more detail. When we call `plus_one(five)`, the variable `x` in the body of `plus_one` will have the -value `Some(5)`. We then compare that against each match arm. +value `Some(5)`. We then compare that against each match arm: ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-05/src/main.rs:first_arm}} ``` The `Some(5)` value doesn’t match the pattern `None`, so we continue to the -next arm. +next arm: ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-05/src/main.rs:second_arm}} ``` -Does `Some(5)` match `Some(i)`? Why yes it does! We have the same variant. The -`i` binds to the value contained in `Some`, so `i` takes the value `5`. The -code in the match arm is then executed, so we add 1 to the value of `i` and -create a new `Some` value with our total `6` inside. +Does `Some(5)` match `Some(i)`? It does! We have the same variant. The `i` +binds to the value contained in `Some`, so `i` takes the value `5`. The code in +the match arm is then executed, so we add 1 to the value of `i` and create a +new `Some` value with our total `6` inside. Now let’s consider the second call of `plus_one` in Listing 6-5, where `x` is -`None`. We enter the `match` and compare to the first arm. +`None`. We enter the `match` and compare to the first arm: ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-05/src/main.rs:first_arm}} @@ -179,8 +186,8 @@ error: {{#include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-10-non-exhaustive-match/output.txt}} ``` -Rust knows that we didn’t cover every possible case and even knows which -pattern we forgot! Matches in Rust are *exhaustive*: we must exhaust every last +Rust knows that we didn’t cover every possible case, and even knows which +pattern we forgot! Matches in Rust are _exhaustive_: we must exhaust every last possibility in order for the code to be valid. Especially in the case of `Option`, when Rust prevents us from forgetting to explicitly handle the `None` case, it protects us from assuming that we have a value when we might @@ -202,10 +209,10 @@ this example: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-15-binding-catchall/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -For the first two arms, the patterns are the literal values 3 and 7. For the -last arm that covers every other possible value, the pattern is the variable -we’ve chosen to name `other`. The code that runs for the `other` arm uses the -variable by passing it to the `move_player` function. +For the first two arms, the patterns are the literal values `3` and `7`. For +the last arm that covers every other possible value, the pattern is the +variable we’ve chosen to name `other`. The code that runs for the `other` arm +uses the variable by passing it to the `move_player` function. This code compiles, even though we haven’t listed all the possible values a `u8` can have, because the last pattern will match all values not specifically @@ -215,7 +222,7 @@ patterns are evaluated in order. If we put the catch-all arm earlier, the other arms would never run, so Rust will warn us if we add arms after a catch-all! Rust also has a pattern we can use when we want a catch-all but don’t want to -*use* the value in the catch-all pattern: `_` is a special pattern that matches +_use_ the value in the catch-all pattern: `_` is a special pattern that matches any value and does not bind to that value. This tells Rust we aren’t going to use the value, so Rust won’t warn us about an unused variable. @@ -230,7 +237,7 @@ can change our code to use `_` instead of the variable named `other`: This example also meets the exhaustiveness requirement because we’re explicitly ignoring all other values in the last arm; we haven’t forgotten anything. -Finally, we’ll change the rules of the game one more time, so that nothing else +Finally, we’ll change the rules of the game one more time so that nothing else happens on your turn if you roll anything other than a 3 or a 7. We can express that by using the unit value (the empty tuple type we mentioned in [“The Tuple Type”][tuples] section) as the code that goes with the `_` arm: @@ -244,9 +251,9 @@ that doesn’t match a pattern in an earlier arm, and we don’t want to run any code in this case. There’s more about patterns and matching that we’ll cover in [Chapter -18][ch18-00-patterns]. For now, we’re going to move on to the +19][ch19-00-patterns]. For now, we’re going to move on to the `if let` syntax, which can be useful in situations where the `match` expression is a bit wordy. [tuples]: ch03-02-data-types.html#the-tuple-type -[ch18-00-patterns]: ch18-00-patterns.html +[ch19-00-patterns]: ch19-00-patterns.html diff --git a/src/ch06-03-if-let.md b/src/ch06-03-if-let.md index 07634e1620..50ad9321f9 100644 --- a/src/ch06-03-if-let.md +++ b/src/ch06-03-if-let.md @@ -2,15 +2,17 @@ The `if let` syntax lets you combine `if` and `let` into a less verbose way to handle values that match one pattern while ignoring the rest. Consider the -program in Listing 6-6 that matches on an `Option` value in the `config_max` -variable but only wants to execute code if the value is the `Some` variant. +program in Listing 6-6 that matches on an `Option` value in the +`config_max` variable but only wants to execute code if the value is the `Some` +variant. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/listing-06-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 6-6: A `match` that only cares about executing -code when the value is `Some` + If the value is `Some`, we print out the value in the `Some` variant by binding the value to the variable `max` in the pattern. We don’t want to do anything @@ -29,9 +31,9 @@ The syntax `if let` takes a pattern and an expression separated by an equal sign. It works the same way as a `match`, where the expression is given to the `match` and the pattern is its first arm. In this case, the pattern is `Some(max)`, and the `max` binds to the value inside the `Some`. We can then -use `max` in the body of the `if let` block in the same way as we used `max` in -the corresponding `match` arm. The code in the `if let` block isn’t run if the -value doesn’t match the pattern. +use `max` in the body of the `if let` block in the same way we used `max` in +the corresponding `match` arm. The code in the `if let` block only runs if the +value matches the pattern. Using `if let` means less typing, less indentation, and less boilerplate code. However, you lose the exhaustive checking that `match` enforces. Choosing @@ -48,13 +50,13 @@ We can include an `else` with an `if let`. The block of code that goes with the `Coin` enum definition in Listing 6-4, where the `Quarter` variant also held a `UsState` value. If we wanted to count all non-quarter coins we see while also announcing the state of the quarters, we could do that with a `match` -expression like this: +expression, like this: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-13-count-and-announce-match/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Or we could use an `if let` and `else` expression like this: +Or we could use an `if let` and `else` expression, like this: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch06-enums-and-pattern-matching/no-listing-14-count-and-announce-if-let-else/src/main.rs:here}} @@ -73,7 +75,7 @@ values, depending on how many cases you need to handle. Your Rust programs can now express concepts in your domain using structs and enums. Creating custom types to use in your API ensures type safety: the -compiler will make certain your functions get only values of the type each +compiler will make certain your functions only get values of the type each function expects. In order to provide a well-organized API to your users that is straightforward diff --git a/src/ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.md b/src/ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.md index 0f7abf51e3..1786711d8d 100644 --- a/src/ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.md +++ b/src/ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.md @@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ and then multiple files. A package can contain multiple binary crates and optionally one library crate. As a package grows, you can extract parts into separate crates that become external dependencies. This chapter covers all these techniques. For very large projects comprising a set of interrelated -packages that evolve together, Cargo provides *workspaces*, which we’ll cover +packages that evolve together, Cargo provides _workspaces_, which we’ll cover in the [“Cargo Workspaces”][workspaces] section in Chapter 14. We’ll also discuss encapsulating implementation details, which lets you reuse @@ -33,13 +33,13 @@ same name in the same scope; tools are available to resolve name conflicts. Rust has a number of features that allow you to manage your code’s organization, including which details are exposed, which details are private, and what names are in each scope in your programs. These features, sometimes -collectively referred to as the *module system*, include: +collectively referred to as the _module system_, include: -* **Packages:** A Cargo feature that lets you build, test, and share crates -* **Crates:** A tree of modules that produces a library or executable -* **Modules** and **use:** Let you control the organization, scope, and +- **Packages:** A Cargo feature that lets you build, test, and share crates +- **Crates:** A tree of modules that produces a library or executable +- **Modules** and **use:** Let you control the organization, scope, and privacy of paths -* **Paths:** A way of naming an item, such as a struct, function, or module +- **Paths:** A way of naming an item, such as a struct, function, or module In this chapter, we’ll cover all these features, discuss how they interact, and explain how to use them to manage scope. By the end, you should have a solid diff --git a/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md b/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md index d9a70f773b..281f27b7b6 100644 --- a/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md +++ b/src/ch07-01-packages-and-crates.md @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ The first parts of the module system we’ll cover are packages and crates. -A *crate* is the smallest amount of code that the Rust compiler considers at a +A _crate_ is the smallest amount of code that the Rust compiler considers at a time. Even if you run `rustc` rather than `cargo` and pass a single source code file (as we did all the way back in the “Writing and Running a Rust Program” section of Chapter 1), the compiler considers that file to be a crate. Crates @@ -10,37 +10,35 @@ can contain modules, and the modules may be defined in other files that get compiled with the crate, as we’ll see in the coming sections. A crate can come in one of two forms: a binary crate or a library crate. -*Binary crates* are programs you can compile to an executable that you can run, +_Binary crates_ are programs you can compile to an executable that you can run, such as a command-line program or a server. Each must have a function called `main` that defines what happens when the executable runs. All the crates we’ve created so far have been binary crates. -*Library crates* don’t have a `main` function, and they don’t compile to an +_Library crates_ don’t have a `main` function, and they don’t compile to an executable. Instead, they define functionality intended to be shared with multiple projects. For example, the `rand` crate we used in [Chapter 2][rand] provides functionality that generates random numbers. Most of the time when Rustaceans say “crate”, they mean library crate, and they -use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library". +use “crate” interchangeably with the general programming concept of a “library”. -The *crate root* is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes +The _crate root_ is a source file that the Rust compiler starts from and makes up the root module of your crate (we’ll explain modules in depth in the [“Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy”][modules] section). -A *package* is a bundle of one or more crates that provides a set of -functionality. A package contains a *Cargo.toml* file that describes how to +A _package_ is a bundle of one or more crates that provides a set of +functionality. A package contains a _Cargo.toml_ file that describes how to build those crates. Cargo is actually a package that contains the binary crate for the command-line tool you’ve been using to build your code. The Cargo package also contains a library crate that the binary crate depends on. Other projects can depend on the Cargo library crate to use the same logic the Cargo -command-line tool uses. +command-line tool uses. A package can contain as many binary crates as you +like, but at most only one library crate. A package must contain at least one +crate, whether that’s a library or binary crate. -A package can contain as many binary crates as you like, but at most only one -library crate. A package must contain at least one crate, whether that’s a -library or binary crate. - -Let’s walk through what happens when we create a package. First, we enter the -command `cargo new`: +Let’s walk through what happens when we create a package. First we enter the +command `cargo new my-project`: ```console $ cargo new my-project @@ -52,21 +50,21 @@ $ ls my-project/src main.rs ``` -After we run `cargo new`, we use `ls` to see what Cargo creates. In the project -directory, there’s a *Cargo.toml* file, giving us a package. There’s also a -*src* directory that contains *main.rs*. Open *Cargo.toml* in your text editor, -and note there’s no mention of *src/main.rs*. Cargo follows a convention that -*src/main.rs* is the crate root of a binary crate with the same name as the -package. Likewise, Cargo knows that if the package directory contains -*src/lib.rs*, the package contains a library crate with the same name as the -package, and *src/lib.rs* is its crate root. Cargo passes the crate root files -to `rustc` to build the library or binary. +After we run `cargo new my-project`, we use `ls` to see what Cargo creates. In +the project directory, there’s a _Cargo.toml_ file, giving us a package. +There’s also a _src_ directory that contains _main.rs_. Open _Cargo.toml_ in +your text editor, and note there’s no mention of _src/main.rs_. Cargo follows a +convention that _src/main.rs_ is the crate root of a binary crate with the same +name as the package. Likewise, Cargo knows that if the package directory +contains _src/lib.rs_, the package contains a library crate with the same name +as the package, and _src/lib.rs_ is its crate root. Cargo passes the crate root +files to `rustc` to build the library or binary. -Here, we have a package that only contains *src/main.rs*, meaning it only -contains a binary crate named `my-project`. If a package contains *src/main.rs* -and *src/lib.rs*, it has two crates: a binary and a library, both with the same +Here, we have a package that only contains _src/main.rs_, meaning it only +contains a binary crate named `my-project`. If a package contains _src/main.rs_ +and _src/lib.rs_, it has two crates: a binary and a library, both with the same name as the package. A package can have multiple binary crates by placing files -in the *src/bin* directory: each file will be a separate binary crate. +in the _src/bin_ directory: each file will be a separate binary crate. [modules]: ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html [rand]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#generating-a-random-number diff --git a/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md b/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md index 3388a48d47..29924e6fe2 100644 --- a/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md +++ b/src/ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.md @@ -1,46 +1,42 @@ ## Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy In this section, we’ll talk about modules and other parts of the module system, -namely *paths* that allow you to name items; the `use` keyword that brings a +namely _paths_, which allow you to name items; the `use` keyword that brings a path into scope; and the `pub` keyword to make items public. We’ll also discuss the `as` keyword, external packages, and the glob operator. -First, we’re going to start with a list of rules for easy reference when you’re -organizing your code in the future. Then we’ll explain each of the rules in -detail. - ### Modules Cheat Sheet -Here we provide a quick reference on how modules, paths, the `use` keyword, and -the `pub` keyword work in the compiler, and how most developers organize their -code. We’ll be going through examples of each of these rules throughout this -chapter, but this is a great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules -work. +Before we get to the details of modules and paths, here we provide a quick +reference on how modules, paths, the `use` keyword, and the `pub` keyword work +in the compiler, and how most developers organize their code. We’ll be going +through examples of each of these rules throughout this chapter, but this is a +great place to refer to as a reminder of how modules work. - **Start from the crate root**: When compiling a crate, the compiler first - looks in the crate root file (usually *src/lib.rs* for a library crate or - *src/main.rs* for a binary crate). + looks in the crate root file (usually _src/lib.rs_ for a library crate or + _src/main.rs_ for a binary crate) for code to compile. - **Declaring modules**: In the crate root file, you can declare new modules; -say, you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look -for the module’s code in these places: - - Inline, directly following `mod garden`, within curly brackets instead of - the semicolon - - In the file *src/garden.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/mod.rs* + say you declare a “garden” module with `mod garden;`. The compiler will look + for the module’s code in these places: + - Inline, within curly brackets that replace the semicolon following `mod + garden` + - In the file _src/garden.rs_ + - In the file _src/garden/mod.rs_ - **Declaring submodules**: In any file other than the crate root, you can declare submodules. For example, you might declare `mod vegetables;` in - *src/garden.rs*. The compiler will look for the submodule’s code within the + _src/garden.rs_. The compiler will look for the submodule’s code within the directory named for the parent module in these places: - Inline, directly following `mod vegetables`, within curly brackets instead of the semicolon - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables.rs* - - In the file *src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs* + - In the file _src/garden/vegetables.rs_ + - In the file _src/garden/vegetables/mod.rs_ - **Paths to code in modules**: Once a module is part of your crate, you can refer to code in that module from anywhere else in that same crate, as long as the privacy rules allow, using the path to the code. For example, an `Asparagus` type in the garden vegetables module would be found at `crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus`. -- **Private vs public**: Code within a module is private from its parent +- **Private vs. public**: Code within a module is private from its parent modules by default. To make a module public, declare it with `pub mod` instead of `mod`. To make items within a public module public as well, use `pub` before their declarations. @@ -50,8 +46,9 @@ for the module’s code in these places: crate::garden::vegetables::Asparagus;` and from then on you only need to write `Asparagus` to make use of that type in the scope. -Here we create a binary crate named `backyard` that illustrates these rules. The -crate’s directory, also named `backyard`, contains these files and directories: +Here, we create a binary crate named `backyard` that illustrates these rules. +The crate’s directory, also named `backyard`, contains these files and +directories: ```text backyard @@ -64,24 +61,28 @@ backyard └── main.rs ``` -The crate root file in this case is *src/main.rs*, and it contains: +The crate root file in this case is _src/main.rs_, and it contains: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,noplayground,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/main.rs}} ``` + + The `pub mod garden;` line tells the compiler to include the code it finds in -*src/garden.rs*, which is: +_src/garden.rs_, which is: -Filename: src/garden.rs + ```rust,noplayground,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/quick-reference-example/src/garden.rs}} ``` -Here, `pub mod vegetables;` means the code in *src/garden/vegetables.rs* is + + +Here, `pub mod vegetables;` means the code in _src/garden/vegetables.rs_ is included too. That code is: ```rust,noplayground,ignore @@ -92,8 +93,8 @@ Now let’s get into the details of these rules and demonstrate them in action! ### Grouping Related Code in Modules -*Modules* let us organize code within a crate for readability and easy reuse. -Modules also allow us to control the *privacy* of items, because code within a +_Modules_ let us organize code within a crate for readability and easy reuse. +Modules also allow us to control the _privacy_ of items because code within a module is private by default. Private items are internal implementation details not available for outside use. We can choose to make modules and the items within them public, which exposes them to allow external code to use and depend @@ -101,29 +102,29 @@ on them. As an example, let’s write a library crate that provides the functionality of a restaurant. We’ll define the signatures of functions but leave their bodies -empty to concentrate on the organization of the code, rather than the +empty to concentrate on the organization of the code rather than the implementation of a restaurant. In the restaurant industry, some parts of a restaurant are referred to as -*front of house* and others as *back of house*. Front of house is where +_front of house_ and others as _back of house_. Front of house is where customers are; this encompasses where the hosts seat customers, servers take orders and payment, and bartenders make drinks. Back of house is where the chefs and cooks work in the kitchen, dishwashers clean up, and managers do administrative work. To structure our crate in this way, we can organize its functions into nested -modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new --lib -restaurant`; then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into *src/lib.rs* to define -some modules and function signatures. Here’s the front of house section: +modules. Create a new library named `restaurant` by running `cargo new +restaurant --lib`. Then enter the code in Listing 7-1 into _src/lib.rs_ to +define some modules and function signatures; this code is the front of house +section. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-01/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-1: A `front_of_house` module containing other -modules that then contain functions + We define a module with the `mod` keyword followed by the name of the module (in this case, `front_of_house`). The body of the module then goes inside curly @@ -138,13 +139,15 @@ groups rather than having to read through all the definitions, making it easier to find the definitions relevant to them. Programmers adding new functionality to this code would know where to place the code to keep the program organized. -Earlier, we mentioned that *src/main.rs* and *src/lib.rs* are called crate +Earlier, we mentioned that _src/main.rs_ and _src/lib.rs_ are called crate roots. The reason for their name is that the contents of either of these two files form a module named `crate` at the root of the crate’s module structure, -known as the *module tree*. +known as the _module tree_. Listing 7-2 shows the module tree for the structure in Listing 7-1. ++ ```text crate └── front_of_house @@ -157,16 +160,15 @@ crate └── take_payment ``` -Listing 7-2: The module tree for the code in Listing -7-1 + -This tree shows how some of the modules nest inside one another; for example, +This tree shows how some of the modules nest inside other modules; for example, `hosting` nests inside `front_of_house`. The tree also shows that some modules -are *siblings* to each other, meaning they’re defined in the same module; -`hosting` and `serving` are siblings defined within `front_of_house`. If module -A is contained inside module B, we say that module A is the *child* of module B -and that module B is the *parent* of module A. Notice that the entire module -tree is rooted under the implicit module named `crate`. +are _siblings_, meaning they’re defined in the same module; `hosting` and +`serving` are siblings defined within `front_of_house`. If module A is +contained inside module B, we say that module A is the _child_ of module B and +that module B is the _parent_ of module A. Notice that the entire module tree +is rooted under the implicit module named `crate`. The module tree might remind you of the filesystem’s directory tree on your computer; this is a very apt comparison! Just like directories in a filesystem, diff --git a/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md b/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md index 1fa188a7b9..a336f94a69 100644 --- a/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md +++ b/src/ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.md @@ -6,10 +6,10 @@ know its path. A path can take two forms: -* An *absolute path* is the full path starting from a crate root; for code +- An _absolute path_ is the full path starting from a crate root; for code from an external crate, the absolute path begins with the crate name, and for code from the current crate, it starts with the literal `crate`. -* A *relative path* starts from the current module and uses `self`, `super`, or +- A _relative path_ starts from the current module and uses `self`, `super`, or an identifier in the current module. Both absolute and relative paths are followed by one or more identifiers @@ -18,21 +18,24 @@ separated by double colons (`::`). Returning to Listing 7-1, say we want to call the `add_to_waitlist` function. This is the same as asking: what’s the path of the `add_to_waitlist` function? Listing 7-3 contains Listing 7-1 with some of the modules and functions -removed. We’ll show two ways to call the `add_to_waitlist` function from a new -function `eat_at_restaurant` defined in the crate root. The `eat_at_restaurant` -function is part of our library crate’s public API, so we mark it with the -`pub` keyword. In the [“Exposing Paths with the `pub` Keyword”][pub] section, we’ll go into more detail about `pub`. Note that this example -won’t compile just yet; we’ll explain why in a bit. +removed. -Filename: src/lib.rs +We’ll show two ways to call the `add_to_waitlist` function from a new function, +`eat_at_restaurant`, defined in the crate root. These paths are correct, but +there’s another problem remaining that will prevent this example from compiling +as is. We’ll explain why in a bit. + +The `eat_at_restaurant` function is part of our library crate’s public API, so +we mark it with the `pub` keyword. In the [“Exposing Paths with the `pub` +Keyword”][pub] section, we’ll go into more detail about `pub`. + + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-3: Calling the `add_to_waitlist` function using -absolute and relative paths + The first time we call the `add_to_waitlist` function in `eat_at_restaurant`, we use an absolute path. The `add_to_waitlist` function is defined in the same @@ -51,26 +54,28 @@ filesystem equivalent would be using the path that the path is relative. Choosing whether to use a relative or absolute path is a decision you’ll make -based on your project, and depends on whether you’re more likely to move item -definition code separately from or together with the code that uses the item. -For example, if we move the `front_of_house` module and the `eat_at_restaurant` -function into a module named `customer_experience`, we’d need to update the -absolute path to `add_to_waitlist`, but the relative path would still be valid. -However, if we moved the `eat_at_restaurant` function separately into a module -named `dining`, the absolute path to the `add_to_waitlist` call would stay the -same, but the relative path would need to be updated. Our preference in general -is to specify absolute paths because it’s more likely we’ll want to move code -definitions and item calls independently of each other. +based on your project, and it depends on whether you’re more likely to move +item definition code separately from or together with the code that uses the +item. For example, if we moved the `front_of_house` module and the +`eat_at_restaurant` function into a module named `customer_experience`, we’d +need to update the absolute path to `add_to_waitlist`, but the relative path +would still be valid. However, if we moved the `eat_at_restaurant` function +separately into a module named `dining`, the absolute path to the +`add_to_waitlist` call would stay the same, but the relative path would need to +be updated. Our preference in general is to specify absolute paths because it’s +more likely we’ll want to move code definitions and item calls independently of +each other. Let’s try to compile Listing 7-3 and find out why it won’t compile yet! The -error we get is shown in Listing 7-4. +errors we get are shown in Listing 7-4. + + ```console {{#include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-03/output.txt}} ``` -Listing 7-4: Compiler errors from building the code in -Listing 7-3 + The error messages say that module `hosting` is private. In other words, we have the correct paths for the `hosting` module and the `add_to_waitlist` @@ -100,28 +105,28 @@ private. We want the `eat_at_restaurant` function in the parent module to have access to the `add_to_waitlist` function in the child module, so we mark the `hosting` module with the `pub` keyword, as shown in Listing 7-5. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-5: Declaring the `hosting` module as `pub` to -use it from `eat_at_restaurant` + + +Unfortunately, the code in Listing 7-5 still results in compiler errors, as +shown in Listing 7-6. -Unfortunately, the code in Listing 7-5 still results in an error, as shown in -Listing 7-6. + ```console {{#include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-05/output.txt}} ``` -Listing 7-6: Compiler errors from building the code in -Listing 7-5 + What happened? Adding the `pub` keyword in front of `mod hosting` makes the module public. With this change, if we can access `front_of_house`, we can -access `hosting`. But the *contents* of `hosting` are still private; making the +access `hosting`. But the _contents_ of `hosting` are still private; making the module public doesn’t make its contents public. The `pub` keyword on a module only lets code in its ancestor modules refer to it, not access its inner code. Because modules are containers, there’s not much we can do by only making the @@ -135,18 +140,16 @@ modules. Let’s also make the `add_to_waitlist` function public by adding the `pub` keyword before its definition, as in Listing 7-7. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground,test_harness {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-07/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-7: Adding the `pub` keyword to `mod hosting` -and `fn add_to_waitlist` lets us call the function from -`eat_at_restaurant` + Now the code will compile! To see why adding the `pub` keyword lets us use -these paths in `add_to_waitlist` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look +these paths in `eat_at_restaurant` with respect to the privacy rules, let’s look at the absolute and the relative paths. In the absolute path, we start with `crate`, the root of our crate’s module @@ -176,15 +179,15 @@ interested in this topic, see [The Rust API Guidelines][api-guidelines]. > #### Best Practices for Packages with a Binary and a Library > -> We mentioned a package can contain both a *src/main.rs* binary crate root as -> well as a *src/lib.rs* library crate root, and both crates will have the -> package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of containing -> both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the binary -> crate to start an executable that calls code with the library crate. This -> lets other projects benefit from the most functionality that the package -> provides, because the library crate’s code can be shared. +> We mentioned that a package can contain both a _src/main.rs_ binary crate +> root as well as a _src/lib.rs_ library crate root, and both crates will have +> the package name by default. Typically, packages with this pattern of +> containing both a library and a binary crate will have just enough code in the +> binary crate to start an executable that calls code within the library crate. +> This lets other projects benefit from most of the functionality that the +> package provides because the library crate’s code can be shared. > -> The module tree should be defined in *src/lib.rs*. Then, any public items can +> The module tree should be defined in _src/lib.rs_. Then, any public items can > be used in the binary crate by starting paths with the name of the package. > The binary crate becomes a user of the library crate just like a completely > external crate would use the library crate: it can only use the public API. @@ -199,25 +202,25 @@ interested in this topic, see [The Rust API Guidelines][api-guidelines]. We can construct relative paths that begin in the parent module, rather than the current module or the crate root, by using `super` at the start of the -path. This is like starting a filesystem path with the `..` syntax. This allows -us to reference an item that we know is in the parent module, which can make -rearranging the module tree easier when the module is closely related to the -parent, but the parent might be moved elsewhere in the module tree someday. +path. This is like starting a filesystem path with the `..` syntax. Using +`super` allows us to reference an item that we know is in the parent module, +which can make rearranging the module tree easier when the module is closely +related to the parent but the parent might be moved elsewhere in the module +tree someday. Consider the code in Listing 7-8 that models the situation in which a chef fixes an incorrect order and personally brings it out to the customer. The function `fix_incorrect_order` defined in the `back_of_house` module calls the function `deliver_order` defined in the parent module by specifying the path to -`deliver_order` starting with `super`: +`deliver_order`, starting with `super`. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground,test_harness {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-08/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-8: Calling a function using a relative path -starting with `super` + The `fix_incorrect_order` function is in the `back_of_house` module, so we can use `super` to go to the parent module of `back_of_house`, which in this case @@ -231,7 +234,7 @@ code gets moved to a different module. ### Making Structs and Enums Public We can also use `pub` to designate structs and enums as public, but there are a -few details extra to the usage of `pub` with structs and enums. If we use `pub` +few extra details to the usage of `pub` with structs and enums. If we use `pub` before a struct definition, we make the struct public, but the struct’s fields will still be private. We can make each field public or not on a case-by-case basis. In Listing 7-9, we’ve defined a public `back_of_house::Breakfast` struct @@ -241,19 +244,18 @@ comes with a meal, but the chef decides which fruit accompanies the meal based on what’s in season and in stock. The available fruit changes quickly, so customers can’t choose the fruit or even see which fruit they’ll get. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-09/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-9: A struct with some public fields and some -private fields + Because the `toast` field in the `back_of_house::Breakfast` struct is public, in `eat_at_restaurant` we can write and read to the `toast` field using dot notation. Notice that we can’t use the `seasonal_fruit` field in -`eat_at_restaurant` because `seasonal_fruit` is private. Try uncommenting the +`eat_at_restaurant`, because `seasonal_fruit` is private. Try uncommenting the line modifying the `seasonal_fruit` field value to see what error you get! Also, note that because `back_of_house::Breakfast` has a private field, the @@ -266,14 +268,13 @@ have such a function, we couldn’t create an instance of `Breakfast` in In contrast, if we make an enum public, all of its variants are then public. We only need the `pub` before the `enum` keyword, as shown in Listing 7-10. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-10/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-10: Designating an enum as public makes all its -variants public + Because we made the `Appetizer` enum public, we can use the `Soup` and `Salad` variants in `eat_at_restaurant`. diff --git a/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md b/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md index 921e5cecca..97b2b656a8 100644 --- a/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md +++ b/src/ch07-04-bringing-paths-into-scope-with-the-use-keyword.md @@ -12,14 +12,13 @@ scope of the `eat_at_restaurant` function so we only have to specify `hosting::add_to_waitlist` to call the `add_to_waitlist` function in `eat_at_restaurant`. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground,test_harness {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-11/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-11: Bringing a module into scope with -`use` + Adding `use` and a path in a scope is similar to creating a symbolic link in the filesystem. By adding `use crate::front_of_house::hosting` in the crate @@ -30,16 +29,15 @@ also check privacy, like any other paths. Note that `use` only creates the shortcut for the particular scope in which the `use` occurs. Listing 7-12 moves the `eat_at_restaurant` function into a new child module named `customer`, which is then a different scope than the `use` -statement, so the function body won’t compile: +statement, so the function body won’t compile. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground,test_harness,does_not_compile,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-12/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-12: A `use` statement only applies in the scope -it’s in + The compiler error shows that the shortcut no longer applies within the `customer` module: @@ -57,21 +55,20 @@ the shortcut in the parent module with `super::hosting` within the child In Listing 7-11, you might have wondered why we specified `use crate::front_of_house::hosting` and then called `hosting::add_to_waitlist` in -`eat_at_restaurant` rather than specifying the `use` path all the way out to +`eat_at_restaurant`, rather than specifying the `use` path all the way out to the `add_to_waitlist` function to achieve the same result, as in Listing 7-13. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground,test_harness {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-13/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-13: Bringing the `add_to_waitlist` function -into scope with `use`, which is unidiomatic + -Although both Listing 7-11 and 7-13 accomplish the same task, Listing 7-11 is -the idiomatic way to bring a function into scope with `use`. Bringing the -function’s parent module into scope with `use` means we have to specify the +Although both Listing 7-11 and Listing 7-13 accomplish the same task, Listing +7-11 is the idiomatic way to bring a function into scope with `use`. Bringing +the function’s parent module into scope with `use` means we have to specify the parent module when calling the function. Specifying the parent module when calling the function makes it clear that the function isn’t locally defined while still minimizing repetition of the full path. The code in Listing 7-13 is @@ -82,14 +79,13 @@ it’s idiomatic to specify the full path. Listing 7-14 shows the idiomatic way to bring the standard library’s `HashMap` struct into the scope of a binary crate. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-14/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-14: Bringing `HashMap` into scope in an -idiomatic way + There’s no strong reason behind this idiom: it’s just the convention that has emerged, and folks have gotten used to reading and writing Rust code this way. @@ -97,37 +93,35 @@ emerged, and folks have gotten used to reading and writing Rust code this way. The exception to this idiom is if we’re bringing two items with the same name into scope with `use` statements, because Rust doesn’t allow that. Listing 7-15 shows how to bring two `Result` types into scope that have the same name but -different parent modules and how to refer to them. +different parent modules, and how to refer to them. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-15/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 7-15: Bringing two types with the same name into -the same scope requires using their parent modules. + As you can see, using the parent modules distinguishes the two `Result` types. If instead we specified `use std::fmt::Result` and `use std::io::Result`, we’d -have two `Result` types in the same scope and Rust wouldn’t know which one we +have two `Result` types in the same scope, and Rust wouldn’t know which one we meant when we used `Result`. ### Providing New Names with the `as` Keyword There’s another solution to the problem of bringing two types of the same name into the same scope with `use`: after the path, we can specify `as` and a new -local name, or *alias*, for the type. Listing 7-16 shows another way to write +local name, or _alias_, for the type. Listing 7-16 shows another way to write the code in Listing 7-15 by renaming one of the two `Result` types using `as`. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-16/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 7-16: Renaming a type when it’s brought into -scope with the `as` keyword + In the second `use` statement, we chose the new name `IoResult` for the `std::io::Result` type, which won’t conflict with the `Result` from `std::fmt` @@ -139,27 +133,27 @@ considered idiomatic, so the choice is up to you! When we bring a name into scope with the `use` keyword, the name available in the new scope is private. To enable the code that calls our code to refer to that name as if it had been defined in that code’s scope, we can combine `pub` -and `use`. This technique is called *re-exporting* because we’re bringing -an item into scope but also making that item available for others to bring into +and `use`. This technique is called _re-exporting_ because we’re bringing an +item into scope but also making that item available for others to bring into their scope. Listing 7-17 shows the code in Listing 7-11 with `use` in the root module changed to `pub use`. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground,test_harness {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-17/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-17: Making a name available for any code to use -from a new scope with `pub use` + Before this change, external code would have to call the `add_to_waitlist` function by using the path -`restaurant::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist()`. Now that this `pub +`restaurant::front_of_house::hosting::add_to_waitlist()`, which also would have +required the `front_of_house` module to be marked as `pub`. Now that this `pub use` has re-exported the `hosting` module from the root module, external code -can now use the path `restaurant::hosting::add_to_waitlist()` instead. +can use the path `restaurant::hosting::add_to_waitlist()` instead. Re-exporting is useful when the internal structure of your code is different from how programmers calling your code would think about the domain. For @@ -177,7 +171,7 @@ Chapter 14. In Chapter 2, we programmed a guessing game project that used an external package called `rand` to get random numbers. To use `rand` in our project, we -added this line to *Cargo.toml*: +added this line to _Cargo.toml_: -Filename: Cargo.toml + ```toml {{#include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-02/Cargo.toml:9:}} ``` -Adding `rand` as a dependency in *Cargo.toml* tells Cargo to download the + + +Adding `rand` as a dependency in _Cargo.toml_ tells Cargo to download the `rand` package and any dependencies from [crates.io](https://crates.io/) and make `rand` available to our project. @@ -207,12 +203,12 @@ into scope and called the `rand::thread_rng` function: Members of the Rust community have made many packages available at [crates.io](https://crates.io/), and pulling any of them into your package -involves these same steps: listing them in your package’s *Cargo.toml* file and +involves these same steps: listing them in your package’s _Cargo.toml_ file and using `use` to bring items from their crates into scope. Note that the standard `std` library is also a crate that’s external to our package. Because the standard library is shipped with the Rust language, we -don’t need to change *Cargo.toml* to include `std`. But we do need to refer to +don’t need to change _Cargo.toml_ to include `std`. But we do need to refer to it with `use` to bring items from there into our package’s scope. For example, with `HashMap` we would use this line: @@ -225,30 +221,31 @@ crate. ### Using Nested Paths to Clean Up Large `use` Lists -If we’re using multiple items defined in the same crate or same module, -listing each item on its own line can take up a lot of vertical space in our -files. For example, these two `use` statements we had in the Guessing Game in -Listing 2-4 bring items from `std` into scope: +If we’re using multiple items defined in the same crate or same module, listing +each item on its own line can take up a lot of vertical space in our files. For +example, these two `use` statements we had in the guessing game in Listing 2-4 +bring items from `std` into scope: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-01-use-std-unnested/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + Instead, we can use nested paths to bring the same items into scope in one line. We do this by specifying the common part of the path, followed by two colons, and then curly brackets around a list of the parts of the paths that differ, as shown in Listing 7-18. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 7-18: Specifying a nested path to bring multiple -items with the same prefix into scope + In bigger programs, bringing many items into scope from the same crate or module using nested paths can reduce the number of separate `use` statements @@ -259,33 +256,31 @@ two `use` statements that share a subpath. For example, Listing 7-19 shows two `use` statements: one that brings `std::io` into scope and one that brings `std::io::Write` into scope. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-19/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-19: Two `use` statements where one is a subpath -of the other + The common part of these two paths is `std::io`, and that’s the complete first path. To merge these two paths into one `use` statement, we can use `self` in the nested path, as shown in Listing 7-20. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-20/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-20: Combining the paths in Listing 7-19 into -one `use` statement + This line brings `std::io` and `std::io::Write` into scope. ### The Glob Operator -If we want to bring *all* public items defined in a path into scope, we can +If we want to bring _all_ public items defined in a path into scope, we can specify that path followed by the `*` glob operator: ```rust @@ -300,8 +295,7 @@ was defined. The glob operator is often used when testing to bring everything under test into the `tests` module; we’ll talk about that in the [“How to Write Tests”][writing-tests] section in Chapter 11. The glob operator -is also sometimes used as part of the prelude pattern: see [the standard -library documentation](../std/prelude/index.html#other-preludes) +is also sometimes used as part of the prelude pattern: see [the standard library documentation](../std/prelude/index.html#other-preludes) for more information on that pattern. [ch14-pub-use]: ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html#exporting-a-convenient-public-api-with-pub-use diff --git a/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md b/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md index faf194ae28..4de9b6908f 100644 --- a/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md +++ b/src/ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.md @@ -7,74 +7,76 @@ file to make the code easier to navigate. For example, let’s start from the code in Listing 7-17 that had multiple restaurant modules. We’ll extract modules into files instead of having all the modules defined in the crate root file. In this case, the crate root file is -*src/lib.rs*, but this procedure also works with binary crates whose crate root -file is *src/main.rs*. +_src/lib.rs_, but this procedure also works with binary crates whose crate root +file is _src/main.rs_. -First, we’ll extract the `front_of_house` module to its own file. Remove the +First we’ll extract the `front_of_house` module to its own file. Remove the code inside the curly brackets for the `front_of_house` module, leaving only -the `mod front_of_house;` declaration, so that *src/lib.rs* contains the code +the `mod front_of_house;` declaration, so that _src/lib.rs_ contains the code shown in Listing 7-21. Note that this won’t compile until we create the -*src/front_of_house.rs* file in Listing 7-22. +_src/front_of_house.rs_ file in Listing 7-22. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-21-and-22/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-21: Declaring the `front_of_house` module whose -body will be in *src/front_of_house.rs* + Next, place the code that was in the curly brackets into a new file named -*src/front_of_house.rs*, as shown in Listing 7-22. The compiler knows to look +_src/front_of_house.rs_, as shown in Listing 7-22. The compiler knows to look in this file because it came across the module declaration in the crate root with the name `front_of_house`. -Filename: src/front_of_house.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/listing-07-21-and-22/src/front_of_house.rs}} ``` -Listing 7-22: Definitions inside the `front_of_house` -module in *src/front_of_house.rs* + -Note that you only need to load a file using a `mod` declaration *once* in your +Note that you only need to load a file using a `mod` declaration _once_ in your module tree. Once the compiler knows the file is part of the project (and knows where in the module tree the code resides because of where you’ve put the `mod` statement), other files in your project should refer to the loaded file’s code using a path to where it was declared, as covered in the [“Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree”][paths] section. In other words, -`mod` is *not* an “include” operation that you may have seen in other +`mod` is _not_ an “include” operation that you may have seen in other programming languages. Next, we’ll extract the `hosting` module to its own file. The process is a bit different because `hosting` is a child module of `front_of_house`, not of the root module. We’ll place the file for `hosting` in a new directory that will be -named for its ancestors in the module tree, in this case *src/front_of_house/*. +named for its ancestors in the module tree, in this case _src/front_of_house_. -To start moving `hosting`, we change *src/front_of_house.rs* to contain only the -declaration of the `hosting` module: +To start moving `hosting`, we change _src/front_of_house.rs_ to contain only +the declaration of the `hosting` module: -Filename: src/front_of_house.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-02-extracting-hosting/src/front_of_house.rs}} ``` -Then we create a *src/front_of_house* directory and a file *hosting.rs* to + + +Then we create a _src/front_of_house_ directory and a _hosting.rs_ file to contain the definitions made in the `hosting` module: -Filename: src/front_of_house/hosting.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch07-managing-growing-projects/no-listing-02-extracting-hosting/src/front_of_house/hosting.rs}} ``` -If we instead put *hosting.rs* in the *src* directory, the compiler would -expect the *hosting.rs* code to be in a `hosting` module declared in the crate + + +If we instead put _hosting.rs_ in the _src_ directory, the compiler would +expect the _hosting.rs_ code to be in a `hosting` module declared in the crate root, and not declared as a child of the `front_of_house` module. The -compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code means the +compiler’s rules for which files to check for which modules’ code mean the directories and files more closely match the module tree. > ### Alternate File Paths @@ -84,21 +86,21 @@ directories and files more closely match the module tree. > `front_of_house` declared in the crate root, the compiler will look for the > module’s code in: > -> * *src/front_of_house.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) +> - _src/front_of_house.rs_ (what we covered) +> - _src/front_of_house/mod.rs_ (older style, still supported path) > > For a module named `hosting` that is a submodule of `front_of_house`, the > compiler will look for the module’s code in: > -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting.rs* (what we covered) -> * *src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs* (older style, still supported path) +> - _src/front_of_house/hosting.rs_ (what we covered) +> - _src/front_of_house/hosting/mod.rs_ (older style, still supported path) > -> If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. Using -> both styles for different modules in the same project is allowed, but -> might be confusing for people navigating your project. +> If you use both styles for the same module, you’ll get a compiler error. +> Using a mix of both styles for different modules in the same project is +> allowed, but might be confusing for people navigating your project. > -> The main downside to the style that uses files named *mod.rs* is that your -> project can end up with many files named *mod.rs*, which can get confusing +> The main downside to the style that uses files named _mod.rs_ is that your +> project can end up with many files named _mod.rs_, which can get confusing > when you have them open in your editor at the same time. We’ve moved each module’s code to a separate file, and the module tree remains @@ -107,15 +109,15 @@ modification, even though the definitions live in different files. This technique lets you move modules to new files as they grow in size. Note that the `pub use crate::front_of_house::hosting` statement in -*src/lib.rs* also hasn’t changed, nor does `use` have any impact on what files +_src/lib.rs_ also hasn’t changed, nor does `use` have any impact on what files are compiled as part of the crate. The `mod` keyword declares modules, and Rust looks in a file with the same name as the module for the code that goes into that module. ## Summary -Rust lets you split a package into multiple crates and a crate into modules -so you can refer to items defined in one module from another module. You can do +Rust lets you split a package into multiple crates and a crate into modules so +you can refer to items defined in one module from another module. You can do this by specifying absolute or relative paths. These paths can be brought into scope with a `use` statement so you can use a shorter path for multiple uses of the item in that scope. Module code is private by default, but you can make diff --git a/src/ch08-00-common-collections.md b/src/ch08-00-common-collections.md index cf66e18854..7cc5c424b8 100644 --- a/src/ch08-00-common-collections.md +++ b/src/ch08-00-common-collections.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ # Common Collections Rust’s standard library includes a number of very useful data structures called -*collections*. Most other data types represent one specific value, but +_collections_. Most other data types represent one specific value, but collections can contain multiple values. Unlike the built-in array and tuple types, the data these collections point to is stored on the heap, which means the amount of data does not need to be known at compile time and can grow or @@ -10,11 +10,11 @@ and costs, and choosing an appropriate one for your current situation is a skill you’ll develop over time. In this chapter, we’ll discuss three collections that are used very often in Rust programs: -* A *vector* allows you to store a variable number of values next to each other. -* A *string* is a collection of characters. We’ve mentioned the `String` type +- A _vector_ allows you to store a variable number of values next to each other. +- A _string_ is a collection of characters. We’ve mentioned the `String` type previously, but in this chapter we’ll talk about it in depth. -* A *hash map* allows you to associate a value with a particular key. It’s a - particular implementation of the more general data structure called a *map*. +- A _hash map_ allows you to associate a value with a specific key. It’s a + particular implementation of the more general data structure called a _map_. To learn about the other kinds of collections provided by the standard library, see [the documentation][collections]. diff --git a/src/ch08-01-vectors.md b/src/ch08-01-vectors.md index cbebf3af5d..d711c9904e 100644 --- a/src/ch08-01-vectors.md +++ b/src/ch08-01-vectors.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ ## Storing Lists of Values with Vectors -The first collection type we’ll look at is `Vec`, also known as a *vector*. +The first collection type we’ll look at is `Vec`, also known as a _vector_. Vectors allow you to store more than one value in a single data structure that puts all the values next to each other in memory. Vectors can only store values of the same type. They are useful when you have a list of items, such as the @@ -11,12 +11,13 @@ lines of text in a file or the prices of items in a shopping cart. To create a new empty vector, we call the `Vec::new` function, as shown in Listing 8-1. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-01/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-1: Creating a new, empty vector to hold values -of type `i32` + Note that we added a type annotation here. Because we aren’t inserting any values into this vector, Rust doesn’t know what kind of elements we intend to @@ -35,12 +36,13 @@ new vector that holds the values you give it. Listing 8-2 creates a new because that’s the default integer type, as we discussed in the [“Data Types”][data-types] section of Chapter 3. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-2: Creating a new vector containing -values + Because we’ve given initial `i32` values, Rust can infer that the type of `v` is `Vec`, and the type annotation isn’t necessary. Next, we’ll look at how @@ -51,69 +53,55 @@ to modify a vector. To create a vector and then add elements to it, we can use the `push` method, as shown in Listing 8-3. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-3: Using the `push` method to add values to a -vector + As with any variable, if we want to be able to change its value, we need to make it mutable using the `mut` keyword, as discussed in Chapter 3. The numbers we place inside are all of type `i32`, and Rust infers this from the data, so we don’t need the `Vec` annotation. -### Dropping a Vector Drops Its Elements - -Like any other `struct`, a vector is freed when it goes out of scope, as -annotated in Listing 8-4. - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-04/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -Listing 8-4: Showing where the vector and its elements -are dropped - -When the vector gets dropped, all of its contents are also dropped, meaning -those integers it holds will be cleaned up. This may seem like a -straightforward point but it can get complicated when you start to introduce -references to the elements of the vector. Let’s tackle that next! - ### Reading Elements of Vectors -There are two ways to reference a value stored in a vector: via indexing or +There are two ways to reference a value stored in a vector: via indexing or by using the `get` method. In the following examples, we’ve annotated the types of the values that are returned from these functions for extra clarity. -Listing 8-5 shows both methods of accessing a value in a vector, with indexing +Listing 8-4 shows both methods of accessing a value in a vector, with indexing syntax and the `get` method. ++ ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-05/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-5: Using indexing syntax or the `get` method to -access an item in a vector + + +Note a few details here. We use the index value of `2` to get the third element +because vectors are indexed by number, starting at zero. Using `&` and `[]` +gives us a reference to the element at the index value. When we use the `get` +method with the index passed as an argument, we get an `Option<&T>` that we can +use with `match`. -Note two details here. First, we use the index value of `2` to get the third -element because vectors are indexed by number, starting at zero. Second, we get -the third element by either using `&` and `[]`, which gives us a reference, or -using the `get` method with the index passed as an argument, which gives us an -`Option<&T>`. +Rust provides these two ways to reference an element so you can choose how the +program behaves when you try to use an index value outside the range of +existing elements. As an example, let’s see what happens when we have a vector +of five elements and then we try to access an element at index 100 with each +technique, as shown in Listing 8-5. -The reason Rust provides these two ways to reference an element is so you can -choose how the program behaves when you try to use an index value outside the -range of existing elements. As an example, let’s see what happens when we have -a vector of five elements and then we try to access an element at index 100 -with each technique, as shown in Listing 8-6. + ```rust,should_panic,panics -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-6: Attempting to access the element at index -100 in a vector containing five elements + When we run this code, the first `[]` method will cause the program to panic because it references a nonexistent element. This method is best used when you @@ -135,25 +123,26 @@ When the program has a valid reference, the borrow checker enforces the ownership and borrowing rules (covered in Chapter 4) to ensure this reference and any other references to the contents of the vector remain valid. Recall the rule that states you can’t have mutable and immutable references in the same -scope. That rule applies in Listing 8-7, where we hold an immutable reference +scope. That rule applies in Listing 8-6, where we hold an immutable reference to the first element in a vector and try to add an element to the end. This program won’t work if we also try to refer to that element later in the -function: +function. + + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-7: Attempting to add an element to a vector -while holding a reference to an item + Compiling this code will result in this error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-06/output.txt}} ``` -The code in Listing 8-7 might look like it should work: why should a reference +The code in Listing 8-6 might look like it should work: why should a reference to the first element care about changes at the end of the vector? This error is due to the way vectors work: because vectors put the values next to each other in memory, adding a new element onto the end of the vector might require @@ -166,58 +155,68 @@ ending up in that situation. > Note: For more on the implementation details of the `Vec` type, see [“The > Rustonomicon”][nomicon]. -### Iterating over the Values in a Vector +### Iterating Over the Values in a Vector To access each element in a vector in turn, we would iterate through all of the -elements rather than use indices to access one at a time. Listing 8-8 shows how +elements rather than use indices to access one at a time. Listing 8-7 shows how to use a `for` loop to get immutable references to each element in a vector of `i32` values and print them. ++ ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-08/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-8: Printing each element in a vector by -iterating over the elements using a `for` loop + We can also iterate over mutable references to each element in a mutable vector -in order to make changes to all the elements. The `for` loop in Listing 8-9 +in order to make changes to all the elements. The `for` loop in Listing 8-8 will add `50` to each element. ++ ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-09/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-9: Iterating over mutable references to -elements in a vector + To change the value that the mutable reference refers to, we have to use the -`*` dereference operator to get to the value in `i` before we can use the -`+=` operator. We’ll talk more about the dereference operator in the -[“Following the Pointer to the Value with the Dereference Operator”][deref] +`*` dereference operator to get to the value in `i` before we can use the `+=` +operator. We’ll talk more about the dereference operator in the [“Following the +Pointer to the Value with the Dereference Operator”][deref] section of Chapter 15. +Iterating over a vector, whether immutably or mutably, is safe because of the +borrow checker’s rules. If we attempted to insert or remove items in the `for` +loop bodies in Listing 8-7 and Listing 8-8, we would get a compiler error +similar to the one we got with the code in Listing 8-6. The reference to the +vector that the `for` loop holds prevents simultaneous modification of the +whole vector. + ### Using an Enum to Store Multiple Types -Vectors can only store values that are the same type. This can be inconvenient; -there are definitely use cases for needing to store a list of items of -different types. Fortunately, the variants of an enum are defined under the -same enum type, so when we need one type to represent elements of different -types, we can define and use an enum! +Vectors can only store values that are of the same type. This can be +inconvenient; there are definitely use cases for needing to store a list of +items of different types. Fortunately, the variants of an enum are defined +under the same enum type, so when we need one type to represent elements of +different types, we can define and use an enum! For example, say we want to get values from a row in a spreadsheet in which some of the columns in the row contain integers, some floating-point numbers, and some strings. We can define an enum whose variants will hold the different value types, and all the enum variants will be considered the same type: that of the enum. Then we can create a vector to hold that enum and so, ultimately, -holds different types. We’ve demonstrated this in Listing 8-10. +hold different types. We’ve demonstrated this in Listing 8-9. + + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-10/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-10: Defining an `enum` to store values of -different types in one vector + Rust needs to know what types will be in the vector at compile time so it knows exactly how much memory on the heap will be needed to store each element. We @@ -229,13 +228,32 @@ at compile time that every possible case is handled, as discussed in Chapter 6. If you don’t know the exhaustive set of types a program will get at runtime to store in a vector, the enum technique won’t work. Instead, you can use a trait -object, which we’ll cover in Chapter 17. +object, which we’ll cover in Chapter 18. Now that we’ve discussed some of the most common ways to use vectors, be sure -to review [the API documentation][vec-api] for all the many +to review [the API documentation][vec-api] for all of the many useful methods defined on `Vec` by the standard library. For example, in -addition to `push`, a `pop` method removes and returns the last element. Let’s -move on to the next collection type: `String`! +addition to `push`, a `pop` method removes and returns the last element. + +### Dropping a Vector Drops Its Elements + +Like any other `struct`, a vector is freed when it goes out of scope, as +annotated in Listing 8-10. + ++ +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-10/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + + + +When the vector gets dropped, all of its contents are also dropped, meaning the +integers it holds will be cleaned up. The borrow checker ensures that any +references to contents of a vector are only used while the vector itself is +valid. + +Let’s move on to the next collection type: `String`! [data-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#data-types [nomicon]: ../nomicon/vec/vec.html diff --git a/src/ch08-02-strings.md b/src/ch08-02-strings.md index 7079ac11bf..6df7dd83cb 100644 --- a/src/ch08-02-strings.md +++ b/src/ch08-02-strings.md @@ -18,9 +18,9 @@ complicated by the differences between how people and computers interpret ### What Is a String? -We’ll first define what we mean by the term *string*. Rust has only one string +We’ll first define what we mean by the term _string_. Rust has only one string type in the core language, which is the string slice `str` that is usually seen -in its borrowed form `&str`. In Chapter 4, we talked about *string slices*, +in its borrowed form `&str`. In Chapter 4, we talked about _string slices_, which are references to some UTF-8 encoded string data stored elsewhere. String literals, for example, are stored in the program’s binary and are therefore string slices. @@ -33,68 +33,66 @@ of those types. Although this section is largely about `String`, both types are used heavily in Rust’s standard library, and both `String` and string slices are UTF-8 encoded. -Rust’s standard library also includes a number of other string types, such as -`OsString`, `OsStr`, `CString`, and `CStr`. Library crates can provide even -more options for storing string data. See how those names all end in `String` -or `Str`? They refer to owned and borrowed variants, just like the `String` and -`str` types you’ve seen previously. These string types can store text in -different encodings or be represented in memory in a different way, for -example. We won’t discuss these other string types in this chapter; see their -API documentation for more about how to use them and when each is appropriate. - ### Creating a New String Many of the same operations available with `Vec` are available with `String` -as well, starting with the `new` function to create a string, shown in Listing -8-11. +as well because `String` is actually implemented as a wrapper around a vector +of bytes with some extra guarantees, restrictions, and capabilities. An example +of a function that works the same way with `Vec` and `String` is the `new` +function to create an instance, shown in Listing 8-11. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-11: Creating a new, empty `String` + -This line creates a new empty string called `s`, which we can then load data -into. Often, we’ll have some initial data that we want to start the string -with. For that, we use the `to_string` method, which is available on any type +This line creates a new, empty string called `s`, into which we can then load +data. Often, we’ll have some initial data with which we want to start the +string. For that, we use the `to_string` method, which is available on any type that implements the `Display` trait, as string literals do. Listing 8-12 shows two examples. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-12/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-12: Using the `to_string` method to create a -`String` from a string literal + This code creates a string containing `initial contents`. We can also use the function `String::from` to create a `String` from a string -literal. The code in Listing 8-13 is equivalent to the code from Listing 8-12 +literal. The code in Listing 8-13 is equivalent to the code in Listing 8-12 that uses `to_string`. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-13/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-13: Using the `String::from` function to create -a `String` from a string literal + Because strings are used for so many things, we can use many different generic APIs for strings, providing us with a lot of options. Some of them can seem redundant, but they all have their place! In this case, `String::from` and -`to_string` do the same thing, so which you choose is a matter of style and +`to_string` do the same thing, so which one you choose is a matter of style and readability. Remember that strings are UTF-8 encoded, so we can include any properly encoded data in them, as shown in Listing 8-14. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-14: Storing greetings in different languages in -strings + All of these are valid `String` values. @@ -109,38 +107,41 @@ use the `+` operator or the `format!` macro to concatenate `String` values. We can grow a `String` by using the `push_str` method to append a string slice, as shown in Listing 8-15. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-15/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-15: Appending a string slice to a `String` -using the `push_str` method + After these two lines, `s` will contain `foobar`. The `push_str` method takes a string slice because we don’t necessarily want to take ownership of the parameter. For example, in the code in Listing 8-16, we want to be able to use `s2` after appending its contents to `s1`. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-16/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-16: Using a string slice after appending its -contents to a `String` + If the `push_str` method took ownership of `s2`, we wouldn’t be able to print its value on the last line. However, this code works as we’d expect! The `push` method takes a single character as a parameter and adds it to the -`String`. Listing 8-17 adds the letter “l” to a `String` using the `push` +`String`. Listing 8-17 adds the letter _l_ to a `String` using the `push` method. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-17/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-17: Adding one character to a `String` value -using `push` + As a result, `s` will contain `lol`. @@ -149,12 +150,13 @@ As a result, `s` will contain `lol`. Often, you’ll want to combine two existing strings. One way to do so is to use the `+` operator, as shown in Listing 8-18. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-18: Using the `+` operator to combine two -`String` values into a new `String` value + The string `s3` will contain `Hello, world!`. The reason `s1` is no longer valid after the addition, and the reason we used a reference to `s2`, has to do @@ -166,32 +168,32 @@ this: fn add(self, s: &str) -> String { ``` -In the standard library, you’ll see `add` defined using generics. Here, we’ve -substituted in concrete types for the generic ones, which is what happens when -we call this method with `String` values. We’ll discuss generics in Chapter 10. -This signature gives us the clues we need to understand the tricky bits of the -`+` operator. +In the standard library, you’ll see `add` defined using generics and associated +types. Here, we’ve substituted in concrete types, which is what happens when we +call this method with `String` values. We’ll discuss generics in Chapter 10. +This signature gives us the clues we need in order to understand the tricky +bits of the `+` operator. -First, `s2` has an `&`, meaning that we’re adding a *reference* of the second +First, `s2` has an `&`, meaning that we’re adding a _reference_ of the second string to the first string. This is because of the `s` parameter in the `add` function: we can only add a `&str` to a `String`; we can’t add two `String` values together. But wait—the type of `&s2` is `&String`, not `&str`, as specified in the second parameter to `add`. So why does Listing 8-18 compile? The reason we’re able to use `&s2` in the call to `add` is that the compiler -can *coerce* the `&String` argument into a `&str`. When we call the `add` -method, Rust uses a *deref coercion*, which here turns `&s2` into `&s2[..]`. +can _coerce_ the `&String` argument into a `&str`. When we call the `add` +method, Rust uses a _deref coercion_, which here turns `&s2` into `&s2[..]`. We’ll discuss deref coercion in more depth in Chapter 15. Because `add` does not take ownership of the `s` parameter, `s2` will still be a valid `String` after this operation. -Second, we can see in the signature that `add` takes ownership of `self`, -because `self` does *not* have an `&`. This means `s1` in Listing 8-18 will be -moved into the `add` call and will no longer be valid after that. So although +Second, we can see in the signature that `add` takes ownership of `self` +because `self` does _not_ have an `&`. This means `s1` in Listing 8-18 will be +moved into the `add` call and will no longer be valid after that. So, although `let s3 = s1 + &s2;` looks like it will copy both strings and create a new one, this statement actually takes ownership of `s1`, appends a copy of the contents of `s2`, and then returns ownership of the result. In other words, it looks -like it’s making a lot of copies but isn’t; the implementation is more +like it’s making a lot of copies, but it isn’t; the implementation is more efficient than copying. If we need to concatenate multiple strings, the behavior of the `+` operator @@ -202,8 +204,8 @@ gets unwieldy: ``` At this point, `s` will be `tic-tac-toe`. With all of the `+` and `"` -characters, it’s difficult to see what’s going on. For more complicated string -combining, we can instead use the `format!` macro: +characters, it’s difficult to see what’s going on. For combining strings in +more complicated ways, we can instead use the `format!` macro: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-02-format/src/main.rs:here}} @@ -222,12 +224,13 @@ string by referencing them by index is a valid and common operation. However, if you try to access parts of a `String` using indexing syntax in Rust, you’ll get an error. Consider the invalid code in Listing 8-19. ++ ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-19/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-19: Attempting to use indexing syntax with a -String + This code will result in the following error: @@ -248,20 +251,21 @@ encoded UTF-8 example strings from Listing 8-14. First, this one: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs:spanish}} ``` -In this case, `len` will be 4, which means the vector storing the string “Hola” -is 4 bytes long. Each of these letters takes 1 byte when encoded in UTF-8. The -following line, however, may surprise you. (Note that this string begins with -the capital Cyrillic letter Ze, not the Arabic number 3.) +In this case, `len` will be `4`, which means the vector storing the string +`"Hola"` is 4 bytes long. Each of these letters takes one byte when encoded in +UTF-8. The following line, however, may surprise you (note that this string +begins with the capital Cyrillic letter _Ze_, not the number 3): ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-14/src/main.rs:russian}} ``` -Asked how long the string is, you might say 12. In fact, Rust’s answer is 24: -that’s the number of bytes it takes to encode “Здравствуйте” in UTF-8, because -each Unicode scalar value in that string takes 2 bytes of storage. Therefore, -an index into the string’s bytes will not always correlate to a valid Unicode -scalar value. To demonstrate, consider this invalid Rust code: +If you were asked how long the string is, you might say 12. In fact, Rust’s +answer is 24: that’s the number of bytes it takes to encode “Здравствуйте” in +UTF-8, because each Unicode scalar value in that string takes 2 bytes of +storage. Therefore, an index into the string’s bytes will not always correlate +to a valid Unicode scalar value. To demonstrate, consider this invalid Rust +code: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile let hello = "Здравствуйте"; @@ -274,8 +278,8 @@ seem that `answer` should in fact be `208`, but `208` is not a valid character on its own. Returning `208` is likely not what a user would want if they asked for the first letter of this string; however, that’s the only data that Rust has at byte index 0. Users generally don’t want the byte value returned, even -if the string contains only Latin letters: if `&"hello"[0]` were valid code -that returned the byte value, it would return `104`, not `h`. +if the string contains only Latin letters: if `&"hi"[0]` were valid code that +returned the byte value, it would return `104`, not `h`. The answer, then, is that to avoid returning an unexpected value and causing bugs that might not be discovered immediately, Rust doesn’t compile this code @@ -285,7 +289,7 @@ at all and prevents misunderstandings early in the development process. Another point about UTF-8 is that there are actually three relevant ways to look at strings from Rust’s perspective: as bytes, scalar values, and grapheme -clusters (the closest thing to what we would call *letters*). +clusters (the closest thing to what we would call _letters_). If we look at the Hindi word “नमस्ते” written in the Devanagari script, it is stored as a vector of `u8` values that looks like this: @@ -338,8 +342,8 @@ let hello = "Здравствуйте"; let s = &hello[0..4]; ``` -Here, `s` will be a `&str` that contains the first 4 bytes of the string. -Earlier, we mentioned that each of these characters was 2 bytes, which means +Here, `s` will be a `&str` that contains the first four bytes of the string. +Earlier, we mentioned that each of these characters was two bytes, which means `s` will be `Зд`. If we were to try to slice only part of a character’s bytes with something like @@ -350,59 +354,54 @@ index were accessed in a vector: {{#include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/output-only-01-not-char-boundary/output.txt}} ``` -You should use ranges to create string slices with caution, because doing so -can crash your program. +You should use caution when creating string slices with ranges, because doing +so can crash your program. ### Methods for Iterating Over Strings The best way to operate on pieces of strings is to be explicit about whether you want characters or bytes. For individual Unicode scalar values, use the -`chars` method. Calling `chars` on “नमस्ते” separates out and returns six values -of type `char`, and you can iterate over the result to access each element: +`chars` method. Calling `chars` on “Зд” separates out and returns two values of +type `char`, and you can iterate over the result to access each element: ```rust -for c in "नमस्ते".chars() { - println!("{}", c); +for c in "Зд".chars() { + println!("{c}"); } ``` This code will print the following: ```text -न -म -स -् -त -े +З +д ``` Alternatively, the `bytes` method returns each raw byte, which might be appropriate for your domain: ```rust -for b in "नमस्ते".bytes() { - println!("{}", b); +for b in "Зд".bytes() { + println!("{b}"); } ``` -This code will print the 18 bytes that make up this `String`: +This code will print the four bytes that make up this string: ```text -224 -164 -// --snip-- -165 -135 +208 +151 +208 +180 ``` But be sure to remember that valid Unicode scalar values may be made up of more -than 1 byte. +than one byte. -Getting grapheme clusters from strings is complex, so this functionality is not -provided by the standard library. Crates are available on -[crates.io](https://crates.io/) if this is the functionality you -need. +Getting grapheme clusters from strings, as with the Devanagari script, is +complex, so this functionality is not provided by the standard library. Crates +are available on [crates.io](https://crates.io/) if this is the +functionality you need. ### Strings Are Not So Simple @@ -410,9 +409,15 @@ To summarize, strings are complicated. Different programming languages make different choices about how to present this complexity to the programmer. Rust has chosen to make the correct handling of `String` data the default behavior for all Rust programs, which means programmers have to put more thought into -handling UTF-8 data upfront. This trade-off exposes more of the complexity of +handling UTF-8 data up front. This trade-off exposes more of the complexity of strings than is apparent in other programming languages, but it prevents you from having to handle errors involving non-ASCII characters later in your development life cycle. +The good news is that the standard library offers a lot of functionality built +off the `String` and `&str` types to help handle these complex situations +correctly. Be sure to check out the documentation for useful methods like +`contains` for searching in a string and `replace` for substituting parts of a +string with another string. + Let’s switch to something a bit less complex: hash maps! diff --git a/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md b/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md index e6457c0427..3db150419b 100644 --- a/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md +++ b/src/ch08-03-hash-maps.md @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ ## Storing Keys with Associated Values in Hash Maps -The last of our common collections is the *hash map*. The type `HashMap` -stores a mapping of keys of type `K` to values of type `V` using a -*hashing function*, which determines how it places these keys and values into -memory. Many programming languages support this kind of data structure, but -they often use a different name, such as hash, map, object, hash table, -dictionary, or associative array, just to name a few. +The last of our common collections is the _hash map_. The type `HashMap` +stores a mapping of keys of type `K` to values of type `V` using a _hashing +function_, which determines how it places these keys and values into memory. +Many programming languages support this kind of data structure, but they often +use a different name, such as _hash_, _map_, _object_, _hash table_, +_dictionary_, or _associative array_, just to name a few. Hash maps are useful when you want to look up data not by using an index, as you can with vectors, but by using a key that can be of any type. For example, @@ -19,17 +19,18 @@ As always, check the standard library documentation for more information. ### Creating a New Hash Map -One way to create an empty hash map is using `new` and adding elements with +One way to create an empty hash map is to use `new` and to add elements with `insert`. In Listing 8-20, we’re keeping track of the scores of two teams whose -names are *Blue* and *Yellow*. The Blue team starts with 10 points, and the +names are _Blue_ and _Yellow_. The Blue team starts with 10 points, and the Yellow team starts with 50. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-20/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-20: Creating a new hash map and inserting some -keys and values + Note that we need to first `use` the `HashMap` from the collections portion of the standard library. Of our three common collections, this one is the least @@ -42,31 +43,39 @@ keys of type `String` and values of type `i32`. Like vectors, hash maps are homogeneous: all of the keys must have the same type, and all of the values must have the same type. -Another way of constructing a hash map is by using iterators and the `collect` -method on a vector of tuples, where each tuple consists of a key and its value. -We’ll be going into more detail about iterators and their associated methods in -the [”Processing a Series of Items with Iterators” section of Chapter -13][iterators]. The `collect` method gathers data into a number -of collection types, including `HashMap`. For example, if we had the team names -and initial scores in two separate vectors, we could use the `zip` method to -create an iterator of tuples where “Blue” is paired with 10, and so forth. Then -we could use the `collect` method to turn that iterator of tuples into a hash -map, as shown in Listing 8-21. +### Accessing Values in a Hash Map + +We can get a value out of the hash map by providing its key to the `get` +method, as shown in Listing 8-21. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-21/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-21: Creating a hash map from a list of teams -and a list of scores + + +Here, `score` will have the value that’s associated with the Blue team, and the +result will be `10`. The `get` method returns an `Option<&V>`; if there’s no +value for that key in the hash map, `get` will return `None`. This program +handles the `Option` by calling `copied` to get an `Option` rather than an +`Option<&i32>`, then `unwrap_or` to set `score` to zero if `scores` doesn’t +have an entry for the key. -The type annotation `HashMap<_, _>` is needed here because it’s possible to -`collect` into many different data structures and Rust doesn’t know which you -want unless you specify. For the parameters for the key and value types, -however, we use underscores, and Rust can infer the types that the hash map -contains based on the types of the data in the vectors. In Listing 8-21, the -key type will be `String` and the value type will be `i32`, just as in Listing -8-20. +We can iterate over each key–value pair in a hash map in a similar manner as we +do with vectors, using a `for` loop: + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-03-iterate-over-hashmap/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +This code will print each pair in an arbitrary order: + +```text +Yellow: 50 +Blue: 10 +``` ### Hash Maps and Ownership @@ -74,12 +83,13 @@ For types that implement the `Copy` trait, like `i32`, the values are copied into the hash map. For owned values like `String`, the values will be moved and the hash map will be the owner of those values, as demonstrated in Listing 8-22. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-22/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-22: Showing that keys and values are owned by -the hash map once they’re inserted + We aren’t able to use the variables `field_name` and `field_value` after they’ve been moved into the hash map with the call to `insert`. @@ -91,136 +101,121 @@ the [“Validating References with Lifetimes”][validating-references-with-lifetimes] section in Chapter 10. -### Accessing Values in a Hash Map - -We can get a value out of the hash map by providing its key to the `get` -method, as shown in Listing 8-23. - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-23/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -Listing 8-23: Accessing the score for the Blue team -stored in the hash map - -Here, `score` will have the value that’s associated with the Blue team, and the -result will be `Some(&10)`. The result is wrapped in `Some` because `get` -returns an `Option<&V>`; if there’s no value for that key in the hash map, -`get` will return `None`. The program will need to handle the `Option` in one -of the ways that we covered in Chapter 6. - -We can iterate over each key/value pair in a hash map in a similar manner as we -do with vectors, using a `for` loop: - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/no-listing-03-iterate-over-hashmap/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -This code will print each pair in an arbitrary order: - -```text -Yellow: 50 -Blue: 10 -``` - ### Updating a Hash Map -Although the number of key and value pairs is growable, each key can only have -one value associated with it at a time. When you want to change the data in a -hash map, you have to decide how to handle the case when a key already has a -value assigned. You could replace the old value with the new value, completely -disregarding the old value. You could keep the old value and ignore the new -value, only adding the new value if the key *doesn’t* already have a value. Or -you could combine the old value and the new value. Let’s look at how to do each -of these! +Although the number of key and value pairs is growable, each unique key can +only have one value associated with it at a time (but not vice versa: for +example, both the Blue team and the Yellow team could have the value `10` +stored in the `scores` hash map). + +When you want to change the data in a hash map, you have to decide how to +handle the case when a key already has a value assigned. You could replace the +old value with the new value, completely disregarding the old value. You could +keep the old value and ignore the new value, only adding the new value if the +key _doesn’t_ already have a value. Or you could combine the old value and the +new value. Let’s look at how to do each of these! #### Overwriting a Value If we insert a key and a value into a hash map and then insert that same key with a different value, the value associated with that key will be replaced. -Even though the code in Listing 8-24 calls `insert` twice, the hash map will -only contain one key/value pair because we’re inserting the value for the Blue +Even though the code in Listing 8-23 calls `insert` twice, the hash map will +only contain one key–value pair because we’re inserting the value for the Blue team’s key both times. ++ ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-24/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-23/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-24: Replacing a value stored with a particular -key + This code will print `{"Blue": 25}`. The original value of `10` has been overwritten. -#### Only Inserting a Value If the Key Has No Value + + + + +#### Adding a Key and Value Only If a Key Isn’t Present -It’s common to check whether a particular key has a value and, if it doesn’t, -insert a value for it. Hash maps have a special API for this called `entry` -that takes the key you want to check as a parameter. The return value of the -`entry` method is an enum called `Entry` that represents a value that might or -might not exist. Let’s say we want to check whether the key for the Yellow team -has a value associated with it. If it doesn’t, we want to insert the value 50, -and the same for the Blue team. Using the `entry` API, the code looks like -Listing 8-25. +It’s common to check whether a particular key already exists in the hash map +with a value and then to take the following actions: if the key does exist in +the hash map, the existing value should remain the way it is; if the key +doesn’t exist, insert it and a value for it. + +Hash maps have a special API for this called `entry` that takes the key you +want to check as a parameter. The return value of the `entry` method is an enum +called `Entry` that represents a value that might or might not exist. Let’s say +we want to check whether the key for the Yellow team has a value associated +with it. If it doesn’t, we want to insert the value `50`, and the same for the +Blue team. Using the `entry` API, the code looks like Listing 8-24. + + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-25/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-24/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-25: Using the `entry` method to only insert if -the key does not already have a value + The `or_insert` method on `Entry` is defined to return a mutable reference to -the value for the corresponding `Entry` key if that key exists, and if not, +the value for the corresponding `Entry` key if that key exists, and if not, it inserts the parameter as the new value for this key and returns a mutable reference to the new value. This technique is much cleaner than writing the logic ourselves and, in addition, plays more nicely with the borrow checker. -Running the code in Listing 8-25 will print `{"Yellow": 50, "Blue": 10}`. The +Running the code in Listing 8-24 will print `{"Yellow": 50, "Blue": 10}`. The first call to `entry` will insert the key for the Yellow team with the value -50 because the Yellow team doesn’t have a value already. The second call to +`50` because the Yellow team doesn’t have a value already. The second call to `entry` will not change the hash map because the Blue team already has the -value 10. +value `10`. #### Updating a Value Based on the Old Value Another common use case for hash maps is to look up a key’s value and then -update it based on the old value. For instance, Listing 8-26 shows code that +update it based on the old value. For instance, Listing 8-25 shows code that counts how many times each word appears in some text. We use a hash map with the words as keys and increment the value to keep track of how many times we’ve seen that word. If it’s the first time we’ve seen a word, we’ll first insert -the value 0. +the value `0`. + + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-26/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch08-common-collections/listing-08-25/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 8-26: Counting occurrences of words using a hash -map that stores words and counts + + +This code will print `{"world": 2, "hello": 1, "wonderful": 1}`. You might see +the same key–value pairs printed in a different order: recall from the +[“Accessing Values in a Hash Map”][access] section that +iterating over a hash map happens in an arbitrary order. -This code will print `{"world": 2, "hello": 1, "wonderful": 1}`. The -`split_whitespace` method iterates over sub-slices, separated by whitespace, of -the value in `text`. The `or_insert` method returns a mutable reference (`&mut -V`) to the value for the specified key. Here we store that mutable reference in -the `count` variable, so in order to assign to that value, we must first -dereference `count` using the asterisk (`*`). The mutable reference goes out of -scope at the end of the `for` loop, so all of these changes are safe and -allowed by the borrowing rules. +The `split_whitespace` method returns an iterator over subslices, separated by +whitespace, of the value in `text`. The `or_insert` method returns a mutable +reference (`&mut V`) to the value for the specified key. Here, we store that +mutable reference in the `count` variable, so in order to assign to that value, +we must first dereference `count` using the asterisk (`*`). The mutable +reference goes out of scope at the end of the `for` loop, so all of these +changes are safe and allowed by the borrowing rules. ### Hashing Functions -By default, `HashMap` uses a hashing function called *SipHash* that can provide -resistance to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks involving hash +By default, `HashMap` uses a hashing function called _SipHash_ that can provide +resistance to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks involving hash tables[^siphash]. This is not the fastest hashing algorithm available, but the trade-off for better security that comes with the drop in performance is worth it. If you profile your code and find that the default hash function is too slow for your purposes, you can switch to another function -by specifying a different hasher. A *hasher* is a type that implements the +by specifying a different hasher. A _hasher_ is a type that implements the `BuildHasher` trait. We’ll talk about traits and how to implement them in -Chapter 10. You don’t necessarily have to implement your own hasher from -scratch; [crates.io](https://crates.io/) has libraries shared by -other Rust users that provide hashers implementing many common hashing -algorithms. +[Chapter 10][traits]. You don’t necessarily have to implement +your own hasher from scratch; [crates.io](https://crates.io/) +has libraries shared by other Rust users that provide hashers implementing many +common hashing algorithms. [^siphash]: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SipHash](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SipHash) @@ -230,25 +225,25 @@ Vectors, strings, and hash maps will provide a large amount of functionality necessary in programs when you need to store, access, and modify data. Here are some exercises you should now be equipped to solve: -* Given a list of integers, use a vector and return the median (when sorted, - the value in the middle position) and mode (the value that occurs most often; - a hash map will be helpful here) of the list. -* Convert strings to pig latin. The first consonant of each word is moved to - the end of the word and “ay” is added, so “first” becomes “irst-fay.” Words - that start with a vowel have “hay” added to the end instead (“apple” becomes - “apple-hay”). Keep in mind the details about UTF-8 encoding! -* Using a hash map and vectors, create a text interface to allow a user to add - employee names to a department in a company. For example, “Add Sally to - Engineering” or “Add Amir to Sales.” Then let the user retrieve a list of all - people in a department or all people in the company by department, sorted - alphabetically. +1. Given a list of integers, use a vector and return the median (when sorted, + the value in the middle position) and mode (the value that occurs most + often; a hash map will be helpful here) of the list. +1. Convert strings to pig latin. The first consonant of each word is moved to + the end of the word and _ay_ is added, so _first_ becomes _irst-fay_. Words + that start with a vowel have _hay_ added to the end instead (_apple_ becomes + _apple-hay_). Keep in mind the details about UTF-8 encoding! +1. Using a hash map and vectors, create a text interface to allow a user to add + employee names to a department in a company; for example, “Add Sally to + Engineering” or “Add Amir to Sales.” Then let the user retrieve a list of all + people in a department or all people in the company by department, sorted + alphabetically. The standard library API documentation describes methods that vectors, strings, and hash maps have that will be helpful for these exercises! -We’re getting into more complex programs in which operations can fail, so, it’s +We’re getting into more complex programs in which operations can fail, so it’s a perfect time to discuss error handling. We’ll do that next! -[iterators]: ch13-02-iterators.html -[validating-references-with-lifetimes]: -ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html#validating-references-with-lifetimes +[validating-references-with-lifetimes]: ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html#validating-references-with-lifetimes +[access]: #accessing-values-in-a-hash-map +[traits]: ch10-02-traits.html diff --git a/src/ch09-00-error-handling.md b/src/ch09-00-error-handling.md index 790955c591..a5240b1997 100644 --- a/src/ch09-00-error-handling.md +++ b/src/ch09-00-error-handling.md @@ -7,10 +7,10 @@ code will compile. This requirement makes your program more robust by ensuring that you’ll discover errors and handle them appropriately before you’ve deployed your code to production! -Rust groups errors into two major categories: *recoverable* and *unrecoverable* -errors. For a recoverable error, such as a *file not found* error, we most +Rust groups errors into two major categories: _recoverable_ and _unrecoverable_ +errors. For a recoverable error, such as a _file not found_ error, we most likely just want to report the problem to the user and retry the operation. -Unrecoverable errors are always symptoms of bugs, like trying to access a +Unrecoverable errors are always symptoms of bugs, such as trying to access a location beyond the end of an array, and so we want to immediately stop the program. diff --git a/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md b/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md index 33bb7fa870..792932f5f4 100644 --- a/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md +++ b/src/ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.md @@ -1,24 +1,28 @@ ## Unrecoverable Errors with `panic!` -Sometimes, bad things happen in your code, and there’s nothing you can do about -it. In these cases, Rust has the `panic!` macro. When the `panic!` macro -executes, your program will print a failure message, unwind and clean up the -stack, and then quit. We’ll commonly invoke a panic when a bug of some kind has -been detected and it’s not clear how to handle the problem at the time we’re -writing our program. +Sometimes bad things happen in your code, and there’s nothing you can do about +it. In these cases, Rust has the `panic!` macro. There are two ways to cause a +panic in practice: by taking an action that causes our code to panic (such as +accessing an array past the end) or by explicitly calling the `panic!` macro. +In both cases, we cause a panic in our program. By default, these panics will +print a failure message, unwind, clean up the stack, and quit. Via an +environment variable, you can also have Rust display the call stack when a +panic occurs to make it easier to track down the source of the panic. > ### Unwinding the Stack or Aborting in Response to a Panic > -> By default, when a panic occurs, the program starts *unwinding*, which -> means Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data from each function -> it encounters. However, this walking back and cleanup is a lot of work. Rust, -> therefore, allows you to choose the alternative of immediately *aborting*, -> which ends the program without cleaning up. Memory that the program was using -> will then need to be cleaned up by the operating system. If in your project -> you need to make the resulting binary as small as possible, you can switch -> from unwinding to aborting upon a panic by adding `panic = 'abort'` to the -> appropriate `[profile]` sections in your *Cargo.toml* file. For example, if -> you want to abort on panic in release mode, add this: +> By default, when a panic occurs the program starts _unwinding_, which means +> Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data from each function it +> encounters. However, walking back and cleaning up is a lot of work. Rust, +> therefore, allows you to choose the alternative of immediately _aborting_, +> which ends the program without cleaning up. +> +> Memory that the program was using will then need to be cleaned up by the +> operating system. If in your project you need to make the resultant binary as +> small as possible, you can switch from unwinding to aborting upon a panic by +> adding `panic = 'abort'` to the appropriate `[profile]` sections in your +> _Cargo.toml_ file. For example, if you want to abort on panic in release mode, +> add this: > > ```toml > [profile.release] @@ -27,12 +31,14 @@ writing our program. Let’s try calling `panic!` in a simple program: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic,panics {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-01-panic/src/main.rs}} ``` + + When you run the program, you’ll see something like this: ```console @@ -41,44 +47,44 @@ When you run the program, you’ll see something like this: The call to `panic!` causes the error message contained in the last two lines. The first line shows our panic message and the place in our source code where -the panic occurred: *src/main.rs:2:5* indicates that it’s the second line, -fifth character of our *src/main.rs* file. +the panic occurred: _src/main.rs:2:5_ indicates that it’s the second line, +fifth character of our _src/main.rs_ file. In this case, the line indicated is part of our code, and if we go to that line, we see the `panic!` macro call. In other cases, the `panic!` call might be in code that our code calls, and the filename and line number reported by the error message will be someone else’s code where the `panic!` macro is -called, not the line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!` call. We -can use the backtrace of the functions the `panic!` call came from to figure -out the part of our code that is causing the problem. We’ll discuss backtraces -in more detail next. +called, not the line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!` call. -### Using a `panic!` Backtrace + -Let’s look at another example to see what it’s like when a `panic!` call comes -from a library because of a bug in our code instead of from our code calling -the macro directly. Listing 9-1 has some code that attempts to access an -index in a vector beyond the range of valid indexes. + -Filename: src/main.rs +We can use the backtrace of the functions the `panic!` call came from to figure +out the part of our code that is causing the problem. To understand how to use +a `panic!` backtrace, let’s look at another example and see what it’s like when +a `panic!` call comes from a library because of a bug in our code instead of +from our code calling the macro directly. Listing 9-1 has some code that +attempts to access an index in a vector beyond the range of valid indexes. + + ```rust,should_panic,panics {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 9-1: Attempting to access an element beyond the -end of a vector, which will cause a call to `panic!` + Here, we’re attempting to access the 100th element of our vector (which is at -index 99 because indexing starts at zero), but the vector has only 3 elements. -In this situation, Rust will panic. Using `[]` is supposed to return an -element, but if you pass an invalid index, there’s no element that Rust could -return here that would be correct. +index 99 because indexing starts at zero), but the vector has only three +elements. In this situation, Rust will panic. Using `[]` is supposed to return +an element, but if you pass an invalid index, there’s no element that Rust +could return here that would be correct. In C, attempting to read beyond the end of a data structure is undefined behavior. You might get whatever is at the location in memory that would correspond to that element in the data structure, even though the memory -doesn’t belong to that structure. This is called a *buffer overread* and can +doesn’t belong to that structure. This is called a _buffer overread_ and can lead to security vulnerabilities if an attacker is able to manipulate the index in such a way as to read data they shouldn’t be allowed to that is stored after the data structure. @@ -91,18 +97,20 @@ continue. Let’s try it and see: {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-01/output.txt}} ``` -This error points at line 4 of our `main.rs` where we attempt to access index -99. The next note line tells us that we can set the `RUST_BACKTRACE` -environment variable to get a backtrace of exactly what happened to cause the -error. A *backtrace* is a list of all the functions that have been called to -get to this point. Backtraces in Rust work as they do in other languages: the -key to reading the backtrace is to start from the top and read until you see -files you wrote. That’s the spot where the problem originated. The lines above -that spot are code that your code has called; the lines below are code that -called your code. These before-and-after lines might include core Rust code, -standard library code, or crates that you’re using. Let’s try getting a -backtrace by setting the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment variable to any value -except 0. Listing 9-2 shows output similar to what you’ll see. +This error points at line 4 of our _main.rs_ where we attempt to access index +`99` of the vector in `v`. + +The `note:` line tells us that we can set the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment +variable to get a backtrace of exactly what happened to cause the error. A +_backtrace_ is a list of all the functions that have been called to get to this +point. Backtraces in Rust work as they do in other languages: the key to +reading the backtrace is to start from the top and read until you see files you +wrote. That’s the spot where the problem originated. The lines above that spot +are code that your code has called; the lines below are code that called your +code. These before-and-after lines might include core Rust code, standard +library code, or crates that you’re using. Let’s try getting a backtrace by +setting the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment variable to any value except `0`. +Listing 9-2 shows output similar to what you’ll see. ++ ```console $ RUST_BACKTRACE=1 cargo run -thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99', src/main.rs:4:5 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:6: +index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99 stack backtrace: 0: rust_begin_unwind - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/std/src/panicking.rs:483 + at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/std/src/panicking.rs:662:5 1: core::panicking::panic_fmt - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/panicking.rs:85 + at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/panicking.rs:74:14 2: core::panicking::panic_bounds_check - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/panicking.rs:62 + at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/panicking.rs:276:5 3: >::index - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:255 + at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:302:10 4: core::slice::index:: for [T]>::index - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:15 - 5: as core::ops::index::Index>::index - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/alloc/src/vec.rs:1982 + at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:16:9 + 5: as core::ops::index::Index>::index + at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/alloc/src/vec/mod.rs:2920:9 6: panic::main - at ./src/main.rs:4 + at ./src/main.rs:4:6 7: core::ops::function::FnOnce::call_once - at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:227 + at /rustc/f6e511eec7342f59a25f7c0534f1dbea00d01b14/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:250:5 note: Some details are omitted, run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=full` for a verbose backtrace. ``` -Listing 9-2: The backtrace generated by a call to -`panic!` displayed when the environment variable `RUST_BACKTRACE` is set + That’s a lot of output! The exact output you see might be different depending on your operating system and Rust version. In order to get backtraces with this @@ -144,7 +154,7 @@ default when using `cargo build` or `cargo run` without the `--release` flag, as we have here. In the output in Listing 9-2, line 6 of the backtrace points to the line in our -project that’s causing the problem: line 4 of *src/main.rs*. If we don’t want +project that’s causing the problem: line 4 of _src/main.rs_. If we don’t want our program to panic, we should start our investigation at the location pointed to by the first line mentioning a file we wrote. In Listing 9-1, where we deliberately wrote code that would panic, the way to fix the panic is to not @@ -157,5 +167,4 @@ handle error conditions in the [“To `panic!` or Not to `panic!`”][to-panic-or-not-to-panic] section later in this chapter. Next, we’ll look at how to recover from an error using `Result`. -[to-panic-or-not-to-panic]: -ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#to-panic-or-not-to-panic +[to-panic-or-not-to-panic]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#to-panic-or-not-to-panic diff --git a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md index 82e1c8dd7e..13117d7dfb 100644 --- a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md +++ b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ ## Recoverable Errors with `Result` Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely. -Sometimes, when a function fails, it’s for a reason that you can easily -interpret and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that -operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the -file instead of terminating the process. +Sometimes when a function fails it’s for a reason that you can easily interpret +and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that operation fails +because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the file instead of +terminating the process. -Recall from [“Handling Potential Failure with the `Result` -Type”][handle_failure] in Chapter 2 that the `Result` enum is -defined as having two variants, `Ok` and `Err`, as follows: +Recall from [“Handling Potential Failure with `Result`”][handle_failure] in Chapter 2 that the `Result` enum is defined as having two +variants, `Ok` and `Err`, as follows: ```rust enum Result { @@ -23,69 +23,49 @@ the type of the value that will be returned in a success case within the `Ok` variant, and `E` represents the type of the error that will be returned in a failure case within the `Err` variant. Because `Result` has these generic type parameters, we can use the `Result` type and the functions defined on it in -many different situations where the successful value and error value we want to +many different situations where the success value and error value we want to return may differ. Let’s call a function that returns a `Result` value because the function could fail. In Listing 9-3 we try to open a file. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-03/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 9-3: Opening a file - -How do we know `File::open` returns a `Result`? We could look at the [standard -library API documentation](../std/fs/struct.File.html#method.open), or we could ask -the compiler! If we give `f` a type annotation that we know is *not* the return -type of the function and then try to compile the code, the compiler will tell -us that the types don’t match. The error message will then tell us what the -type of `f` *is*. Let’s try it! We know that the return type of `File::open` -isn’t of type `u32`, so let’s change the `let f` statement to this: - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -Attempting to compile now gives us the following output: - -```console -{{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-02-ask-compiler-for-type/output.txt}} -``` - -This tells us the return type of the `File::open` function is a `Result`. -The generic parameter `T` has been filled in here with the type of the success -value, `std::fs::File`, which is a file handle. The type of `E` used in the -error value is `std::io::Error`. - -This return type means the call to `File::open` might succeed and return a file -handle that we can read from or write to. The function call also might fail: -for example, the file might not exist, or we might not have permission to -access the file. The `File::open` function needs to have a way to tell us -whether it succeeded or failed and at the same time give us either the file -handle or error information. This information is exactly what the `Result` enum -conveys. - -In the case where `File::open` succeeds, the value in the variable `f` will be -an instance of `Ok` that contains a file handle. In the case where it fails, -the value in `f` will be an instance of `Err` that contains more information -about the kind of error that happened. + + +The return type of `File::open` is a `Result`. The generic parameter `T` +has been filled in by the implementation of `File::open` with the type of the +success value, `std::fs::File`, which is a file handle. The type of `E` used in +the error value is `std::io::Error`. This return type means the call to +`File::open` might succeed and return a file handle that we can read from or +write to. The function call also might fail: for example, the file might not +exist, or we might not have permission to access the file. The `File::open` +function needs to have a way to tell us whether it succeeded or failed and at +the same time give us either the file handle or error information. This +information is exactly what the `Result` enum conveys. + +In the case where `File::open` succeeds, the value in the variable +`greeting_file_result` will be an instance of `Ok` that contains a file handle. +In the case where it fails, the value in `greeting_file_result` will be an +instance of `Err` that contains more information about the kind of error that +occurred. We need to add to the code in Listing 9-3 to take different actions depending on the value `File::open` returns. Listing 9-4 shows one way to handle the `Result` using a basic tool, the `match` expression that we discussed in Chapter 6. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-04/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 9-4: Using a `match` expression to handle the -`Result` variants that might be returned + Note that, like the `Option` enum, the `Result` enum and its variants have been brought into scope by the prelude, so we don’t need to specify `Result::` @@ -93,11 +73,12 @@ before the `Ok` and `Err` variants in the `match` arms. When the result is `Ok`, this code will return the inner `file` value out of the `Ok` variant, and we then assign that file handle value to the variable -`f`. After the `match`, we can use the file handle for reading or writing. +`greeting_file`. After the `match`, we can use the file handle for reading or +writing. The other arm of the `match` handles the case where we get an `Err` value from `File::open`. In this example, we’ve chosen to call the `panic!` macro. If -there’s no file named *hello.txt* in our current directory and we run this +there’s no file named _hello.txt_ in our current directory and we run this code, we’ll see the following output from the `panic!` macro: ```console @@ -109,14 +90,14 @@ As usual, this output tells us exactly what has gone wrong. ### Matching on Different Errors The code in Listing 9-4 will `panic!` no matter why `File::open` failed. -However, we want to take different actions for different failure reasons: if +However, we want to take different actions for different failure reasons. If `File::open` failed because the file doesn’t exist, we want to create the file and return the handle to the new file. If `File::open` failed for any other reason—for example, because we didn’t have permission to open the file—we still -want the code to `panic!` in the same way as it did in Listing 9-4. For this we +want the code to `panic!` in the same way it did in Listing 9-4. For this, we add an inner `match` expression, shown in Listing 9-5. -Filename: src/main.rs + @@ -125,8 +106,7 @@ tests to fail lol --> {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-05/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 9-5: Handling different kinds of errors in -different ways + The type of the value that `File::open` returns inside the `Err` variant is `io::Error`, which is a struct provided by the standard library. This struct @@ -134,8 +114,8 @@ has a method `kind` that we can call to get an `io::ErrorKind` value. The enum `io::ErrorKind` is provided by the standard library and has variants representing the different kinds of errors that might result from an `io` operation. The variant we want to use is `ErrorKind::NotFound`, which indicates -the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet. So we match on `f`, but we -also have an inner match on `error.kind()`. +the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet. So we match on +`greeting_file_result`, but we also have an inner match on `error.kind()`. The condition we want to check in the inner match is whether the value returned by `error.kind()` is the `NotFound` variant of the `ErrorKind` enum. If it is, @@ -145,7 +125,7 @@ file can’t be created, a different error message is printed. The second arm of the outer `match` stays the same, so the program panics on any error besides the missing file error. -> ### Alternatives to Using `match` with `Result` +> #### Alternatives to Using `match` with `Result` > > That’s a lot of `match`! The `match` expression is very useful but also very > much a primitive. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn about closures, which are used @@ -153,7 +133,7 @@ the missing file error. > concise than using `match` when handling `Result` values in your code. > > For example, here’s another way to write the same logic as shown in Listing -> 9-5 but using closures and the `unwrap_or_else` method: +> 9-5, this time using closures and the `unwrap_or_else` method: > > > @@ -162,13 +142,13 @@ the missing file error. > use std::io::ErrorKind; > > fn main() { -> let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { +> let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { > if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound { > File::create("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| { -> panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", error); +> panic!("Problem creating the file: {error:?}"); > }) > } else { -> panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error); +> panic!("Problem opening the file: {error:?}"); > } > }); > } @@ -180,7 +160,7 @@ the missing file error. > standard library documentation. Many more of these methods can clean up huge > nested `match` expressions when you’re dealing with errors. -### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: `unwrap` and `expect` +#### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: `unwrap` and `expect` Using `match` works well enough, but it can be a bit verbose and doesn’t always communicate intent well. The `Result` type has many helper methods @@ -190,19 +170,26 @@ Listing 9-4. If the `Result` value is the `Ok` variant, `unwrap` will return the value inside the `Ok`. If the `Result` is the `Err` variant, `unwrap` will call the `panic!` macro for us. Here is an example of `unwrap` in action: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-04-unwrap/src/main.rs}} ``` -If we run this code without a *hello.txt* file, we’ll see an error message from + + +If we run this code without a _hello.txt_ file, we’ll see an error message from the `panic!` call that the `unwrap` method makes: + + ```text -thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Error { -repr: Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', -src/libcore/result.rs:906:4 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:4:49: +called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } ``` Similarly, the `expect` method lets us also choose the `panic!` error message. @@ -210,33 +197,40 @@ Using `expect` instead of `unwrap` and providing good error messages can convey your intent and make tracking down the source of a panic easier. The syntax of `expect` looks like this: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-05-expect/src/main.rs}} ``` + + We use `expect` in the same way as `unwrap`: to return the file handle or call the `panic!` macro. The error message used by `expect` in its call to `panic!` will be the parameter that we pass to `expect`, rather than the default `panic!` message that `unwrap` uses. Here’s what it looks like: + + ```text -thread 'main' panicked at 'Failed to open hello.txt: Error { repr: Os { code: -2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', src/libcore/result.rs:906:4 +thread 'main' panicked at src/main.rs:5:10: +hello.txt should be included in this project: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" } ``` -Because this error message starts with the text we specified, `Failed to open -hello.txt`, it will be easier to find where in the code this error message is -coming from. If we use `unwrap` in multiple places, it can take more time to -figure out exactly which `unwrap` is causing the panic because all `unwrap` -calls that panic print the same message. +In production-quality code, most Rustaceans choose `expect` rather than +`unwrap` and give more context about why the operation is expected to always +succeed. That way, if your assumptions are ever proven wrong, you have more +information to use in debugging. ### Propagating Errors When a function’s implementation calls something that might fail, instead of -handling the error within the function itself, you can return the error to the -calling code so that it can decide what to do. This is known as *propagating* +handling the error within the function itself you can return the error to the +calling code so that it can decide what to do. This is known as _propagating_ the error and gives more control to the calling code, where there might be more information or logic that dictates how the error should be handled than what you have available in the context of your code. @@ -245,7 +239,7 @@ For example, Listing 9-6 shows a function that reads a username from a file. If the file doesn’t exist or can’t be read, this function will return those errors to the code that called the function. -Filename: src/main.rs + {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the -calling code using `match` + This function can be written in a much shorter way, but we’re going to start by doing a lot of it manually in order to explore error handling; at the end, we’ll show the shorter way. Let’s look at the return type of the function first: `Result`. This means the function is returning a -value of the type `Result` where the generic parameter `T` has been -filled in with the concrete type `String`, and the generic type `E` has been -filled in with the concrete type `io::Error`. If this function succeeds without -any problems, the code that calls this function will receive an `Ok` value that -holds a `String`—the username that this function read from the file. If this -function encounters any problems, the calling code will receive an `Err` value -that holds an instance of `io::Error` that contains more information about what -the problems were. We chose `io::Error` as the return type of this function -because that happens to be the type of the error value returned from both of -the operations we’re calling in this function’s body that might fail: the -`File::open` function and the `read_to_string` method. +value of the type `Result`, where the generic parameter `T` has been +filled in with the concrete type `String` and the generic type `E` has been +filled in with the concrete type `io::Error`. + +If this function succeeds without any problems, the code that calls this +function will receive an `Ok` value that holds a `String`—the `username` that +this function read from the file. If this function encounters any problems, the +calling code will receive an `Err` value that holds an instance of `io::Error` +that contains more information about what the problems were. We chose +`io::Error` as the return type of this function because that happens to be the +type of the error value returned from both of the operations we’re calling in +this function’s body that might fail: the `File::open` function and the +`read_to_string` method. The body of the function starts by calling the `File::open` function. Then we handle the `Result` value with a `match` similar to the `match` in Listing 9-4. If `File::open` succeeds, the file handle in the pattern variable `file` -becomes the value in the mutable variable `f` and the function continues. In -the `Err` case, instead of calling `panic!`, we use the `return` keyword to -return early out of the function entirely and pass the error value from -`File::open`, now in the pattern variable `e`, back to the calling code as this -function’s error value. - -So if we have a file handle in `f`, the function then creates a new `String` in -variable `s` and calls the `read_to_string` method on the file handle in `f` to -read the contents of the file into `s`. The `read_to_string` method also -returns a `Result` because it might fail, even though `File::open` succeeded. -So we need another `match` to handle that `Result`: if `read_to_string` -succeeds, then our function has succeeded, and we return the username from the -file that’s now in `s` wrapped in an `Ok`. If `read_to_string` fails, we return -the error value in the same way that we returned the error value in the `match` -that handled the return value of `File::open`. However, we don’t need to -explicitly say `return`, because this is the last expression in the function. +becomes the value in the mutable variable `username_file` and the function +continues. In the `Err` case, instead of calling `panic!`, we use the `return` +keyword to return early out of the function entirely and pass the error value +from `File::open`, now in the pattern variable `e`, back to the calling code as +this function’s error value. + +So, if we have a file handle in `username_file`, the function then creates a +new `String` in variable `username` and calls the `read_to_string` method on +the file handle in `username_file` to read the contents of the file into +`username`. The `read_to_string` method also returns a `Result` because it +might fail, even though `File::open` succeeded. So we need another `match` to +handle that `Result`: if `read_to_string` succeeds, then our function has +succeeded, and we return the username from the file that’s now in `username` +wrapped in an `Ok`. If `read_to_string` fails, we return the error value in the +same way that we returned the error value in the `match` that handled the +return value of `File::open`. However, we don’t need to explicitly say +`return`, because this is the last expression in the function. The code that calls this code will then handle getting either an `Ok` value that contains a username or an `Err` value that contains an `io::Error`. It’s @@ -309,10 +305,10 @@ question mark operator `?` to make this easier. #### A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: the `?` Operator Listing 9-7 shows an implementation of `read_username_from_file` that has the -same functionality as in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the -`?` operator. +same functionality as in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the `?` +operator. -Filename: src/main.rs + {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 9-7: A function that returns errors to the -calling code using the `?` operator + The `?` placed after a `Result` value is defined to work in almost the same way as the `match` expressions we defined to handle the `Result` values in Listing @@ -336,26 +331,31 @@ code. There is a difference between what the `match` expression from Listing 9-6 does and what the `?` operator does: error values that have the `?` operator called on them go through the `from` function, defined in the `From` trait in the -standard library, which is used to convert errors from one type into another. +standard library, which is used to convert values from one type into another. When the `?` operator calls the `from` function, the error type received is converted into the error type defined in the return type of the current function. This is useful when a function returns one error type to represent all the ways a function might fail, even if parts might fail for many different -reasons. As long as there’s an `impl From for ReturnedError` to -define the conversion in the trait’s `from` function, the `?` operator takes -care of calling the `from` function automatically. +reasons. + +For example, we could change the `read_username_from_file` function in Listing +9-7 to return a custom error type named `OurError` that we define. If we also +define `impl From for OurError` to construct an instance of +`OurError` from an `io::Error`, then the `?` operator calls in the body of +`read_username_from_file` will call `from` and convert the error types without +needing to add any more code to the function. In the context of Listing 9-7, the `?` at the end of the `File::open` call will -return the value inside an `Ok` to the variable `f`. If an error occurs, the -`?` operator will return early out of the whole function and give any `Err` -value to the calling code. The same thing applies to the `?` at the end of the -`read_to_string` call. +return the value inside an `Ok` to the variable `username_file`. If an error +occurs, the `?` operator will return early out of the whole function and give +any `Err` value to the calling code. The same thing applies to the `?` at the +end of the `read_to_string` call. The `?` operator eliminates a lot of boilerplate and makes this function’s implementation simpler. We could even shorten this code further by chaining method calls immediately after the `?`, as shown in Listing 9-8. -Filename: src/main.rs + {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 9-8: Chaining method calls after the `?` -operator + -We’ve moved the creation of the new `String` in `s` to the beginning of the -function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable `f`, we’ve -chained the call to `read_to_string` directly onto the result of -`File::open("hello.txt")?`. We still have a `?` at the end of the -`read_to_string` call, and we still return an `Ok` value containing the -username in `s` when both `File::open` and `read_to_string` succeed rather than -returning errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-6 and -Listing 9-7; this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it. +We’ve moved the creation of the new `String` in `username` to the beginning of +the function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable +`username_file`, we’ve chained the call to `read_to_string` directly onto the +result of `File::open("hello.txt")?`. We still have a `?` at the end of the +`read_to_string` call, and we still return an `Ok` value containing `username` +when both `File::open` and `read_to_string` succeed rather than returning +errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-6 and Listing 9-7; +this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it. Listing 9-9 shows a way to make this even shorter using `fs::read_to_string`. -Filename: src/main.rs + {{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 9-9: Using `fs::read_to_string` instead of -opening and then reading the file + Reading a file into a string is a fairly common operation, so the standard library provides the convenient `fs::read_to_string` function that opens the @@ -410,15 +408,16 @@ as the `match` expression we defined in Listing 9-6. In Listing 9-6, the it’s compatible with this `return`. In Listing 9-10, let’s look at the error we’ll get if we use the `?` operator -in a `main` function with a return type incompatible with the type of the value -we use `?` on: +in a `main` function with a return type that is incompatible with the type of +the value we use `?` on. + + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-10/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 9-10: Attempting to use the `?` in the `main` -function that returns `()` won’t compile + This code opens a file, which might fail. The `?` operator follows the `Result` value returned by `File::open`, but this `main` function has the return type of @@ -431,11 +430,13 @@ message: This error points out that we’re only allowed to use the `?` operator in a function that returns `Result`, `Option`, or another type that implements -`FromResidual`. To fix the error, you have two choices. One choice is to change -the return type of your function to be compatible with the value you’re using -the `?` operator on as long as you have no restrictions preventing that. The -other technique is to use a `match` or one of the `Result` methods to -handle the `Result` in whatever way is appropriate. +`FromResidual`. + +To fix the error, you have two choices. One choice is to change the return type +of your function to be compatible with the value you’re using the `?` operator +on as long as you have no restrictions preventing that. The other choice is to +use a `match` or one of the `Result` methods to handle the `Result` +in whatever way is appropriate. The error message also mentioned that `?` can be used with `Option` values as well. As with using `?` on `Result`, you can only use `?` on `Option` in a @@ -443,16 +444,17 @@ function that returns an `Option`. The behavior of the `?` operator when called on an `Option` is similar to its behavior when called on a `Result`: if the value is `None`, the `None` will be returned early from the function at that point. If the value is `Some`, the value inside the `Some` is the -resulting value of the expression and the function continues. Listing 9-11 has +resultant value of the expression, and the function continues. Listing 9-11 has an example of a function that finds the last character of the first line in the -given text: +given text. + + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 9-11: Using the `?` operator on an `Option` -value + This function returns `Option` because it’s possible that there is a character there, but it’s also possible that there isn’t. This code takes the @@ -468,7 +470,7 @@ The `?` extracts the string slice, and we can call `chars` on that string slice to get an iterator of its characters. We’re interested in the last character in this first line, so we call `last` to return the last item in the iterator. This is an `Option` because it’s possible that the first line is the empty -string, for example if `text` starts with a blank line but has characters on +string; for example, if `text` starts with a blank line but has characters on other lines, as in `"\nhi"`. However, if there is a last character on the first line, it will be returned in the `Some` variant. The `?` operator in the middle gives us a concise way to express this logic, allowing us to implement the @@ -483,46 +485,50 @@ you can use methods like the `ok` method on `Result` or the `ok_or` method on `Option` to do the conversion explicitly. So far, all the `main` functions we’ve used return `()`. The `main` function is -special because it’s the entry and exit point of executable programs, and there -are restrictions on what its return type can be for the programs to behave as -expected. +special because it’s the entry point and exit point of an executable program, +and there are restrictions on what its return type can be for the program to +behave as expected. -Luckily, `main` can also return a `Result<(), E>`. Listing 9-12 has the -code from Listing 9-10 but we’ve changed the return type of `main` to be +Luckily, `main` can also return a `Result<(), E>`. Listing 9-12 has the code +from Listing 9-10, but we’ve changed the return type of `main` to be `Result<(), Box>` and added a return value `Ok(())` to the end. This -code will now compile: +code will now compile. + + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-12/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 9-12: Changing `main` to return `Result<(), E>` -allows the use of the `?` operator on `Result` values + -The `Box` type is a *trait object*, which we’ll talk about in the +The `Box` type is a _trait object_, which we’ll talk about in the [“Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different -Types”][trait-objects] section in Chapter 17. For now, you can +Types”][trait-objects] section in Chapter 18. For now, you can read `Box` to mean “any kind of error.” Using `?` on a `Result` -value in a `main` function with the error type `Box` is allowed, -because it allows any `Err` value to be returned early. - -When a `main` function returns a `Result<(), E>`, the executable will -exit with a value of `0` if `main` returns `Ok(())` and will exit with a -nonzero value if `main` returns an `Err` value. Executables written in C return -integers when they exit: programs that exit successfully return the integer -`0`, and programs that error return some integer other than `0`. Rust also -returns integers from executables to be compatible with this convention. +value in a `main` function with the error type `Box` is allowed +because it allows any `Err` value to be returned early. Even though the body of +this `main` function will only ever return errors of type `std::io::Error`, by +specifying `Box`, this signature will continue to be correct even if +more code that returns other errors is added to the body of `main`. + +When a `main` function returns a `Result<(), E>`, the executable will exit with +a value of `0` if `main` returns `Ok(())` and will exit with a nonzero value if +`main` returns an `Err` value. Executables written in C return integers when +they exit: programs that exit successfully return the integer `0`, and programs +that error return some integer other than `0`. Rust also returns integers from +executables to be compatible with this convention. The `main` function may return any types that implement [the -`std::process::Termination` trait][termination]. As of this -writing, the `Termination` trait is an unstable feature only available in -Nightly Rust, so you can’t yet implement it for your own types in Stable Rust, -but you might be able to someday! +`std::process::Termination` trait][termination], which contains +a function `report` that returns an `ExitCode`. Consult the standard library +documentation for more information on implementing the `Termination` trait for +your own types. Now that we’ve discussed the details of calling `panic!` or returning `Result`, let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in which cases. -[handle_failure]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#handling-potential-failure-with-the-result-type -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[handle_failure]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#handling-potential-failure-with-result +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [termination]: ../std/process/trait.Termination.html diff --git a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md index 182c5bc781..90d9eacfd4 100644 --- a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md +++ b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md @@ -19,11 +19,11 @@ some general guidelines on how to decide whether to panic in library code. ### Examples, Prototype Code, and Tests -When you’re writing an example to illustrate some concept, also including robust -error-handling code can make the example less clear. In -examples, it’s understood that a call to a method like `unwrap` that could -panic is meant as a placeholder for the way you’d want your application to -handle errors, which can differ based on what the rest of your code is doing. +When you’re writing an example to illustrate some concept, also including +robust error-handling code can make the example less clear. In examples, it’s +understood that a call to a method like `unwrap` that could panic is meant as a +placeholder for the way you’d want your application to handle errors, which can +differ based on what the rest of your code is doing. Similarly, the `unwrap` and `expect` methods are very handy when prototyping, before you’re ready to decide how to handle errors. They leave clear markers in @@ -36,51 +36,58 @@ happen. ### Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler -It would also be appropriate to call `unwrap` when you have some other logic -that ensures the `Result` will have an `Ok` value, but the logic isn’t -something the compiler understands. You’ll still have a `Result` value that you -need to handle: whatever operation you’re calling still has the possibility of -failing in general, even though it’s logically impossible in your particular -situation. If you can ensure by manually inspecting the code that you’ll never -have an `Err` variant, it’s perfectly acceptable to call `unwrap`. Here’s an -example: +It would also be appropriate to call `unwrap` or `expect` when you have some +other logic that ensures the `Result` will have an `Ok` value, but the logic +isn’t something the compiler understands. You’ll still have a `Result` value +that you need to handle: whatever operation you’re calling still has the +possibility of failing in general, even though it’s logically impossible in +your particular situation. If you can ensure by manually inspecting the code +that you’ll never have an `Err` variant, it’s perfectly acceptable to call +`unwrap`, and even better to document the reason you think you’ll never have an +`Err` variant in the `expect` text. Here’s an example: ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-08-unwrap-that-cant-fail/src/main.rs:here}} ``` We’re creating an `IpAddr` instance by parsing a hardcoded string. We can see -that `127.0.0.1` is a valid IP address, so it’s acceptable to use `unwrap` +that `127.0.0.1` is a valid IP address, so it’s acceptable to use `expect` here. However, having a hardcoded, valid string doesn’t change the return type of the `parse` method: we still get a `Result` value, and the compiler will still make us handle the `Result` as if the `Err` variant is a possibility because the compiler isn’t smart enough to see that this string is always a valid IP address. If the IP address string came from a user rather than being -hardcoded into the program and therefore *did* have a possibility of failure, +hardcoded into the program and therefore _did_ have a possibility of failure, we’d definitely want to handle the `Result` in a more robust way instead. +Mentioning the assumption that this IP address is hardcoded will prompt us to +change `expect` to better error-handling code if, in the future, we need to get +the IP address from some other source instead. ### Guidelines for Error Handling -It’s advisable to have your code panic when it’s possible that your code -could end up in a bad state. In this context, a *bad state* is when some -assumption, guarantee, contract, or invariant has been broken, such as when -invalid values, contradictory values, or missing values are passed to your -code—plus one or more of the following: +It’s advisable to have your code panic when it’s possible that your code could +end up in a bad state. In this context, a _bad state_ is when some assumption, +guarantee, contract, or invariant has been broken, such as when invalid values, +contradictory values, or missing values are passed to your code—plus one or +more of the following: -* The bad state is something that is unexpected, as opposed to something that +- The bad state is something that is unexpected, as opposed to something that will likely happen occasionally, like a user entering data in the wrong format. -* Your code after this point needs to rely on not being in this bad state, +- Your code after this point needs to rely on not being in this bad state, rather than checking for the problem at every step. -* There’s not a good way to encode this information in the types you use. We’ll +- There’s not a good way to encode this information in the types you use. We’ll work through an example of what we mean in the [“Encoding States and Behavior - as Types”][encoding] section of Chapter 17. + as Types”][encoding] section of Chapter 18. -If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, the best -choice might be to call `panic!` and alert the person using your library to the -bug in their code so they can fix it during development. Similarly, `panic!` is -often appropriate if you’re calling external code that is out of your control -and it returns an invalid state that you have no way of fixing. +If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, it’s +best to return an error if you can so the user of the library can decide what +they want to do in that case. However, in cases where continuing could be +insecure or harmful, the best choice might be to call `panic!` and alert the +person using your library to the bug in their code so they can fix it during +development. Similarly, `panic!` is often appropriate if you’re calling +external code that is out of your control and it returns an invalid state that +you have no way of fixing. However, when failure is expected, it’s more appropriate to return a `Result` than to make a `panic!` call. Examples include a parser being given malformed @@ -88,20 +95,20 @@ data or an HTTP request returning a status that indicates you have hit a rate limit. In these cases, returning a `Result` indicates that failure is an expected possibility that the calling code must decide how to handle. -When your code performs operations on values, your code should verify the -values are valid first and panic if the values aren’t valid. This is mostly for -safety reasons: attempting to operate on invalid data can expose your code to -vulnerabilities. This is the main reason the standard library will call -`panic!` if you attempt an out-of-bounds memory access: trying to access memory -that doesn’t belong to the current data structure is a common security problem. -Functions often have *contracts*: their behavior is only guaranteed if the -inputs meet particular requirements. Panicking when the contract is violated -makes sense because a contract violation always indicates a caller-side bug and -it’s not a kind of error you want the calling code to have to explicitly -handle. In fact, there’s no reasonable way for calling code to recover; the -calling *programmers* need to fix the code. Contracts for a function, -especially when a violation will cause a panic, should be explained in the API -documentation for the function. +When your code performs an operation that could put a user at risk if it’s +called using invalid values, your code should verify the values are valid first +and panic if the values aren’t valid. This is mostly for safety reasons: +attempting to operate on invalid data can expose your code to vulnerabilities. +This is the main reason the standard library will call `panic!` if you attempt +an out-of-bounds memory access: trying to access memory that doesn’t belong to +the current data structure is a common security problem. Functions often have +_contracts_: their behavior is only guaranteed if the inputs meet particular +requirements. Panicking when the contract is violated makes sense because a +contract violation always indicates a caller-side bug, and it’s not a kind of +error you want the calling code to have to explicitly handle. In fact, there’s +no reasonable way for calling code to recover; the calling _programmers_ need +to fix the code. Contracts for a function, especially when a violation will +cause a panic, should be explained in the API documentation for the function. However, having lots of error checks in all of your functions would be verbose and annoying. Fortunately, you can use Rust’s type system (and thus the type @@ -109,7 +116,7 @@ checking done by the compiler) to do many of the checks for you. If your function has a particular type as a parameter, you can proceed with your code’s logic knowing that the compiler has already ensured you have a valid value. For example, if you have a type rather than an `Option`, your program expects to -have *something* rather than *nothing*. Your code then doesn’t have to handle +have _something_ rather than _nothing_. Your code then doesn’t have to handle two cases for the `Some` and `None` variants: it will only have one case for definitely having a value. Code trying to pass nothing to your function won’t even compile, so your function doesn’t have to check for that case at runtime. @@ -126,24 +133,28 @@ numbers before checking it against our secret number; we only validated that the guess was positive. In this case, the consequences were not very dire: our output of “Too high” or “Too low” would still be correct. But it would be a useful enhancement to guide the user toward valid guesses and have different -behavior when a user guesses a number that’s out of range versus when a user -types, for example, letters instead. +behavior when the user guesses a number that’s out of range versus when the +user types, for example, letters instead. One way to do this would be to parse the guess as an `i32` instead of only a `u32` to allow potentially negative numbers, and then add a check for the number being in range, like so: ++ ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/no-listing-09-guess-out-of-range/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + The `if` expression checks whether our value is out of range, tells the user about the problem, and calls `continue` to start the next iteration of the loop and ask for another guess. After the `if` expression, we can proceed with the comparisons between `guess` and the secret number knowing that `guess` is between 1 and 100. -However, this is not an ideal solution: if it was absolutely critical that the +However, this is not an ideal solution: if it were absolutely critical that the program only operated on values between 1 and 100, and it had many functions with this requirement, having a check like this in every function would be tedious (and might impact performance). @@ -155,19 +166,15 @@ confidently use the values they receive. Listing 9-13 shows one way to define a `Guess` type that will only create an instance of `Guess` if the `new` function receives a value between 1 and 100. - + ```rust -{{#include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch09-error-handling/listing-09-13/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 9-13: A `Guess` type that will only continue with -values between 1 and 100 + -First, we define a struct named `Guess` that has a field named `value` that +First we define a struct named `Guess` that has a field named `value` that holds an `i32`. This is where the number will be stored. Then we implement an associated function named `new` on `Guess` that creates @@ -186,11 +193,11 @@ to the `value` parameter and return the `Guess`. Next, we implement a method named `value` that borrows `self`, doesn’t have any other parameters, and returns an `i32`. This kind of method is sometimes called -a *getter*, because its purpose is to get some data from its fields and return +a _getter_ because its purpose is to get some data from its fields and return it. This public method is necessary because the `value` field of the `Guess` struct is private. It’s important that the `value` field be private so code using the `Guess` struct is not allowed to set `value` directly: code outside -the module *must* use the `Guess::new` function to create an instance of +the module _must_ use the `Guess::new` function to create an instance of `Guess`, thereby ensuring there’s no way for a `Guess` to have a `value` that hasn’t been checked by the conditions in the `Guess::new` function. @@ -200,7 +207,7 @@ then declare in its signature that it takes or returns a `Guess` rather than an ## Summary -Rust’s error handling features are designed to help you write more robust code. +Rust’s error-handling features are designed to help you write more robust code. The `panic!` macro signals that your program is in a state it can’t handle and lets you tell the process to stop instead of trying to proceed with invalid or incorrect values. The `Result` enum uses Rust’s type system to indicate that @@ -213,4 +220,4 @@ Now that you’ve seen useful ways that the standard library uses generics with the `Option` and `Result` enums, we’ll talk about how generics work and how you can use them in your code. -[encoding]: ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types +[encoding]: ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types diff --git a/src/ch10-00-generics.md b/src/ch10-00-generics.md index 0c67a85d9d..20289557f1 100644 --- a/src/ch10-00-generics.md +++ b/src/ch10-00-generics.md @@ -1,28 +1,28 @@ # Generic Types, Traits, and Lifetimes Every programming language has tools for effectively handling the duplication -of concepts. In Rust, one such tool is *generics*: abstract stand-ins for +of concepts. In Rust, one such tool is _generics_: abstract stand-ins for concrete types or other properties. We can express the behavior of generics or how they relate to other generics without knowing what will be in their place when compiling and running the code. Functions can take parameters of some generic type, instead of a concrete type -like `i32` or `String`, in the same way a function takes parameters with -unknown values to run the same code on multiple concrete values. In fact, we’ve -already used generics in Chapter 6 with `Option`, Chapter 8 with `Vec` -and `HashMap`, and Chapter 9 with `Result`. In this chapter, you’ll +like `i32` or `String`, in the same way they take parameters with unknown +values to run the same code on multiple concrete values. In fact, we’ve already +used generics in Chapter 6 with `Option`, in Chapter 8 with `Vec` and +`HashMap`, and in Chapter 9 with `Result`. In this chapter, you’ll explore how to define your own types, functions, and methods with generics! -First, we’ll review how to extract a function to reduce code duplication. We’ll +First we’ll review how to extract a function to reduce code duplication. We’ll then use the same technique to make a generic function from two functions that differ only in the types of their parameters. We’ll also explain how to use generic types in struct and enum definitions. -Then you’ll learn how to use *traits* to define behavior in a generic way. You +Then you’ll learn how to use _traits_ to define behavior in a generic way. You can combine traits with generic types to constrain a generic type to accept only those types that have a particular behavior, as opposed to just any type. -Finally, we’ll discuss *lifetimes*: a variety of generics that give the +Finally, we’ll discuss _lifetimes_: a variety of generics that give the compiler information about how references relate to each other. Lifetimes allow us to give the compiler enough information about borrowed values so that it can ensure references will be valid in more situations than it could without our @@ -32,53 +32,51 @@ help. Generics allow us to replace specific types with a placeholder that represents multiple types to remove code duplication. Before diving into generics syntax, -then, let’s first look at how to remove duplication in a way that doesn’t -involve generic types by extracting a function that replaces specific values -with a placeholder that represents multiple values. Then we’ll apply the same +let’s first look at how to remove duplication in a way that doesn’t involve +generic types by extracting a function that replaces specific values with a +placeholder that represents multiple values. Then we’ll apply the same technique to extract a generic function! By looking at how to recognize duplicated code you can extract into a function, you’ll start to recognize duplicated code that can use generics. -We begin with the short program in Listing 10-1 that finds the largest number -in a list. +We’ll begin with the short program in Listing 10-1 that finds the largest +number in a list. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-01/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-1: Finding the largest number in a list of -numbers + -We store a list of integers in the variable `number_list` and place the first -number in the list in a variable named `largest`. We then iterate through all -the numbers in the list, and if the current number is greater than the number -stored in `largest`, replace the number in that variable. However, if the -current number is less than or equal to the largest number seen so far, the -variable doesn’t change, and the code moves on to the next number in the list. -After considering all the numbers in the list, `largest` should hold the -largest number, which in this case is 100. +We store a list of integers in the variable `number_list` and place a reference +to the first number in the list in a variable named `largest`. We then iterate +through all the numbers in the list, and if the current number is greater than +the number stored in `largest`, we replace the reference in that variable. +However, if the current number is less than or equal to the largest number seen +so far, the variable doesn’t change, and the code moves on to the next number +in the list. After considering all the numbers in the list, `largest` should +refer to the largest number, which in this case is 100. -We've now been tasked with finding the largest number in two different lists of +We’ve now been tasked with finding the largest number in two different lists of numbers. To do so, we can choose to duplicate the code in Listing 10-1 and use the same logic at two different places in the program, as shown in Listing 10-2. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-02/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-2: Code to find the largest number in *two* -lists of numbers + Although this code works, duplicating code is tedious and error prone. We also have to remember to update the code in multiple places when we want to change it. To eliminate this duplication, we’ll create an abstraction by defining a -function that operates on any list of integers passed in a parameter. This +function that operates on any list of integers passed in as a parameter. This solution makes our code clearer and lets us express the concept of finding the largest number in a list abstractly. @@ -87,31 +85,26 @@ function named `largest`. Then we call the function to find the largest number in the two lists from Listing 10-2. We could also use the function on any other list of `i32` values we might have in the future. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-3: Abstracted code to find the largest number -in two lists + The `largest` function has a parameter called `list`, which represents any concrete slice of `i32` values we might pass into the function. As a result, when we call the function, the code runs on the specific values that we pass -in. Don’t worry about the syntax of the `for` loop for now. We aren’t -referencing a reference to an `i32` here; we’re pattern matching and -destructuring each `&i32` that the `for` loop gets so that `item` will be an -`i32` inside the loop body. We’ll cover pattern matching in detail in [Chapter -18][ch18]. +in. -In sum, here are the steps we took to change the code from Listing 10-2 to +In summary, here are the steps we took to change the code from Listing 10-2 to Listing 10-3: 1. Identify duplicate code. -2. Extract the duplicate code into the body of the function and specify the +1. Extract the duplicate code into the body of the function, and specify the inputs and return values of that code in the function signature. -3. Update the two instances of duplicated code to call the function instead. +1. Update the two instances of duplicated code to call the function instead. Next, we’ll use these same steps with generics to reduce code duplication. In the same way that the function body can operate on an abstract `list` instead @@ -120,5 +113,3 @@ of specific values, generics allow code to operate on abstract types. For example, say we had two functions: one that finds the largest item in a slice of `i32` values and one that finds the largest item in a slice of `char` values. How would we eliminate that duplication? Let’s find out! - -[ch18]: ch18-00-patterns.html diff --git a/src/ch10-01-syntax.md b/src/ch10-01-syntax.md index b2a139bd3d..00e813978e 100644 --- a/src/ch10-01-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch10-01-syntax.md @@ -13,17 +13,16 @@ parameters and return value. Doing so makes our code more flexible and provides more functionality to callers of our function while preventing code duplication. Continuing with our `largest` function, Listing 10-4 shows two functions that -both find the largest value in a slice. We'll then combine these into a single +both find the largest value in a slice. We’ll then combine these into a single function that uses generics. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-4: Two functions that differ only in their -names and the types in their signatures + The `largest_i32` function is the one we extracted in Listing 10-3 that finds the largest `i32` in a slice. The `largest_char` function finds the largest @@ -33,24 +32,24 @@ the duplication by introducing a generic type parameter in a single function. To parameterize the types in a new single function, we need to name the type parameter, just as we do for the value parameters to a function. You can use any identifier as a type parameter name. But we’ll use `T` because, by -convention, parameter names in Rust are short, often just a letter, and Rust’s -type-naming convention is CamelCase. Short for “type,” `T` is the default -choice of most Rust programmers. +convention, type parameter names in Rust are short, often just one letter, and +Rust’s type-naming convention is UpperCamelCase. Short for _type_, `T` is the +default choice of most Rust programmers. When we use a parameter in the body of the function, we have to declare the parameter name in the signature so the compiler knows what that name means. Similarly, when we use a type parameter name in a function signature, we have to declare the type parameter name before we use it. To define the generic -`largest` function, place type name declarations inside angle brackets, `<>`, -between the name of the function and the parameter list, like this: +`largest` function, we place type name declarations inside angle brackets, +`<>`, between the name of the function and the parameter list, like this: ```rust,ignore -fn largest(list: &[T]) -> T { +fn largest(list: &[T]) -> &T { ``` We read this definition as: the function `largest` is generic over some type `T`. This function has one parameter named `list`, which is a slice of values -of type `T`. The `largest` function will return a value of the +of type `T`. The `largest` function will return a reference to a value of the same type `T`. Listing 10-5 shows the combined `largest` function definition using the generic @@ -58,14 +57,13 @@ data type in its signature. The listing also shows how we can call the function with either a slice of `i32` values or `char` values. Note that this code won’t compile yet, but we’ll fix it later in this chapter. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-5: The `largest` function using generic type -parameters; this doesn’t yet compile + If we compile this code right now, we’ll get this error: @@ -73,17 +71,16 @@ If we compile this code right now, we’ll get this error: {{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/output.txt}} ``` -The note mentions `std::cmp::PartialOrd`, which is a *trait*. We’ll talk about -traits in the next section. For now, know that this error states that the body -of `largest` won’t work for all possible types that `T` could be. Because we -want to compare values of type `T` in the body, we can only use types whose -values can be ordered. To enable comparisons, the standard library has the -`std::cmp::PartialOrd` trait that you can implement on types (see Appendix C -for more on this trait). You’ll learn how to specify that a generic type has a -particular trait in the [“Traits as Parameters”][traits-as-parameters] section. Before we fix this code (in the section [“Fixing the -`largest` Function with Trait Bounds”][fixing]), let’s first -explore other ways of using generic type parameters. +The help text mentions `std::cmp::PartialOrd`, which is a _trait_, and we’re +going to talk about traits in the next section. For now, know that this error +states that the body of `largest` won’t work for all possible types that `T` +could be. Because we want to compare values of type `T` in the body, we can +only use types whose values can be ordered. To enable comparisons, the standard +library has the `std::cmp::PartialOrd` trait that you can implement on types +(see Appendix C for more on this trait). By following the help text’s +suggestion, we restrict the types valid for `T` to only those that implement +`PartialOrd` and this example will compile, because the standard library +implements `PartialOrd` on both `i32` and `char`. ### In Struct Definitions @@ -91,38 +88,37 @@ We can also define structs to use a generic type parameter in one or more fields using the `<>` syntax. Listing 10-6 defines a `Point` struct to hold `x` and `y` coordinate values of any type. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-06/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-6: A `Point` struct that holds `x` and `y` -values of type `T` + The syntax for using generics in struct definitions is similar to that used in -function definitions. First, we declare the name of the type parameter inside -angle brackets just after the name of the struct. Then we use the generic type -in the struct definition where we would otherwise specify concrete data types. +function definitions. First we declare the name of the type parameter inside +angle brackets just after the name of the struct. Then we use the generic +type in the struct definition where we would otherwise specify concrete data +types. Note that because we’ve used only one generic type to define `Point`, this definition says that the `Point` struct is generic over some type `T`, and -the fields `x` and `y` are *both* that same type, whatever that type may be. If +the fields `x` and `y` are _both_ that same type, whatever that type may be. If we create an instance of a `Point` that has values of different types, as in Listing 10-7, our code won’t compile. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-07/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-7: The fields `x` and `y` must be the same -type because both have the same generic data type `T`. + -In this example, when we assign the integer value 5 to `x`, we let the compiler -know that the generic type `T` will be an integer for this instance of -`Point`. Then when we specify 4.0 for `y`, which we’ve defined to have the +In this example, when we assign the integer value `5` to `x`, we let the +compiler know that the generic type `T` will be an integer for this instance of +`Point`. Then when we specify `4.0` for `y`, which we’ve defined to have the same type as `x`, we’ll get a type mismatch error like this: ```console @@ -134,18 +130,17 @@ different types, we can use multiple generic type parameters. For example, in Listing 10-8, we change the definition of `Point` to be generic over types `T` and `U` where `x` is of type `T` and `y` is of type `U`. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-08/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-8: A `Point` generic over two types so -that `x` and `y` can be values of different types + Now all the instances of `Point` shown are allowed! You can use as many generic type parameters in a definition as you want, but using more than a few makes -your code hard to read. If you're finding you need lots of generic types in +your code hard to read. If you’re finding you need lots of generic types in your code, it could indicate that your code needs restructuring into smaller pieces. @@ -195,18 +190,16 @@ avoid duplication by using generic types instead. ### In Method Definitions We can implement methods on structs and enums (as we did in Chapter 5) and use -generic types in their definitions, too. Listing 10-9 shows the `Point` +generic types in their definitions too. Listing 10-9 shows the `Point` struct we defined in Listing 10-6 with a method named `x` implemented on it. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-09/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-9: Implementing a method named `x` on the -`Point` struct that will return a reference to the `x` field of type -`T` + Here, we’ve defined a method named `x` on `Point` that returns a reference to the data in the field `x`. @@ -226,20 +219,19 @@ type. We could, for example, implement methods only on `Point` instances rather than on `Point` instances with any generic type. In Listing 10-10 we use the concrete type `f32`, meaning we don’t declare any types after `impl`. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-10: An `impl` block that only applies to a -struct with a particular concrete type for the generic type parameter `T` + This code means the type `Point` will have a `distance_from_origin` method; other instances of `Point` where `T` is not of type `f32` will not have this method defined. The method measures how far our point is from the point at coordinates (0.0, 0.0) and uses mathematical operations that are -available only for floating point types. +available only for floating-point types. Generic type parameters in a struct definition aren’t always the same as those you use in that same struct’s method signatures. Listing 10-11 uses the generic @@ -248,38 +240,37 @@ signature to make the example clearer. The method creates a new `Point` instance with the `x` value from the `self` `Point` (of type `X1`) and the `y` value from the passed-in `Point` (of type `Y2`). -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-11/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-11: A method that uses generic types different -from its struct’s definition + In `main`, we’ve defined a `Point` that has an `i32` for `x` (with value `5`) and an `f64` for `y` (with value `10.4`). The `p2` variable is a `Point` struct that has a string slice for `x` (with value `"Hello"`) and a `char` for `y` (with value `c`). Calling `mixup` on `p1` with the argument `p2` gives us `p3`, -which will have an `i32` for `x`, because `x` came from `p1`. The `p3` variable -will have a `char` for `y`, because `y` came from `p2`. The `println!` macro +which will have an `i32` for `x` because `x` came from `p1`. The `p3` variable +will have a `char` for `y` because `y` came from `p2`. The `println!` macro call will print `p3.x = 5, p3.y = c`. The purpose of this example is to demonstrate a situation in which some generic parameters are declared with `impl` and some are declared with the method definition. Here, the generic parameters `X1` and `Y1` are declared after `impl` because they go with the struct definition. The generic parameters `X2` -and `Y2` are declared after `fn mixup`, because they’re only relevant to the +and `Y2` are declared after `fn mixup` because they’re only relevant to the method. ### Performance of Code Using Generics You might be wondering whether there is a runtime cost when using generic type -parameters. The good news is that using generic types won't make your run any -slower than it would with concrete types. +parameters. The good news is that using generic types won’t make your program +run any slower than it would with concrete types. Rust accomplishes this by performing monomorphization of the code using -generics at compile time. *Monomorphization* is the process of turning generic +generics at compile time. _Monomorphization_ is the process of turning generic code into specific code by filling in the concrete types that are used when compiled. In this process, the compiler does the opposite of the steps we used to create the generic function in Listing 10-5: the compiler looks at all the @@ -297,13 +288,14 @@ let float = Some(5.0); When Rust compiles this code, it performs monomorphization. During that process, the compiler reads the values that have been used in `Option` instances and identifies two kinds of `Option`: one is `i32` and the other -is `f64`. As such, it expands the generic definition of `Option` into -`Option_i32` and `Option_f64`, thereby replacing the generic definition with -the specific ones. +is `f64`. As such, it expands the generic definition of `Option` into two +definitions specialized to `i32` and `f64`, thereby replacing the generic +definition with the specific ones. -The monomorphized version of the code looks like the following: +The monomorphized version of the code looks similar to the following (the +compiler uses different names than what we’re using here for illustration): -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust enum Option_i32 { @@ -322,12 +314,11 @@ fn main() { } ``` + + The generic `Option` is replaced with the specific definitions created by the compiler. Because Rust compiles generic code into code that specifies the type in each instance, we pay no runtime cost for using generics. When the code runs, it performs just as it would if we had duplicated each definition by hand. The process of monomorphization makes Rust’s generics extremely efficient at runtime. - -[traits-as-parameters]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-as-parameters -[fixing]: ch10-02-traits.html#fixing-the-largest-function-with-trait-bounds diff --git a/src/ch10-02-traits.md b/src/ch10-02-traits.md index d93af71ae8..5628eef64b 100644 --- a/src/ch10-02-traits.md +++ b/src/ch10-02-traits.md @@ -1,11 +1,11 @@ ## Traits: Defining Shared Behavior -A *trait* defines functionality a particular type has and can share with other -types. We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way. We can -use *trait bounds* to specify that a generic type can be any type that has +A _trait_ defines the functionality a particular type has and can share with +other types. We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way. We +can use _trait bounds_ to specify that a generic type can be any type that has certain behavior. -> Note: Traits are similar to a feature often called *interfaces* in other +> Note: Traits are similar to a feature often called _interfaces_ in other > languages, although with some differences. ### Defining a Trait @@ -17,27 +17,26 @@ define a set of behaviors necessary to accomplish some purpose. For example, let’s say we have multiple structs that hold various kinds and amounts of text: a `NewsArticle` struct that holds a news story filed in a -particular location and a `Tweet` that can have at most 280 characters along +particular location and a `Tweet` that can have, at most, 280 characters along with metadata that indicates whether it was a new tweet, a retweet, or a reply to another tweet. We want to make a media aggregator library crate named `aggregator` that can display summaries of data that might be stored in a `NewsArticle` or `Tweet` -instance. To do this, we need a summary from each type, and we’ll request -that summary by calling a `summarize` method on an instance. Listing 10-12 -shows the definition of a public `Summary` trait that expresses this behavior. +instance. To do this, we need a summary from each type, and we’ll request that +summary by calling a `summarize` method on an instance. Listing 10-12 shows the +definition of a public `Summary` trait that expresses this behavior. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-12/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-12: A `Summary` trait that consists of the -behavior provided by a `summarize` method + Here, we declare a trait using the `trait` keyword and then the trait’s name, -which is `Summary` in this case. We’ve also declared the trait as `pub` so that +which is `Summary` in this case. We also declare the trait as `pub` so that crates depending on this crate can make use of this trait too, as we’ll see in a few examples. Inside the curly brackets, we declare the method signatures that describe the behaviors of the types that implement this trait, which in @@ -50,7 +49,7 @@ that any type that has the `Summary` trait will have the method `summarize` defined with this signature exactly. A trait can have multiple methods in its body: the method signatures are listed -one per line and each line ends in a semicolon. +one per line, and each line ends in a semicolon. ### Implementing a Trait on a Type @@ -59,17 +58,16 @@ we can implement it on the types in our media aggregator. Listing 10-13 shows an implementation of the `Summary` trait on the `NewsArticle` struct that uses the headline, the author, and the location to create the return value of `summarize`. For the `Tweet` struct, we define `summarize` as the username -followed by the entire text of the tweet, assuming that tweet content is +followed by the entire text of the tweet, assuming that the tweet content is already limited to 280 characters. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-13/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-13: Implementing the `Summary` trait on the -`NewsArticle` and `Tweet` types + Implementing a trait on a type is similar to implementing regular methods. The difference is that after `impl`, we put the trait name we want to implement, @@ -95,23 +93,23 @@ know, people`. Other crates that depend on the `aggregator` crate can also bring the `Summary` trait into scope to implement `Summary` on their own types. One restriction to -note is that we can implement a trait on a type only if at least one of the -trait or the type is local to our crate. For example, we can implement standard +note is that we can implement a trait on a type only if either the trait or the +type, or both, are local to our crate. For example, we can implement standard library traits like `Display` on a custom type like `Tweet` as part of our -`aggregator` crate functionality, because the type `Tweet` is local to our +`aggregator` crate functionality because the type `Tweet` is local to our `aggregator` crate. We can also implement `Summary` on `Vec` in our -`aggregator` crate, because the trait `Summary` is local to our `aggregator` +`aggregator` crate because the trait `Summary` is local to our `aggregator` crate. But we can’t implement external traits on external types. For example, we can’t -implement the `Display` trait on `Vec` within our `aggregator` crate, -because `Display` and `Vec` are both defined in the standard library and -aren’t local to our `aggregator` crate. This restriction is part of a property -called *coherence*, and more specifically the *orphan rule*, so named because -the parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code -can’t break your code and vice versa. Without the rule, two crates could -implement the same trait for the same type, and Rust wouldn’t know which -implementation to use. +implement the `Display` trait on `Vec` within our `aggregator` crate because +`Display` and `Vec` are both defined in the standard library and aren’t +local to our `aggregator` crate. This restriction is part of a property called +_coherence_, and more specifically the _orphan rule_, so named because the +parent type is not present. This rule ensures that other people’s code can’t +break your code and vice versa. Without the rule, two crates could implement +the same trait for the same type, and Rust wouldn’t know which implementation +to use. ### Default Implementations @@ -120,18 +118,17 @@ in a trait instead of requiring implementations for all methods on every type. Then, as we implement the trait on a particular type, we can keep or override each method’s default behavior. -In Listing 10-14 we specify a default string for the `summarize` method of the +In Listing 10-14, we specify a default string for the `summarize` method of the `Summary` trait instead of only defining the method signature, as we did in Listing 10-12. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-14/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-14: Defining a `Summary` trait with a default -implementation of the `summarize` method + To use a default implementation to summarize instances of `NewsArticle`, we specify an empty `impl` block with `impl Summary for NewsArticle {}`. @@ -175,7 +172,8 @@ After we define `summarize_author`, we can call `summarize` on instances of the `Tweet` struct, and the default implementation of `summarize` will call the definition of `summarize_author` that we’ve provided. Because we’ve implemented `summarize_author`, the `Summary` trait has given us the behavior of the -`summarize` method without requiring us to write any more code. +`summarize` method without requiring us to write any more code. Here’s what +that looks like: ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-03-default-impl-calls-other-methods/src/main.rs:here}} @@ -189,7 +187,7 @@ overriding implementation of that same method. ### Traits as Parameters Now that you know how to define and implement traits, we can explore how to use -traits to define functions that accept many different types. We'll use the +traits to define functions that accept many different types. We’ll use the `Summary` trait we implemented on the `NewsArticle` and `Tweet` types in Listing 10-13 to define a `notify` function that calls the `summarize` method on its `item` parameter, which is of some type that implements the `Summary` @@ -207,10 +205,14 @@ and pass in any instance of `NewsArticle` or `Tweet`. Code that calls the function with any other type, such as a `String` or an `i32`, won’t compile because those types don’t implement `Summary`. + + + + #### Trait Bound Syntax The `impl Trait` syntax works for straightforward cases but is actually syntax -sugar for a longer form known as a *trait bound*; it looks like this: +sugar for a longer form known as a _trait bound_; it looks like this: ```rust,ignore pub fn notify(item: &T) { @@ -271,7 +273,7 @@ bounds, so functions with multiple generic type parameters can contain lots of trait bound information between the function’s name and its parameter list, making the function signature hard to read. For this reason, Rust has alternate syntax for specifying trait bounds inside a `where` clause after the function -signature. So instead of writing this: +signature. So, instead of writing this: ```rust,ignore fn some_function(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 { @@ -280,17 +282,14 @@ fn some_function(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 { we can use a `where` clause, like this: ```rust,ignore -fn some_function(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 - where T: Display + Clone, - U: Clone + Debug -{ +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-where-clause/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` This function’s signature is less cluttered: the function name, parameter list, and return type are close together, similar to a function without lots of trait bounds. -### Returning Types that Implement Traits +### Returning Types That Implement Traits We can also use the `impl Trait` syntax in the return position to return a value of some type that implements a trait, as shown here: @@ -324,104 +323,31 @@ around how the `impl Trait` syntax is implemented in the compiler. We’ll cover how to write a function with this behavior in the [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types] section of Chapter 17. - -### Fixing the `largest` Function with Trait Bounds - -Now that you know how to specify the behavior you want using the generic type -parameter’s bounds, let’s return to Listing 10-5 to fix the definition of the -`largest` function that uses a generic type parameter! Last time we tried to -run that code, we received this error: - -```console -{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-05/output.txt}} -``` - -In the body of `largest` we wanted to compare two values of type `T` using the -greater than (`>`) operator. Because that operator is defined as a default -method on the standard library trait `std::cmp::PartialOrd`, we need to specify -`PartialOrd` in the trait bounds for `T` so the `largest` function can work on -slices of any type that we can compare. We don’t need to bring `PartialOrd` -into scope because it’s in the prelude. Change the signature of `largest` to -look like this: - -```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -This time when we compile the code, we get a different set of errors: - -```console -{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-07-fixing-listing-10-05/output.txt}} -``` - -The key line in this error is `cannot move out of type [T], a non-copy slice`. -With our non-generic versions of the `largest` function, we were only trying to -find the largest `i32` or `char`. As discussed in the [“Stack-Only Data: -Copy”][stack-only-data-copy] section in Chapter 4, types like -`i32` and `char` that have a known size can be stored on the stack, so they -implement the `Copy` trait. But when we made the `largest` function generic, it -became possible for the `list` parameter to have types in it that don’t -implement the `Copy` trait. Consequently, we wouldn’t be able to move the value -out of `list[0]` and into the `largest` variable, resulting in this error. - -To call this code with only those types that implement the `Copy` trait, we can -add `Copy` to the trait bounds of `T`! Listing 10-15 shows the complete code of -a generic `largest` function that will compile as long as the types of the -values in the slice that we pass into the function implement the `PartialOrd` -*and* `Copy` traits, like `i32` and `char` do. - -Filename: src/main.rs - -```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/main.rs}} -``` - -Listing 10-15: A working definition of the `largest` -function that works on any generic type that implements the `PartialOrd` and -`Copy` traits - -If we don’t want to restrict the `largest` function to the types that implement -the `Copy` trait, we could specify that `T` has the trait bound `Clone` instead -of `Copy`. Then we could clone each value in the slice when we want the -`largest` function to have ownership. Using the `clone` function means we’re -potentially making more heap allocations in the case of types that own heap -data like `String`, and heap allocations can be slow if we’re working with -large amounts of data. - -We could also implement `largest` by having the function return a reference to -a `T` value in the slice. If we change the return type to `&T` instead of `T`, -thereby changing the body of the function to return a reference, we wouldn’t -need the `Clone` or `Copy` trait bounds and we could avoid heap allocations. -Try implementing these alternate solutions on your own! If you get stuck with -errors having to do with lifetimes, keep reading: the “Validating References -with Lifetimes” section coming up will explain, but lifetimes aren’t required -to solve these challenges. +ignore --> section of Chapter 18. ### Using Trait Bounds to Conditionally Implement Methods By using a trait bound with an `impl` block that uses generic type parameters, we can implement methods conditionally for types that implement the specified -traits. For example, the type `Pair` in Listing 10-16 always implements the +traits. For example, the type `Pair` in Listing 10-15 always implements the `new` function to return a new instance of `Pair` (recall from the [“Defining Methods”][methods] section of Chapter 5 that `Self` is a type alias for the type of the `impl` block, which in this case is `Pair`). But in the next `impl` block, `Pair` only implements the `cmp_display` method if its inner type `T` implements the `PartialOrd` trait -that enables comparison *and* the `Display` trait that enables printing. +that enables comparison _and_ the `Display` trait that enables printing. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-15/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-16: Conditionally implement methods on a -generic type depending on trait bounds + We can also conditionally implement a trait for any type that implements another trait. Implementations of a trait on any type that satisfies the trait -bounds are called *blanket implementations* and are extensively used in the +bounds are called _blanket implementations_ and are used extensively in the Rust standard library. For example, the standard library implements the `ToString` trait on any type that implements the `Display` trait. The `impl` block in the standard library looks similar to this code: @@ -449,13 +375,12 @@ reduce duplication but also specify to the compiler that we want the generic type to have particular behavior. The compiler can then use the trait bound information to check that all the concrete types used with our code provide the correct behavior. In dynamically typed languages, we would get an error at -runtime if we called a method on a type which didn’t define the method. But Rust -moves these errors to compile time so we’re forced to fix the problems before -our code is even able to run. Additionally, we don’t have to write code that -checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile time. -Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility of -generics. - -[stack-only-data-copy]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#stack-only-data-copy -[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +runtime if we called a method on a type which didn’t define the method. But +Rust moves these errors to compile time so we’re forced to fix the problems +before our code is even able to run. Additionally, we don’t have to write code +that checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile +time. Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility +of generics. + +[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [methods]: ch05-03-method-syntax.html#defining-methods diff --git a/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md b/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md index 1cdf61fbd6..0a356ec641 100644 --- a/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.md @@ -6,71 +6,73 @@ references are valid as long as we need them to be. One detail we didn’t discuss in the [“References and Borrowing”][references-and-borrowing] section in Chapter 4 is -that every reference in Rust has a *lifetime*, which is the scope for which +that every reference in Rust has a _lifetime_, which is the scope for which that reference is valid. Most of the time, lifetimes are implicit and inferred, -just like most of the time, types are inferred. We only must annotate types +just like most of the time, types are inferred. We must annotate types only when multiple types are possible. In a similar way, we must annotate lifetimes when the lifetimes of references could be related in a few different ways. Rust requires us to annotate the relationships using generic lifetime parameters to ensure the actual references used at runtime will definitely be valid. -Annotating lifetimes is not even a concept most other programming languages -have, so this is going to feel unfamiliar. Although we won’t cover lifetimes in -their entirety in this chapter, we’ll discuss common ways you might encounter +Annotating lifetimes is not a concept most other programming languages have, so +this is going to feel unfamiliar. Although we won’t cover lifetimes in their +entirety in this chapter, we’ll discuss common ways you might encounter lifetime syntax so you can get comfortable with the concept. ### Preventing Dangling References with Lifetimes -The main aim of lifetimes is to prevent *dangling references*, which cause a +The main aim of lifetimes is to prevent _dangling references_, which cause a program to reference data other than the data it’s intended to reference. -Consider the program in Listing 10-17, which has an outer scope and an inner +Consider the program in Listing 10-16, which has an outer scope and an inner scope. ++ ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-17: An attempt to use a reference whose value -has gone out of scope + -> Note: The examples in Listings 10-17, 10-18, and 10-24 declare variables -> without giving them an initial value, so the variable name exists in the -> outer scope. At first glance, this might appear to be in conflict with Rust’s -> having no null values. However, if we try to use a variable before giving it -> a value, we’ll get a compile-time error, which shows that Rust indeed does -> not allow null values. +> Note: The examples in Listing 10-16, 10-17, and 10-23 declare variables +> without giving them an initial value, so the variable name exists in the outer +> scope. At first glance, this might appear to be in conflict with Rust’s having +> no null values. However, if we try to use a variable before giving it a value, +> we’ll get a compile-time error, which shows that Rust indeed does not allow +> null values. The outer scope declares a variable named `r` with no initial value, and the -inner scope declares a variable named `x` with the initial value of 5. Inside +inner scope declares a variable named `x` with the initial value of `5`. Inside the inner scope, we attempt to set the value of `r` as a reference to `x`. Then the inner scope ends, and we attempt to print the value in `r`. This code won’t -compile because the value `r` is referring to has gone out of scope before we -try to use it. Here is the error message: +compile because the value that `r` is referring to has gone out of scope before +we try to use it. Here is the error message: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-16/output.txt}} ``` -The variable `x` doesn’t “live long enough.” The reason is that `x` will be out -of scope when the inner scope ends on line 7. But `r` is still valid for the -outer scope; because its scope is larger, we say that it “lives longer.” If -Rust allowed this code to work, `r` would be referencing memory that was -deallocated when `x` went out of scope, and anything we tried to do with `r` -wouldn’t work correctly. So how does Rust determine that this code is invalid? -It uses a borrow checker. +The error message says that the variable `x` “does not live long enough.” The +reason is that `x` will be out of scope when the inner scope ends on line 7. +But `r` is still valid for the outer scope; because its scope is larger, we say +that it “lives longer.” If Rust allowed this code to work, `r` would be +referencing memory that was deallocated when `x` went out of scope, and +anything we tried to do with `r` wouldn’t work correctly. So how does Rust +determine that this code is invalid? It uses a borrow checker. ### The Borrow Checker -The Rust compiler has a *borrow checker* that compares scopes to determine -whether all borrows are valid. Listing 10-18 shows the same code as Listing -10-17 but with annotations showing the lifetimes of the variables. +The Rust compiler has a _borrow checker_ that compares scopes to determine +whether all borrows are valid. Listing 10-17 shows the same code as Listing +10-16 but with annotations showing the lifetimes of the variables. + + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-18/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-17/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-18: Annotations of the lifetimes of `r` and -`x`, named `'a` and `'b`, respectively + Here, we’ve annotated the lifetime of `r` with `'a` and the lifetime of `x` with `'b`. As you can see, the inner `'b` block is much smaller than the outer @@ -79,21 +81,22 @@ lifetimes and sees that `r` has a lifetime of `'a` but that it refers to memory with a lifetime of `'b`. The program is rejected because `'b` is shorter than `'a`: the subject of the reference doesn’t live as long as the reference. -Listing 10-19 fixes the code so it doesn’t have a dangling reference and +Listing 10-18 fixes the code so it doesn’t have a dangling reference and it compiles without any errors. ++ ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-18/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-19: A valid reference because the data has a -longer lifetime than the reference + Here, `x` has the lifetime `'b`, which in this case is larger than `'a`. This means `r` can reference `x` because Rust knows that the reference in `r` will always be valid while `x` is valid. -Now that you know where the lifetimes of references are and how Rust analyzes +Now that you know what the lifetimes of references are and how Rust analyzes lifetimes to ensure references will always be valid, let’s explore generic lifetimes of parameters and return values in the context of functions. @@ -101,42 +104,39 @@ lifetimes of parameters and return values in the context of functions. We’ll write a function that returns the longer of two string slices. This function will take two string slices and return a single string slice. After -we’ve implemented the `longest` function, the code in Listing 10-20 should +we’ve implemented the `longest` function, the code in Listing 10-19 should print `The longest string is abcd`. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-19/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-20: A `main` function that calls the `longest` -function to find the longer of two string slices + Note that we want the function to take string slices, which are references, rather than strings, because we don’t want the `longest` function to take ownership of its parameters. Refer to the [“String Slices as Parameters”][string-slices-as-parameters] section in Chapter 4 -for more discussion about why the parameters we use in Listing 10-20 are the +for more discussion about why the parameters we use in Listing 10-19 are the ones we want. -If we try to implement the `longest` function as shown in Listing 10-21, it +If we try to implement the `longest` function as shown in Listing 10-20, it won’t compile. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-21: An implementation of the `longest` -function that returns the longer of two string slices but does not yet -compile + Instead, we get the following error that talks about lifetimes: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-20/output.txt}} ``` The help text reveals that the return type needs a generic lifetime parameter @@ -149,7 +149,7 @@ When we’re defining this function, we don’t know the concrete values that wi be passed into this function, so we don’t know whether the `if` case or the `else` case will execute. We also don’t know the concrete lifetimes of the references that will be passed in, so we can’t look at the scopes as we did in -Listings 10-18 and 10-19 to determine whether the reference we return will +Listings 10-17 and 10-18 to determine whether the reference we return will always be valid. The borrow checker can’t determine this either, because it doesn’t know how the lifetimes of `x` and `y` relate to the lifetime of the return value. To fix this error, we’ll add generic lifetime parameters that @@ -180,47 +180,42 @@ reference to an `i32` that also has the lifetime `'a`. &'a mut i32 // a mutable reference with an explicit lifetime ``` -One lifetime annotation by itself doesn’t have much meaning, because the +One lifetime annotation by itself doesn’t have much meaning because the annotations are meant to tell Rust how generic lifetime parameters of multiple -references relate to each other. For example, let’s say we have a function with -the parameter `first` that is a reference to an `i32` with lifetime `'a`. The -function also has another parameter named `second` that is another reference to -an `i32` that also has the lifetime `'a`. The lifetime annotations indicate -that the references `first` and `second` must both live as long as that generic -lifetime. +references relate to each other. Let’s examine how the lifetime annotations +relate to each other in the context of the `longest` function. ### Lifetime Annotations in Function Signatures -Now let’s examine lifetime annotations in the context of the `longest` -function. As with generic type parameters, we need to declare generic lifetime -parameters inside angle brackets between the function name and the parameter -list. We want the signature to express the following constraint: the returned +To use lifetime annotations in function signatures, we need to declare the +generic _lifetime_ parameters inside angle brackets between the function name +and the parameter list, just as we did with generic _type_ parameters. + +We want the signature to express the following constraint: the returned reference will be valid as long as both the parameters are valid. This is the relationship between lifetimes of the parameters and the return value. We’ll name the lifetime `'a` and then add it to each reference, as shown in Listing -10-22. +10-21. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-22/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-21/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-22: The `longest` function definition -specifying that all the references in the signature must have the same lifetime -`'a` + This code should compile and produce the result we want when we use it with the -`main` function in Listing 10-20. +`main` function in Listing 10-19. The function signature now tells Rust that for some lifetime `'a`, the function takes two parameters, both of which are string slices that live at least as long as lifetime `'a`. The function signature also tells Rust that the string slice returned from the function will live at least as long as lifetime `'a`. In practice, it means that the lifetime of the reference returned by the -`longest` function is the same as the smaller of the lifetimes of the -references passed in. These relationships are what we want Rust to use when -analyzing this code. +`longest` function is the same as the smaller of the lifetimes of the values +referred to by the function arguments. These relationships are what we want +Rust to use when analyzing this code. Remember, when we specify the lifetime parameters in this function signature, we’re not changing the lifetimes of any values passed in or returned. Rather, @@ -249,21 +244,20 @@ the returned reference will also be valid for the length of the smaller of the lifetimes of `x` and `y`. Let’s look at how the lifetime annotations restrict the `longest` function by -passing in references that have different concrete lifetimes. Listing 10-23 is +passing in references that have different concrete lifetimes. Listing 10-22 is a straightforward example. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-22/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-23: Using the `longest` function with -references to `String` values that have different concrete lifetimes + In this example, `string1` is valid until the end of the outer scope, `string2` is valid until the end of the inner scope, and `result` references something -that is valid until the end of the inner scope. Run this code, and you’ll see +that is valid until the end of the inner scope. Run this code and you’ll see that the borrow checker approves; it will compile and print `The longest string is long string is long`. @@ -272,22 +266,21 @@ Next, let’s try an example that shows that the lifetime of the reference in declaration of the `result` variable outside the inner scope but leave the assignment of the value to the `result` variable inside the scope with `string2`. Then we’ll move the `println!` that uses `result` to outside the -inner scope, after the inner scope has ended. The code in Listing 10-24 will +inner scope, after the inner scope has ended. The code in Listing 10-23 will not compile. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-24: Attempting to use `result` after `string2` -has gone out of scope + When we try to compile this code, we get this error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-23/output.txt}} ``` The error shows that for `result` to be valid for the `println!` statement, @@ -296,13 +289,13 @@ this because we annotated the lifetimes of the function parameters and return values using the same lifetime parameter `'a`. As humans, we can look at this code and see that `string1` is longer than -`string2` and therefore `result` will contain a reference to `string1`. +`string2`, and therefore, `result` will contain a reference to `string1`. Because `string1` has not gone out of scope yet, a reference to `string1` will still be valid for the `println!` statement. However, the compiler can’t see that the reference is valid in this case. We’ve told Rust that the lifetime of the reference returned by the `longest` function is the same as the smaller of the lifetimes of the references passed in. Therefore, the borrow checker -disallows the code in Listing 10-24 as possibly having an invalid reference. +disallows the code in Listing 10-23 as possibly having an invalid reference. Try designing more experiments that vary the values and lifetimes of the references passed in to the `longest` function and how the returned reference @@ -317,30 +310,34 @@ function is doing. For example, if we changed the implementation of the string slice, we wouldn’t need to specify a lifetime on the `y` parameter. The following code will compile: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-08-only-one-reference-with-lifetime/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + We’ve specified a lifetime parameter `'a` for the parameter `x` and the return type, but not for the parameter `y`, because the lifetime of `y` does not have any relationship with the lifetime of `x` or the return value. When returning a reference from a function, the lifetime parameter for the return type needs to match the lifetime parameter for one of the parameters. If -the reference returned does *not* refer to one of the parameters, it must refer +the reference returned does _not_ refer to one of the parameters, it must refer to a value created within this function. However, this would be a dangling reference because the value will go out of scope at the end of the function. Consider this attempted implementation of the `longest` function that won’t compile: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-09-unrelated-lifetime/src/main.rs:here}} ``` + + Here, even though we’ve specified a lifetime parameter `'a` for the return type, this implementation will fail to compile because the return value lifetime is not related to the lifetime of the parameters at all. Here is the @@ -365,21 +362,20 @@ would create dangling pointers or otherwise violate memory safety. ### Lifetime Annotations in Struct Definitions -So far, the structs we've defined all hold owned types. We can define structs +So far, the structs we’ve defined all hold owned types. We can define structs to hold references, but in that case we would need to add a lifetime annotation -on every reference in the struct’s definition. Listing 10-25 has a struct named +on every reference in the struct’s definition. Listing 10-24 has a struct named `ImportantExcerpt` that holds a string slice. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-24/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 10-25: A struct that holds a reference, so its -definition needs a lifetime annotation + -This struct has one field, `part`, that holds a string slice, which is a +This struct has the single field `part` that holds a string slice, which is a reference. As with generic data types, we declare the name of the generic lifetime parameter inside angle brackets after the name of the struct so we can use the lifetime parameter in the body of the struct definition. This @@ -396,19 +392,17 @@ the `ImportantExcerpt` goes out of scope, so the reference in the ### Lifetime Elision You’ve learned that every reference has a lifetime and that you need to specify -lifetime parameters for functions or structs that use references. However, in -Chapter 4 we had a function in Listing 4-9, shown again in Listing 10-26, that -compiled without lifetime annotations. +lifetime parameters for functions or structs that use references. However, we +had a function in Listing 4-9, shown again in Listing 10-25, that compiled +without lifetime annotations. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-26/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/listing-10-25/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 10-26: A function we defined in Listing 4-9 that -compiled without lifetime annotations, even though the parameter and return -type are references + The reason this function compiles without lifetime annotations is historical: in early versions (pre-1.0) of Rust, this code wouldn’t have compiled because @@ -431,18 +425,18 @@ deterministic patterns will emerge and be added to the compiler. In the future, even fewer lifetime annotations might be required. The patterns programmed into Rust’s analysis of references are called the -*lifetime elision rules*. These aren’t rules for programmers to follow; they’re +_lifetime elision rules_. These aren’t rules for programmers to follow; they’re a set of particular cases that the compiler will consider, and if your code fits these cases, you don’t need to write the lifetimes explicitly. -The elision rules don’t provide full inference. If Rust deterministically -applies the rules but there is still ambiguity as to what lifetimes the -references have, the compiler won’t guess what the lifetime of the remaining -references should be. Instead of guessing, the compiler will give you an error -that you can resolve by adding the lifetime annotations. +The elision rules don’t provide full inference. If there is still ambiguity as +to what lifetimes the references have after Rust applies the rules, the +compiler won’t guess what the lifetime of the remaining references should be. +Instead of guessing, the compiler will give you an error that you can resolve +by adding the lifetime annotations. -Lifetimes on function or method parameters are called *input lifetimes*, and -lifetimes on return values are called *output lifetimes*. +Lifetimes on function or method parameters are called _input lifetimes_, and +lifetimes on return values are called _output lifetimes_. The compiler uses three rules to figure out the lifetimes of the references when there aren’t explicit annotations. The first rule applies to input @@ -468,7 +462,7 @@ methods much nicer to read and write because fewer symbols are necessary. Let’s pretend we’re the compiler. We’ll apply these rules to figure out the lifetimes of the references in the signature of the `first_word` function in -Listing 10-26. The signature starts without any lifetimes associated with the +Listing 10-25. The signature starts without any lifetimes associated with the references: ```rust,ignore @@ -496,7 +490,7 @@ compiler can continue its analysis without needing the programmer to annotate the lifetimes in this function signature. Let’s look at another example, this time using the `longest` function that had -no lifetime parameters when we started working with it in Listing 10-21: +no lifetime parameters when we started working with it in Listing 10-20: ```rust,ignore fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str { @@ -514,7 +508,7 @@ input lifetime. The third rule doesn’t apply either, because `longest` is a function rather than a method, so none of the parameters are `self`. After working through all three rules, we still haven’t figured out what the return type’s lifetime is. This is why we got an error trying to compile the code in -Listing 10-21: the compiler worked through the lifetime elision rules but still +Listing 10-20: the compiler worked through the lifetime elision rules but still couldn’t figure out all the lifetimes of the references in the signature. Because the third rule really only applies in method signatures, we’ll look at @@ -529,16 +523,16 @@ use the lifetime parameters depends on whether they’re related to the struct fields or the method parameters and return values. Lifetime names for struct fields always need to be declared after the `impl` -keyword and then used after the struct’s name, because those lifetimes are part +keyword and then used after the struct’s name because those lifetimes are part of the struct’s type. In method signatures inside the `impl` block, references might be tied to the lifetime of references in the struct’s fields, or they might be independent. In addition, the lifetime elision rules often make it so that lifetime annotations aren’t necessary in method signatures. Let’s look at some examples using the -struct named `ImportantExcerpt` that we defined in Listing 10-25. +struct named `ImportantExcerpt` that we defined in Listing 10-24. -First, we’ll use a method named `level` whose only parameter is a reference to +First we’ll use a method named `level` whose only parameter is a reference to `self` and whose return value is an `i32`, which is not a reference to anything: ```rust @@ -563,16 +557,15 @@ and all lifetimes have been accounted for. ### The Static Lifetime One special lifetime we need to discuss is `'static`, which denotes that the -affected reference *can* live for the entire duration of the program. All +affected reference _can_ live for the entire duration of the program. All string literals have the `'static` lifetime, which we can annotate as follows: ```rust let s: &'static str = "I have a static lifetime."; ``` -The text of this string is stored directly in the program’s binary, which -is always available. Therefore, the lifetime of all string literals is -`'static`. +The text of this string is stored directly in the program’s binary, which is +always available. Therefore, the lifetime of all string literals is `'static`. You might see suggestions to use the `'static` lifetime in error messages. But before specifying `'static` as the lifetime for a reference, think about @@ -580,7 +573,7 @@ whether the reference you have actually lives the entire lifetime of your program or not, and whether you want it to. Most of the time, an error message suggesting the `'static` lifetime results from attempting to create a dangling reference or a mismatch of the available lifetimes. In such cases, the solution -is fixing those problems, not specifying the `'static` lifetime. +is to fix those problems, not to specify the `'static` lifetime. ## Generic Type Parameters, Trait Bounds, and Lifetimes Together @@ -591,7 +584,7 @@ bounds, and lifetimes all in one function! {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch10-generic-types-traits-and-lifetimes/no-listing-11-generics-traits-and-lifetimes/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -This is the `longest` function from Listing 10-22 that returns the longer of +This is the `longest` function from Listing 10-21 that returns the longer of two string slices. But now it has an extra parameter named `ann` of the generic type `T`, which can be filled in by any type that implements the `Display` trait as specified by the `where` clause. This extra parameter will be printed @@ -612,14 +605,12 @@ that this flexible code won’t have any dangling references. And all of this analysis happens at compile time, which doesn’t affect runtime performance! Believe it or not, there is much more to learn on the topics we discussed in -this chapter: Chapter 17 discusses trait objects, which are another way to use +this chapter: Chapter 18 discusses trait objects, which are another way to use traits. There are also more complex scenarios involving lifetime annotations that you will only need in very advanced scenarios; for those, you should read the [Rust Reference][reference]. But next, you’ll learn how to write tests in Rust so you can make sure your code is working the way it should. -[references-and-borrowing]: -ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html#references-and-borrowing -[string-slices-as-parameters]: -ch04-03-slices.html#string-slices-as-parameters +[references-and-borrowing]: ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html#references-and-borrowing +[string-slices-as-parameters]: ch04-03-slices.html#string-slices-as-parameters [reference]: ../reference/index.html diff --git a/src/ch11-00-testing.md b/src/ch11-00-testing.md index 7f11ec1494..f6e799d581 100644 --- a/src/ch11-00-testing.md +++ b/src/ch11-00-testing.md @@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ it. This function’s signature accepts an integer as a parameter and returns an integer as a result. When we implement and compile that function, Rust does all the type checking and borrow checking that you’ve learned so far to ensure that, for instance, we aren’t passing a `String` value or an invalid reference -to this function. But Rust *can’t* check that this function will do precisely +to this function. But Rust _can’t_ check that this function will do precisely what we intend, which is return the parameter plus 2 rather than, say, the parameter plus 10 or the parameter minus 50! That’s where tests come in. @@ -25,8 +25,9 @@ We can write tests that assert, for example, that when we pass `3` to the we make changes to our code to make sure any existing correct behavior has not changed. -Testing is a complex skill: although we can’t cover every detail about how to -write good tests in one chapter, we’ll discuss the mechanics of Rust’s testing -facilities. We’ll talk about the annotations and macros available to you when -writing your tests, the default behavior and options provided for running your -tests, and how to organize tests into unit tests and integration tests. +Testing is a complex skill: although we can’t cover in one chapter every detail +about how to write good tests, in this chapter we will discuss the mechanics of +Rust’s testing facilities. We’ll talk about the annotations and macros +available to you when writing your tests, the default behavior and options +provided for running your tests, and how to organize tests into unit tests and +integration tests. diff --git a/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md b/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md index 815a5a2541..b04f0c2fee 100644 --- a/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md +++ b/src/ch11-01-writing-tests.md @@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ Tests are Rust functions that verify that the non-test code is functioning in the expected manner. The bodies of test functions typically perform these three actions: -1. Set up any needed data or state. -2. Run the code you want to test. -3. Assert the results are what you expect. +- Set up any needed data or state. +- Run the code you want to test. +- Assert that the results are what you expect. Let’s look at the features Rust provides specifically for writing tests that take these actions, which include the `test` attribute, a few macros, and the @@ -19,8 +19,8 @@ attribute. Attributes are metadata about pieces of Rust code; one example is the `derive` attribute we used with structs in Chapter 5. To change a function into a test function, add `#[test]` on the line before `fn`. When you run your tests with the `cargo test` command, Rust builds a test runner binary that runs -the annotated functions and reports on whether each -test function passes or fails. +the annotated functions and reports on whether each test function passes or +fails. Whenever we make a new library project with Cargo, a test module with a test function in it is automatically generated for us. This module gives you a @@ -40,18 +40,19 @@ $ cargo new adder --lib $ cd adder ``` -The contents of the *src/lib.rs* file in your `adder` library should look like +The contents of the _src/lib.rs_ file in your `adder` library should look like Listing 11-1. -Filename: src/lib.rs + @@ -59,49 +60,54 @@ cd ../../.. {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-1: The test module and function generated -automatically by `cargo new` + -For now, let’s ignore the top two lines and focus on the function. Note the -`#[test]` annotation: this attribute indicates this is a test function, so the -test runner knows to treat this function as a test. We might also have non-test +The file starts with an example `add` function, so that we have something +to test. + +For now, let’s focus solely on the `it_works` function. Note the `#[test]` +annotation: this attribute indicates this is a test function, so the test +runner knows to treat this function as a test. We might also have non-test functions in the `tests` module to help set up common scenarios or perform common operations, so we always need to indicate which functions are tests. The example function body uses the `assert_eq!` macro to assert that `result`, -which contains the result of adding 2 and 2, equals 4. This assertion serves as -an example of the format for a typical test. Let’s run it to see that this test -passes. +which contains the result of calling `add` with 2 and 2, equals 4. This +assertion serves as an example of the format for a typical test. Let’s run it +to see that this test passes. The `cargo test` command runs all tests in our project, as shown in Listing 11-2. ++ ```console {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/output.txt}} ``` -Listing 11-2: The output from running the automatically -generated test + Cargo compiled and ran the test. We see the line `running 1 test`. The next -line shows the name of the generated test function, called `it_works`, and that -the result of running that test is `ok`. The overall summary `test result: ok.` -means that all the tests passed, and the portion that reads `1 passed; 0 -failed` totals the number of tests that passed or failed. +line shows the name of the generated test function, called `tests::it_works`, +and that the result of running that test is `ok`. The overall summary `test +result: ok.` means that all the tests passed, and the portion that reads `1 +passed; 0 failed` totals the number of tests that passed or failed. -It's possible to mark a test as ignored so it doesn't run in a particular -instance; we'll cover that in the [“Ignoring Some Tests Unless Specifically +It’s possible to mark a test as ignored so it doesn’t run in a particular +instance; we’ll cover that in the [“Ignoring Some Tests Unless Specifically Requested”][ignoring] section later in this chapter. Because we -haven't done that here, the summary shows `0 ignored`. We can also pass an -argument to the `cargo test` command to run only tests whose name matches a -string; this is called filtering and we'll cover that in the [“Running a Subset -of Tests by Name”][subset] section. We also haven’t filtered the -tests being run, so the end of the summary shows `0 filtered out`. +haven’t done that here, the summary shows `0 ignored`. The `0 measured` statistic is for benchmark tests that measure performance. Benchmark tests are, as of this writing, only available in nightly Rust. See [the documentation about benchmark tests][bench] to learn more. +We can pass an argument to the `cargo test` command to run only tests whose +name matches a string; this is called _filtering_ and we’ll cover that in the +[“Running a Subset of Tests by Name”][subset] section. Here we +haven’t filtered the tests being run, so the end of the summary shows `0 +filtered out`. + The next part of the test output starting at `Doc-tests adder` is for the results of any documentation tests. We don’t have any documentation tests yet, but Rust can compile any code examples that appear in our API documentation. @@ -110,7 +116,7 @@ write documentation tests in the [“Documentation Comments as Tests”][doc-comments] section of Chapter 14. For now, we’ll ignore the `Doc-tests` output. -Let’s start to customize the test to our own needs. First change the name of +Let’s start to customize the test to our own needs. First, change the name of the `it_works` function to a different name, such as `exploration`, like so: Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -126,37 +132,42 @@ Then run `cargo test` again. The output now shows `exploration` instead of {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-01-changing-test-name/output.txt}} ``` -Now we'll add another test, but this time we’ll make a test that fails! Tests +Now we’ll add another test, but this time we’ll make a test that fails! Tests fail when something in the test function panics. Each test is run in a new thread, and when the main thread sees that a test thread has died, the test is marked as failed. In Chapter 9, we talked about how the simplest way to panic is to call the `panic!` macro. Enter the new test as a function named -`another`, so your *src/lib.rs* file looks like Listing 11-3. +`another`, so your _src/lib.rs_ file looks like Listing 11-3. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,panics,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-3: Adding a second test that will fail because -we call the `panic!` macro + Run the tests again using `cargo test`. The output should look like Listing 11-4, which shows that our `exploration` test passed and `another` failed. ++ ```console {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-03/output.txt}} ``` -Listing 11-4: Test results when one test passes and one -test fails + + + Instead of `ok`, the line `test tests::another` shows `FAILED`. Two new sections appear between the individual results and the summary: the first displays the detailed reason for each test failure. In this case, we get the details that `another` failed because it `panicked at 'Make this test fail'` on -line 10 in the *src/lib.rs* file. The next section lists just the names of all +line 17 in the _src/lib.rs_ file. The next section lists just the names of all the failing tests, which is useful when there are lots of tests and lots of detailed failing test output. We can use the name of a failing test to run just that test to more easily debug it; we’ll talk more about ways to run tests in @@ -180,16 +191,15 @@ macro helps us check that our code is functioning in the way we intend. In Chapter 5, Listing 5-15, we used a `Rectangle` struct and a `can_hold` method, which are repeated here in Listing 11-5. Let’s put this code in the -*src/lib.rs* file, then write some tests for it using the `assert!` macro. +_src/lib.rs_ file, then write some tests for it using the `assert!` macro. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-05/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-5: Using the `Rectangle` struct and its -`can_hold` method from Chapter 5 + The `can_hold` method returns a Boolean, which means it’s a perfect use case for the `assert!` macro. In Listing 11-6, we write a test that exercises the @@ -197,22 +207,21 @@ for the `assert!` macro. In Listing 11-6, we write a test that exercises the a height of 7 and asserting that it can hold another `Rectangle` instance that has a width of 5 and a height of 1. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-06/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 11-6: A test for `can_hold` that checks whether a -larger rectangle can indeed hold a smaller rectangle + -Note that we’ve added a new line inside the `tests` module: `use super::*;`. -The `tests` module is a regular module that follows the usual visibility rules -we covered in Chapter 7 in the [“Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module +Note the `use super::*;` line inside the `tests` module. The `tests` module is +a regular module that follows the usual visibility rules we covered in Chapter +7 in the [“Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree”][paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree] section. Because the `tests` module is an inner module, we need to bring the code under test in the outer module into the scope of the inner module. We use -a glob here so anything we define in the outer module is available to this +a glob here, so anything we define in the outer module is available to this `tests` module. We’ve named our test `larger_can_hold_smaller`, and we’ve created the two @@ -256,34 +265,33 @@ Running the tests now produces the following: {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-03-introducing-a-bug/output.txt}} ``` -Our tests caught the bug! Because `larger.width` is 8 and `smaller.width` is -5, the comparison of the widths in `can_hold` now returns `false`: 8 is not +Our tests caught the bug! Because `larger.width` is `8` and `smaller.width` is +`5`, the comparison of the widths in `can_hold` now returns `false`: 8 is not less than 5. ### Testing Equality with the `assert_eq!` and `assert_ne!` Macros A common way to verify functionality is to test for equality between the result of the code under test and the value you expect the code to return. You could -do this using the `assert!` macro and passing it an expression using the `==` -operator. However, this is such a common test that the standard library +do this by using the `assert!` macro and passing it an expression using the +`==` operator. However, this is such a common test that the standard library provides a pair of macros—`assert_eq!` and `assert_ne!`—to perform this test more conveniently. These macros compare two arguments for equality or inequality, respectively. They’ll also print the two values if the assertion -fails, which makes it easier to see *why* the test failed; conversely, the +fails, which makes it easier to see _why_ the test failed; conversely, the `assert!` macro only indicates that it got a `false` value for the `==` expression, without printing the values that led to the `false` value. In Listing 11-7, we write a function named `add_two` that adds `2` to its parameter, then we test this function using the `assert_eq!` macro. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-7: Testing the function `add_two` using the -`assert_eq!` macro + Let’s check that it passes! @@ -291,9 +299,10 @@ Let’s check that it passes! {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-07/output.txt}} ``` -We pass `4` as the argument to `assert_eq!`, which is equal to the result of -calling `add_two(2)`. The line for this test is `test tests::it_adds_two ... -ok`, and the `ok` text indicates that our test passed! +We create a variable named `result` that holds the result of calling +`add_two(2)`. Then we pass `result` and `4` as the arguments to `assert_eq!`. +The output line for this test is `test tests::it_adds_two ... ok`, and the `ok` +text indicates that our test passed! Let’s introduce a bug into our code to see what `assert_eq!` looks like when it fails. Change the implementation of the `add_two` function to instead add `3`: @@ -309,23 +318,23 @@ Run the tests again: ``` Our test caught the bug! The `it_adds_two` test failed, and the message tells -us that the assertion that fails was `` assertion failed: `(left == right)` `` -and what the `left` and `right` values are. This message helps us start -debugging: the `left` argument was `4` but the `right` argument, where we had -`add_two(2)`, was `5`. You can imagine that this would be especially helpful -when we have a lot of tests going on. +us ``assertion `left == right` failed`` and what the `left` and `right` values +are. This message helps us start debugging: the `left` argument, where we had +the result of calling `add_two(2)`, was `5` but the `right` argument was `4`. +You can imagine that this would be especially helpful when we have a lot of +tests going on. Note that in some languages and test frameworks, the parameters to equality assertion functions are called `expected` and `actual`, and the order in which we specify the arguments matters. However, in Rust, they’re called `left` and `right`, and the order in which we specify the value we expect and the value the code produces doesn’t matter. We could write the assertion in this test as -`assert_eq!(add_two(2), 4)`, which would result in the same failure message +`assert_eq!(4, result)`, which would produce the same failure message that displays `` assertion failed: `(left == right)` ``. The `assert_ne!` macro will pass if the two values we give it are not equal and fail if they’re equal. This macro is most useful for cases when we’re not sure -what a value *will* be, but we know what the value definitely *shouldn’t* be. +what a value _will_ be, but we know what the value definitely _shouldn’t_ be. For example, if we’re testing a function that is guaranteed to change its input in some way, but the way in which the input is changed depends on the day of the week that we run our tests, the best thing to assert might be that the @@ -421,14 +430,13 @@ inside the function doesn’t panic. Listing 11-8 shows a test that checks that the error conditions of `Guess::new` happen when we expect them to. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-08/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-8: Testing that a condition will cause a -`panic!` + We place the `#[should_panic]` attribute after the `#[test]` attribute and before the test function it applies to. Let’s look at the result when this test @@ -464,20 +472,19 @@ consider the modified code for `Guess` in Listing 11-9 where the `new` function panics with different messages depending on whether the value is too small or too large. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-09/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 11-9: Testing for a `panic!` with a particular -panic message + This test will pass because the value we put in the `should_panic` attribute’s `expected` parameter is a substring of the message that the `Guess::new` function panics with. We could have specified the entire panic message that we expect, which in this case would be `Guess value must be less than or equal to -100, got 200.` What you choose to specify depends on how much of the panic +100, got 200`. What you choose to specify depends on how much of the panic message is unique or dynamic and how precise you want your test to be. In this case, a substring of the panic message is enough to ensure that the code in the test function executes the `else if value > 100` case. @@ -497,10 +504,10 @@ This time when we run the `should_panic` test, it will fail: ``` The failure message indicates that this test did indeed panic as we expected, -but the panic message did not include the expected string `'Guess value must be -less than or equal to 100'`. The panic message that we did get in this case was -`Guess value must be greater than or equal to 1, got 200.` Now we can start -figuring out where our bug is! +but the panic message did not include the expected string `less than or equal +to 100`. The panic message that we did get in this case was `Guess value must +be greater than or equal to 1, got 200.` Now we can start figuring out where +our bug is! ### Using `Result` in Tests @@ -509,7 +516,7 @@ Our tests so far all panic when they fail. We can also write tests that use E>` and return an `Err` instead of panicking: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-10-result-in-tests/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` The `it_works` function now has the `Result<(), String>` return type. In the @@ -522,7 +529,7 @@ mark operator in the body of tests, which can be a convenient way to write tests that should fail if any operation within them returns an `Err` variant. You can’t use the `#[should_panic]` annotation on tests that use `Result`. To assert that an operation returns an `Err` variant, *don’t* use the +E>`. To assert that an operation returns an `Err` variant, _don’t_ use the question mark operator on the `Result` value. Instead, use `assert!(value.is_err())`. @@ -530,13 +537,11 @@ Now that you know several ways to write tests, let’s look at what is happening when we run our tests and explore the different options we can use with `cargo test`. -[concatenation-with-the--operator-or-the-format-macro]: -ch08-02-strings.html#concatenation-with-the--operator-or-the-format-macro +[concatenation-with-the--operator-or-the-format-macro]: ch08-02-strings.html#concatenation-with-the--operator-or-the-format-macro [bench]: ../unstable-book/library-features/test.html [ignoring]: ch11-02-running-tests.html#ignoring-some-tests-unless-specifically-requested [subset]: ch11-02-running-tests.html#running-a-subset-of-tests-by-name -[controlling-how-tests-are-run]: -ch11-02-running-tests.html#controlling-how-tests-are-run +[controlling-how-tests-are-run]: ch11-02-running-tests.html#controlling-how-tests-are-run [derivable-traits]: appendix-03-derivable-traits.html [doc-comments]: ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html#documentation-comments-as-tests [paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree]: ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html diff --git a/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md b/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md index ed79d34eb8..dc4afc2af6 100644 --- a/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md +++ b/src/ch11-02-running-tests.md @@ -1,19 +1,23 @@ ## Controlling How Tests Are Run -Just as `cargo run` compiles your code and then runs the resulting binary, -`cargo test` compiles your code in test mode and runs the resulting test +Just as `cargo run` compiles your code and then runs the resultant binary, +`cargo test` compiles your code in test mode and runs the resultant test binary. The default behavior of the binary produced by `cargo test` is to run all the tests in parallel and capture output generated during test runs, preventing the output from being displayed and making it easier to read the output related to the test results. You can, however, specify command line options to change this default behavior. -Some command line options go to `cargo test`, and some go to the resulting test +Some command line options go to `cargo test`, and some go to the resultant test binary. To separate these two types of arguments, you list the arguments that go to `cargo test` followed by the separator `--` and then the ones that go to the test binary. Running `cargo test --help` displays the options you can use with `cargo test`, and running `cargo test -- --help` displays the options you -can use after the separator. +can use after the separator. Those options are also documented in [the “Tests” +section][tests] of the [the rustc book][rustc]. + +[tests]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/rustc/tests/index.html +[rustc]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/rustc/index.html ### Running Tests in Parallel or Consecutively @@ -24,7 +28,7 @@ on each other or on any shared state, including a shared environment, such as the current working directory or environment variables. For example, say each of your tests runs some code that creates a file on disk -named *test-output.txt* and writes some data to that file. Then each test reads +named _test-output.txt_ and writes some data to that file. Then each test reads the data in that file and asserts that the file contains a particular value, which is different in each test. Because the tests run at the same time, one test might overwrite the file in the time between another test writing and @@ -58,14 +62,13 @@ printed to standard output with the rest of the failure message. As an example, Listing 11-10 has a silly function that prints the value of its parameter and returns 10, as well as a test that passes and a test that fails. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,panics,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-10: Tests for a function that calls -`println!` + When we run these tests with `cargo test`, we’ll see the following output: @@ -73,13 +76,13 @@ When we run these tests with `cargo test`, we’ll see the following output: {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-10/output.txt}} ``` -Note that nowhere in this output do we see `I got the value 4`, which is what -is printed when the test that passes runs. That output has been captured. The +Note that nowhere in this output do we see `I got the value 4`, which is +printed when the test that passes runs. That output has been captured. The output from the test that failed, `I got the value 8`, appears in the section of the test summary output, which also shows the cause of the test failure. -If we want to see printed values for passing tests as well, we can tell Rust -to also show the output of successful tests at the end with `--show-output`. +If we want to see printed values for passing tests as well, we can tell Rust to +also show the output of successful tests with `--show-output`: ```console $ cargo test -- --show-output @@ -102,14 +105,13 @@ or names of the test(s) you want to run as an argument. To demonstrate how to run a subset of tests, we’ll first create three tests for our `add_two` function, as shown in Listing 11-11, and choose which ones to run. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-11/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-11: Three tests with three different -names + If we run the tests without passing any arguments, as we saw earlier, all the tests will run in parallel: @@ -127,7 +129,7 @@ We can pass the name of any test function to `cargo test` to run only that test: ``` Only the test with the name `one_hundred` ran; the other two tests didn’t match -that name. The test output lets us know we had more tests that didn't run by +that name. The test output lets us know we had more tests that didn’t run by displaying `2 filtered out` at the end. We can’t specify the names of multiple tests in this way; only the first value @@ -159,11 +161,11 @@ here: Filename: src/lib.rs ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -After `#[test]` we add the `#[ignore]` line to the test we want to exclude. Now -when we run our tests, `it_works` runs, but `expensive_test` doesn’t: +After `#[test]`, we add the `#[ignore]` line to the test we want to exclude. +Now when we run our tests, `it_works` runs, but `expensive_test` doesn’t: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/no-listing-11-ignore-a-test/output.txt}} @@ -177,7 +179,7 @@ the ignored tests, we can use `cargo test -- --ignored`: ``` By controlling which tests run, you can make sure your `cargo test` results -will be fast. When you’re at a point where it makes sense to check the results -of the `ignored` tests and you have time to wait for the results, you can run -`cargo test -- --ignored` instead. If you want to run all tests whether they’re -ignored or not, you can run `cargo test -- --include-ignored`. +will be returned quickly. When you’re at a point where it makes sense to check +the results of the `ignored` tests and you have time to wait for the results, +you can run `cargo test -- --ignored` instead. If you want to run all tests +whether they’re ignored or not, you can run `cargo test -- --include-ignored`. diff --git a/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md b/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md index b167c348b6..d0c6ef3003 100644 --- a/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md +++ b/src/ch11-03-test-organization.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ As mentioned at the start of the chapter, testing is a complex discipline, and different people use different terminology and organization. The Rust community thinks about tests in terms of two main categories: unit tests and integration -tests. *Unit tests* are small and more focused, testing one module in isolation -at a time, and can test private interfaces. *Integration tests* are entirely +tests. _Unit tests_ are small and more focused, testing one module in isolation +at a time, and can test private interfaces. _Integration tests_ are entirely external to your library and use your code in the same way any other external code would, using only the public interface and potentially exercising multiple modules per test. @@ -16,21 +16,21 @@ library are doing what you expect them to, separately and together. The purpose of unit tests is to test each unit of code in isolation from the rest of the code to quickly pinpoint where code is and isn’t working as -expected. You’ll put unit tests in the *src* directory in each file with the +expected. You’ll put unit tests in the _src_ directory in each file with the code that they’re testing. The convention is to create a module named `tests` in each file to contain the test functions and to annotate the module with `cfg(test)`. #### The Tests Module and `#[cfg(test)]` -The `#[cfg(test)]` annotation on the tests module tells Rust to compile and run -the test code only when you run `cargo test`, not when you run `cargo build`. -This saves compile time when you only want to build the library and saves space -in the resulting compiled artifact because the tests are not included. You’ll -see that because integration tests go in a different directory, they don’t need -the `#[cfg(test)]` annotation. However, because unit tests go in the same files -as the code, you’ll use `#[cfg(test)]` to specify that they shouldn’t be -included in the compiled result. +The `#[cfg(test)]` annotation on the `tests` module tells Rust to compile and +run the test code only when you run `cargo test`, not when you run `cargo +build`. This saves compile time when you only want to build the library and +saves space in the resultant compiled artifact because the tests are not +included. You’ll see that because integration tests go in a different +directory, they don’t need the `#[cfg(test)]` annotation. However, because unit +tests go in the same files as the code, you’ll use `#[cfg(test)]` to specify +that they shouldn’t be included in the compiled result. Recall that when we generated the new `adder` project in the first section of this chapter, Cargo generated this code for us: @@ -41,14 +41,13 @@ this chapter, Cargo generated this code for us: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-01/src/lib.rs}} ``` -This code is the automatically generated test module. The attribute `cfg` -stands for *configuration* and tells Rust that the following item should only -be included given a certain configuration option. In this case, the -configuration option is `test`, which is provided by Rust for compiling and -running tests. By using the `cfg` attribute, Cargo compiles our test code only -if we actively run the tests with `cargo test`. This includes any helper -functions that might be within this module, in addition to the functions -annotated with `#[test]`. +On the automatically generated `tests` module, the attribute `cfg` stands for +_configuration_ and tells Rust that the following item should only be included +given a certain configuration option. In this case, the configuration option is +`test`, which is provided by Rust for compiling and running tests. By using the +`cfg` attribute, Cargo compiles our test code only if we actively run the tests +with `cargo test`. This includes any helper functions that might be within this +module, in addition to the functions annotated with `#[test]`. #### Testing Private Functions @@ -58,19 +57,19 @@ impossible to test private functions. Regardless of which testing ideology you adhere to, Rust’s privacy rules do allow you to test private functions. Consider the code in Listing 11-12 with the private function `internal_adder`. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-12/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-12: Testing a private function + Note that the `internal_adder` function is not marked as `pub`. Tests are just Rust code, and the `tests` module is just another module. As we discussed in the [“Paths for Referring to an Item in the Module Tree”][paths] section, items in child modules can use the items in their ancestor modules. In -this test, we bring all of the `test` module’s parent’s items into scope with +this test, we bring all of the `tests` module’s parent’s items into scope with `use super::*`, and then the test can call `internal_adder`. If you don’t think private functions should be tested, there’s nothing in Rust that will compel you to do so. @@ -83,34 +82,45 @@ functions that are part of your library’s public API. Their purpose is to test whether many parts of your library work together correctly. Units of code that work correctly on their own could have problems when integrated, so test coverage of the integrated code is important as well. To create integration -tests, you first need a *tests* directory. +tests, you first need a _tests_ directory. -#### The *tests* Directory +#### The _tests_ Directory -We create a *tests* directory at the top level of our project directory, next -to *src*. Cargo knows to look for integration test files in this directory. We +We create a _tests_ directory at the top level of our project directory, next +to _src_. Cargo knows to look for integration test files in this directory. We can then make as many test files as we want, and Cargo will compile each of the files as an individual crate. Let’s create an integration test. With the code in Listing 11-12 still in the -*src/lib.rs* file, make a *tests* directory, create a new file named -*tests/integration_test.rs*, and enter the code in Listing 11-13. +_src/lib.rs_ file, make a _tests_ directory, and create a new file named +_tests/integration_test.rs_. Your directory structure should look like this: + +```text +adder +├── Cargo.lock +├── Cargo.toml +├── src +│   └── lib.rs +└── tests + └── integration_test.rs +``` -Filename: tests/integration_test.rs +Enter the code in Listing 11-13 into the _tests/integration_test.rs_ file. + + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/listing-11-13/tests/integration_test.rs}} ``` -Listing 11-13: An integration test of a function in the -`adder` crate + -Each file in the `tests` directory is a separate crate, so we need to bring our -library into each test crate’s scope. For that reason we add `use adder` at the -top of the code, which we didn’t need in the unit tests. +Each file in the _tests_ directory is a separate crate, so we need to bring our +library into each test crate’s scope. For that reason we add `use +adder::add_two;` at the top of the code, which we didn’t need in the unit tests. -We don’t need to annotate any code in *tests/integration_test.rs* with -`#[cfg(test)]`. Cargo treats the `tests` directory specially and compiles files +We don’t need to annotate any code in _tests/integration_test.rs_ with +`#[cfg(test)]`. Cargo treats the _tests_ directory specially and compiles files in this directory only when we run `cargo test`. Run `cargo test` now: ```console @@ -118,9 +128,14 @@ in this directory only when we run `cargo test`. Run `cargo test` now: ``` The three sections of output include the unit tests, the integration test, and -the doc tests. The first section for the unit tests is the same as we’ve been -seeing: one line for each unit test (one named `internal` that we added in -Listing 11-12) and then a summary line for the unit tests. +the doc tests. Note that if any test in a section fails, the following sections +will not be run. For example, if a unit test fails, there won’t be any output +for integration and doc tests because those tests will only be run if all unit +tests are passing. + +The first section for the unit tests is the same as we’ve been seeing: one line +for each unit test (one named `internal` that we added in Listing 11-12) and +then a summary line for the unit tests. The integration tests section starts with the line `Running tests/integration_test.rs`. Next, there is a line for each test function in @@ -128,7 +143,7 @@ that integration test and a summary line for the results of the integration test just before the `Doc-tests adder` section starts. Each integration test file has its own section, so if we add more files in the -*tests* directory, there will be more integration test sections. +_tests_ directory, there will be more integration test sections. We can still run a particular integration test function by specifying the test function’s name as an argument to `cargo test`. To run all the tests in a @@ -139,24 +154,24 @@ followed by the name of the file: {{#include ../listings/ch11-writing-automated-tests/output-only-05-single-integration/output.txt}} ``` -This command runs only the tests in the *tests/integration_test.rs* file. +This command runs only the tests in the _tests/integration_test.rs_ file. #### Submodules in Integration Tests As you add more integration tests, you might want to make more files in the -*tests* directory to help organize them; for example, you can group the test +_tests_ directory to help organize them; for example, you can group the test functions by the functionality they’re testing. As mentioned earlier, each file -in the *tests* directory is compiled as its own separate crate, which is useful +in the _tests_ directory is compiled as its own separate crate, which is useful for creating separate scopes to more closely imitate the way end users will be -using your crate. However, this means files in the *tests* directory don’t -share the same behavior as files in *src* do, as you learned in Chapter 7 +using your crate. However, this means files in the _tests_ directory don’t +share the same behavior as files in _src_ do, as you learned in Chapter 7 regarding how to separate code into modules and files. -The different behavior of *tests* directory files is most noticeable when you +The different behavior of _tests_ directory files is most noticeable when you have a set of helper functions to use in multiple integration test files and you try to follow the steps in the [“Separating Modules into Different Files”][separating-modules-into-files] section of Chapter 7 to -extract them into a common module. For example, if we create *tests/common.rs* +extract them into a common module. For example, if we create _tests/common.rs_ and place a function named `setup` in it, we can add some code to `setup` that we want to call from multiple test functions in multiple test files: @@ -167,7 +182,7 @@ we want to call from multiple test functions in multiple test files: ``` When we run the tests again, we’ll see a new section in the test output for the -*common.rs* file, even though this file doesn’t contain any test functions nor +_common.rs_ file, even though this file doesn’t contain any test functions nor did we call the `setup` function from anywhere: ```console @@ -176,20 +191,33 @@ did we call the `setup` function from anywhere: Having `common` appear in the test results with `running 0 tests` displayed for it is not what we wanted. We just wanted to share some code with the other -integration test files. - -To avoid having `common` appear in the test output, instead of creating -*tests/common.rs*, we’ll create *tests/common/mod.rs*. This is an alternate -naming convention that Rust also understands. Naming the file this way tells -Rust not to treat the `common` module as an integration test file. When we move -the `setup` function code into *tests/common/mod.rs* and delete the -*tests/common.rs* file, the section in the test output will no longer appear. -Files in subdirectories of the *tests* directory don’t get compiled as separate -crates or have sections in the test output. - -After we’ve created *tests/common/mod.rs*, we can use it from any of the +integration test files. To avoid having `common` appear in the test output, +instead of creating _tests/common.rs_, we’ll create _tests/common/mod.rs_. The +project directory now looks like this: + +```text +├── Cargo.lock +├── Cargo.toml +├── src +│   └── lib.rs +└── tests + ├── common + │   └── mod.rs + └── integration_test.rs +``` + +This is the older naming convention that Rust also understands that we +mentioned in the [“Alternate File Paths”][alt-paths] section of +Chapter 7. Naming the file this way tells Rust not to treat the `common` module +as an integration test file. When we move the `setup` function code into +_tests/common/mod.rs_ and delete the _tests/common.rs_ file, the section in the +test output will no longer appear. Files in subdirectories of the _tests_ +directory don’t get compiled as separate crates or have sections in the test +output. + +After we’ve created _tests/common/mod.rs_, we can use it from any of the integration test files as a module. Here’s an example of calling the `setup` -function from the `it_adds_two` test in *tests/integration_test.rs*: +function from the `it_adds_two` test in _tests/integration_test.rs_: Filename: tests/integration_test.rs @@ -198,24 +226,23 @@ function from the `it_adds_two` test in *tests/integration_test.rs*: ``` Note that the `mod common;` declaration is the same as the module declaration -we demonstrated in Listing 7-21. Then in the test function, we can call the +we demonstrated in Listing 7-21. Then, in the test function, we can call the `common::setup()` function. #### Integration Tests for Binary Crates -If our project is a binary crate that only contains a *src/main.rs* file and -doesn’t have a *src/lib.rs* file, we can’t create integration tests in the -*tests* directory and bring functions defined in the *src/main.rs* file into +If our project is a binary crate that only contains a _src/main.rs_ file and +doesn’t have a _src/lib.rs_ file, we can’t create integration tests in the +_tests_ directory and bring functions defined in the _src/main.rs_ file into scope with a `use` statement. Only library crates expose functions that other crates can use; binary crates are meant to be run on their own. This is one of the reasons Rust projects that provide a binary have a -straightforward *src/main.rs* file that calls logic that lives in the -*src/lib.rs* file. Using that structure, integration tests *can* test the -library crate with `use` to make the important functionality available. -If the important functionality works, the small amount of code in the -*src/main.rs* file will work as well, and that small amount of code doesn’t -need to be tested. +straightforward _src/main.rs_ file that calls logic that lives in the +_src/lib.rs_ file. Using that structure, integration tests _can_ test the +library crate with `use` to make the important functionality available. If the +important functionality works, the small amount of code in the _src/main.rs_ +file will work as well, and that small amount of code doesn’t need to be tested. ## Summary @@ -232,5 +259,5 @@ Let’s combine the knowledge you learned in this chapter and in previous chapters to work on a project! [paths]: ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html -[separating-modules-into-files]: -ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.html +[separating-modules-into-files]: ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.html +[alt-paths]: ch07-05-separating-modules-into-different-files.html#alternate-file-paths diff --git a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md index d28613a5e6..e421cc12f0 100644 --- a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md +++ b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md @@ -10,16 +10,16 @@ an ideal language for creating command line tools, so for our project, we’ll make our own version of the classic command line search tool `grep` (**g**lobally search a **r**egular **e**xpression and **p**rint). In the simplest use case, `grep` searches a specified file for a specified string. To -do so, `grep` takes as its arguments a filename and a string. Then it reads the -file, finds lines in that file that contain the string argument, and prints +do so, `grep` takes as its arguments a file path and a string. Then it reads +the file, finds lines in that file that contain the string argument, and prints those lines. Along the way, we’ll show how to make our command line tool use the terminal features that many other command line tools use. We’ll read the value of an environment variable to allow the user to configure the behavior of our tool. We’ll also print error messages to the standard error console stream (`stderr`) -instead of standard output (`stdout`), so, for example, the user can redirect -successful output to a file while still seeing error messages onscreen. +instead of standard output (`stdout`) so that, for example, the user can +redirect successful output to a file while still seeing error messages onscreen. One Rust community member, Andrew Gallant, has already created a fully featured, very fast version of `grep`, called `ripgrep`. By comparison, our @@ -29,17 +29,15 @@ background knowledge you need to understand a real-world project such as Our `grep` project will combine a number of concepts you’ve learned so far: -* Organizing code (using what you learned about modules in [Chapter 7][ch7]) -* Using vectors and strings (collections, [Chapter 8][ch8]) -* Handling errors ([Chapter 9][ch9]) -* Using traits and lifetimes where appropriate ([Chapter 10][ch10]) -* Writing tests ([Chapter 11][ch11]) +- Organizing code ([Chapter 7][ch7]) +- Using vectors and strings ([Chapter 8][ch8]) +- Handling errors ([Chapter 9][ch9]) +- Using traits and lifetimes where appropriate ([Chapter 10][ch10]) +- Writing tests ([Chapter 11][ch11]) We’ll also briefly introduce closures, iterators, and trait objects, which -Chapters [13][ch13] and [17][ch17] will cover in -detail. +[Chapter 13][ch13] and [Chapter 18][ch18] will +cover in detail. [ch7]: ch07-00-managing-growing-projects-with-packages-crates-and-modules.html [ch8]: ch08-00-common-collections.html @@ -47,4 +45,4 @@ detail. [ch10]: ch10-00-generics.html [ch11]: ch11-00-testing.html [ch13]: ch13-00-functional-features.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch18]: ch18-00-oop.html diff --git a/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md b/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md index 4228bf5d30..34e4504249 100644 --- a/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md +++ b/src/ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.md @@ -11,12 +11,13 @@ $ cd minigrep ``` The first task is to make `minigrep` accept its two command line arguments: the -filename and a string to search for. That is, we want to be able to run our -program with `cargo run`, a string to search for, and a path to a file to -search in, like so: +file path and a string to search for. That is, we want to be able to run our +program with `cargo run`, two hyphens to indicate the following arguments are +for our program rather than for `cargo`, a string to search for, and a path to +a file to search in, like so: ```console -$ cargo run searchstring example-filename.txt +$ cargo run -- searchstring example-filename.txt ``` Right now, the program generated by `cargo new` cannot process arguments we @@ -36,26 +37,25 @@ to turn it into a collection, such as a vector, that contains all the elements the iterator produces. The code in Listing 12-1 allows your `minigrep` program to read any command -line arguments passed to it and then collect the values into a vector. +line arguments passed to it, and then collect the values into a vector. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 12-1: Collecting the command line arguments into -a vector and printing them + -First, we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we +First we bring the `std::env` module into scope with a `use` statement so we can use its `args` function. Notice that the `std::env::args` function is nested in two levels of modules. As we discussed in [Chapter 7][ch7-idiomatic-use], in cases where the desired function is -nested in more than one module, it’s conventional to bring the parent module -into scope rather than the function. By doing so, we can easily use other -functions from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than adding `use -std::env::args` and then calling the function with just `args`, because `args` -might easily be mistaken for a function that’s defined in the current module. +nested in more than one module, we’ve chosen to bring the parent module into +scope rather than the function. By doing so, we can easily use other functions +from `std::env`. It’s also less ambiguous than adding `use std::env::args` and +then calling the function with just `args`, because `args` might easily be +mistaken for a function that’s defined in the current module. > ### The `args` Function and Invalid Unicode > @@ -63,19 +63,19 @@ might easily be mistaken for a function that’s defined in the current module. > Unicode. If your program needs to accept arguments containing invalid > Unicode, use `std::env::args_os` instead. That function returns an iterator > that produces `OsString` values instead of `String` values. We’ve chosen to -> use `std::env::args` here for simplicity, because `OsString` values differ -> per platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. +> use `std::env::args` here for simplicity because `OsString` values differ per +> platform and are more complex to work with than `String` values. On the first line of `main`, we call `env::args`, and we immediately use `collect` to turn the iterator into a vector containing all the values produced by the iterator. We can use the `collect` function to create many kinds of collections, so we explicitly annotate the type of `args` to specify that we -want a vector of strings. Although we very rarely need to annotate types in +want a vector of strings. Although you very rarely need to annotate types in Rust, `collect` is one function you do often need to annotate because Rust isn’t able to infer the kind of collection you want. -Finally, we print the vector using the debug formatter, `:?`. Let’s try running -the code first with no arguments and then with two arguments: +Finally, we print the vector using the debug macro. Let’s try running the code +first with no arguments and then with two arguments: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-01/output.txt}} @@ -89,8 +89,8 @@ Notice that the first value in the vector is `"target/debug/minigrep"`, which is the name of our binary. This matches the behavior of the arguments list in C, letting programs use the name by which they were invoked in their execution. It’s often convenient to have access to the program name in case you want to -print it in messages or change behavior of the program based on what command -line alias was used to invoke the program. But for the purposes of this +print it in messages or change the behavior of the program based on what +command line alias was used to invoke the program. But for the purposes of this chapter, we’ll ignore it and save only the two arguments we need. ### Saving the Argument Values in Variables @@ -100,21 +100,20 @@ arguments. Now we need to save the values of the two arguments in variables so we can use the values throughout the rest of the program. We do that in Listing 12-2. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-02/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 12-2: Creating variables to hold the query -argument and filename argument + As we saw when we printed the vector, the program’s name takes up the first -value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index `1`. The +value in the vector at `args[0]`, so we’re starting arguments at index 1. The first argument `minigrep` takes is the string we’re searching for, so we put a reference to the first argument in the variable `query`. The second argument -will be the filename, so we put a reference to the second argument in the -variable `filename`. +will be the file path, so we put a reference to the second argument in the +variable `file_path`. We temporarily print the values of these variables to prove that the code is working as we intend. Let’s run this program again with the arguments `test` diff --git a/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md b/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md index 04d33710e7..bc6d79139b 100644 --- a/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md +++ b/src/ch12-02-reading-a-file.md @@ -1,45 +1,44 @@ ## Reading a File -Now we’ll add functionality to read the file specified in the `filename` -argument. First, we need a sample file to test it with: we’ll use a file with a +Now we’ll add functionality to read the file specified in the `file_path` +argument. First we need a sample file to test it with: we’ll use a file with a small amount of text over multiple lines with some repeated words. Listing 12-3 has an Emily Dickinson poem that will work well! Create a file called -*poem.txt* at the root level of your project, and enter the poem “I’m Nobody! +_poem.txt_ at the root level of your project, and enter the poem “I’m Nobody! Who are you?” -Filename: poem.txt + ```text {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-03/poem.txt}} ``` -Listing 12-3: A poem by Emily Dickinson makes a good test -case + -With the text in place, edit *src/main.rs* and add code to read the file, as +With the text in place, edit _src/main.rs_ and add code to read the file, as shown in Listing 12-4. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-4: Reading the contents of the file specified -by the second argument + -First, we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` +First we bring in a relevant part of the standard library with a `use` statement: we need `std::fs` to handle files. -In `main`, the new statement `fs::read_to_string` takes the `filename`, opens -that file, and returns a `Result` of the file’s contents. +In `main`, the new statement `fs::read_to_string` takes the `file_path`, opens +that file, and returns a value of type `std::io::Result` that contains +the file’s contents. After that, we again add a temporary `println!` statement that prints the value of `contents` after the file is read, so we can check that the program is working so far. Let’s run this code with any string as the first command line argument (because -we haven’t implemented the searching part yet) and the *poem.txt* file as the +we haven’t implemented the searching part yet) and the _poem.txt_ file as the second argument: ```console @@ -52,6 +51,6 @@ responsibilities: generally, functions are clearer and easier to maintain if each function is responsible for only one idea. The other problem is that we’re not handling errors as well as we could. The program is still small, so these flaws aren’t a big problem, but as the program grows, it will be harder to fix -them cleanly. It’s good practice to begin refactoring early on when developing -a program, because it’s much easier to refactor smaller amounts of code. We’ll -do that next. +them cleanly. It’s a good practice to begin refactoring early on when +developing a program because it’s much easier to refactor smaller amounts of +code. We’ll do that next. diff --git a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md index cbf4414019..0bf85bdd61 100644 --- a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md +++ b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ reason about, harder to test, and harder to change without breaking one of its parts. It’s best to separate functionality so each function is responsible for one task. -This issue also ties into the second problem: although `query` and `filename` +This issue also ties into the second problem: although `query` and `file_path` are configuration variables to our program, variables like `contents` are used to perform the program’s logic. The longer `main` becomes, the more variables we’ll need to bring into scope; the more variables we have in scope, the harder @@ -17,19 +17,19 @@ it will be to keep track of the purpose of each. It’s best to group the configuration variables into one structure to make their purpose clear. The third problem is that we’ve used `expect` to print an error message when -reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Something went wrong -reading the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for example, -the file could be missing, or we might not have permission to open it. Right -now, regardless of the situation, we’d print the same error message for +reading the file fails, but the error message just prints `Should have been +able to read the file`. Reading a file can fail in a number of ways: for +example, the file could be missing, or we might not have permission to open it. +Right now, regardless of the situation, we’d print the same error message for everything, which wouldn’t give the user any information! -Fourth, we use `expect` repeatedly to handle different errors, and if the user -runs our program without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out -of bounds` error from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would -be best if all the error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers -had only one place to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to -change. Having all the error-handling code in one place will also ensure that -we’re printing messages that will be meaningful to our end users. +Fourth, we use `expect` to handle an error, and if the user runs our program +without specifying enough arguments, they’ll get an `index out of bounds` error +from Rust that doesn’t clearly explain the problem. It would be best if all the +error-handling code were in one place so future maintainers had only one place +to consult the code if the error-handling logic needed to change. Having all the +error-handling code in one place will also ensure that we’re printing messages +that will be meaningful to our end users. Let’s address these four problems by refactoring our project. @@ -41,51 +41,50 @@ community has developed guidelines for splitting the separate concerns of a binary program when `main` starts getting large. This process has the following steps: -* Split your program into a *main.rs* and a *lib.rs* and move your program’s - logic to *lib.rs*. -* As long as your command line parsing logic is small, it can remain in - *main.rs*. -* When the command line parsing logic starts getting complicated, extract it - from *main.rs* and move it to *lib.rs*. +- Split your program into a _main.rs_ file and a _lib.rs_ file and move your + program’s logic to _lib.rs_. +- As long as your command line parsing logic is small, it can remain in + _main.rs_. +- When the command line parsing logic starts getting complicated, extract it + from _main.rs_ and move it to _lib.rs_. The responsibilities that remain in the `main` function after this process should be limited to the following: -* Calling the command line parsing logic with the argument values -* Setting up any other configuration -* Calling a `run` function in *lib.rs* -* Handling the error if `run` returns an error +- Calling the command line parsing logic with the argument values +- Setting up any other configuration +- Calling a `run` function in _lib.rs_ +- Handling the error if `run` returns an error -This pattern is about separating concerns: *main.rs* handles running the -program, and *lib.rs* handles all the logic of the task at hand. Because you +This pattern is about separating concerns: _main.rs_ handles running the +program and _lib.rs_ handles all the logic of the task at hand. Because you can’t test the `main` function directly, this structure lets you test all of -your program’s logic by moving it into functions in *lib.rs*. The code that -remains in *main.rs* will be small enough to verify its correctness by reading +your program’s logic by moving it into functions in _lib.rs_. The code that +remains in _main.rs_ will be small enough to verify its correctness by reading it. Let’s rework our program by following this process. #### Extracting the Argument Parser We’ll extract the functionality for parsing arguments into a function that `main` will call to prepare for moving the command line parsing logic to -*src/lib.rs*. Listing 12-5 shows the new start of `main` that calls a new -function `parse_config`, which we’ll define in *src/main.rs* for the moment. +_src/lib.rs_. Listing 12-5 shows the new start of `main` that calls a new +function `parse_config`, which we’ll define in _src/main.rs_ for the moment. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-5: Extracting a `parse_config` function from -`main` + We’re still collecting the command line arguments into a vector, but instead of assigning the argument value at index 1 to the variable `query` and the -argument value at index 2 to the variable `filename` within the `main` +argument value at index 2 to the variable `file_path` within the `main` function, we pass the whole vector to the `parse_config` function. The `parse_config` function then holds the logic that determines which argument goes in which variable and passes the values back to `main`. We still create -the `query` and `filename` variables in `main`, but `main` no longer has the +the `query` and `file_path` variables in `main`, but `main` no longer has the responsibility of determining how the command line arguments and variables correspond. @@ -112,17 +111,16 @@ other and what their purpose is. Listing 12-6 shows the improvements to the `parse_config` function. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-6: Refactoring `parse_config` to return an -instance of a `Config` struct + We’ve added a struct named `Config` defined to have fields named `query` and -`filename`. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns a +`file_path`. The signature of `parse_config` now indicates that it returns a `Config` value. In the body of `parse_config`, where we used to return string slices that reference `String` values in `args`, we now define `Config` to contain owned `String` values. The `args` variable in `main` is the owner of @@ -145,7 +143,7 @@ giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile trade-off. > [Chapter 13][ch13], you’ll learn how to use more efficient > methods in this type of situation. But for now, it’s okay to copy a few > strings to continue making progress because you’ll make these copies only -> once and your filename and query string are very small. It’s better to have +> once and your file path and query string are very small. It’s better to have > a working program that’s a bit inefficient than to try to hyperoptimize code > on your first pass. As you become more experienced with Rust, it’ll be > easier to start with the most efficient solution, but for now, it’s @@ -153,10 +151,10 @@ giving up a little performance to gain simplicity is a worthwhile trade-off. We’ve updated `main` so it places the instance of `Config` returned by `parse_config` into a variable named `config`, and we updated the code that -previously used the separate `query` and `filename` variables so it now uses +previously used the separate `query` and `file_path` variables so it now uses the fields on the `Config` struct instead. -Now our code more clearly conveys that `query` and `filename` are related and +Now our code more clearly conveys that `query` and `file_path` are related and that their purpose is to configure how the program will work. Any code that uses these values knows to find them in the `config` instance in the fields named for their purpose. @@ -165,9 +163,9 @@ named for their purpose. So far, we’ve extracted the logic responsible for parsing the command line arguments from `main` and placed it in the `parse_config` function. Doing so -helped us to see that the `query` and `filename` values were related and that +helped us see that the `query` and `file_path` values were related, and that relationship should be conveyed in our code. We then added a `Config` struct to -name the related purpose of `query` and `filename` and to be able to return the +name the related purpose of `query` and `file_path` and to be able to return the values’ names as struct field names from the `parse_config` function. So now that the purpose of the `parse_config` function is to create a `Config` @@ -179,14 +177,13 @@ changing `parse_config` into a `new` function associated with `Config`, we’ll be able to create instances of `Config` by calling `Config::new`. Listing 12-7 shows the changes we need to make. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,should_panic,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-7: Changing `parse_config` into -`Config::new` + We’ve updated `main` where we were calling `parse_config` to instead call `Config::new`. We’ve changed the name of `parse_config` to `new` and moved it @@ -211,25 +208,24 @@ they should do instead. Let’s fix that now. #### Improving the Error Message In Listing 12-8, we add a check in the `new` function that will verify that the -slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and 2. If the slice isn’t long -enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. +slice is long enough before accessing index 1 and index 2. If the slice isn’t +long enough, the program panics and displays a better error message. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-8: Adding a check for the number of -arguments + This code is similar to [the `Guess::new` function we wrote in Listing 9-13][ch9-custom-types], where we called `panic!` when the `value` argument was out of the range of valid values. Instead of checking for -a range of values here, we’re checking that the length of `args` is at least 3 -and the rest of the function can operate under the assumption that this +a range of values here, we’re checking that the length of `args` is at least +`3` and the rest of the function can operate under the assumption that this condition has been met. If `args` has fewer than three items, this condition -will be true, and we call the `panic!` macro to end the program immediately. +will be `true`, and we call the `panic!` macro to end the program immediately. With these extra few lines of code in `new`, let’s run the program without any arguments again to see what the error looks like now: @@ -239,80 +235,88 @@ arguments again to see what the error looks like now: ``` This output is better: we now have a reasonable error message. However, we also -have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps using -the technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best to use here: a call to +have extraneous information we don’t want to give to our users. Perhaps the +technique we used in Listing 9-13 isn’t the best one to use here: a call to `panic!` is more appropriate for a programming problem than a usage problem, [as discussed in Chapter 9][ch9-error-guidelines]. Instead, we’ll use the other technique you learned about in Chapter 9—[returning a `Result`][ch9-result] that indicates either success or an error. -#### Returning a `Result` from `new` Instead of Calling `panic!` + + + + +#### Returning a `Result` Instead of Calling `panic!` We can instead return a `Result` value that will contain a `Config` instance in -the successful case and will describe the problem in the error case. When -`Config::new` is communicating to `main`, we can use the `Result` type to -signal there was a problem. Then we can change `main` to convert an `Err` -variant into a more practical error for our users without the surrounding text -about `thread 'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. +the successful case and will describe the problem in the error case. We’re also +going to change the function name from `new` to `build` because many +programmers expect `new` functions to never fail. When `Config::build` is +communicating to `main`, we can use the `Result` type to signal there was a +problem. Then we can change `main` to convert an `Err` variant into a more +practical error for our users without the surrounding text about `thread +'main'` and `RUST_BACKTRACE` that a call to `panic!` causes. -Listing 12-9 shows the changes we need to make to the return value of -`Config::new` and the body of the function needed to return a `Result`. Note -that this won’t compile until we update `main` as well, which we’ll do in the -next listing. +Listing 12-9 shows the changes we need to make to the return value of the +function we’re now calling `Config::build` and the body of the function needed +to return a `Result`. Note that this won’t compile until we update `main` as +well, which we’ll do in the next listing. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-9: Returning a `Result` from -`Config::new` + -Our `new` function now returns a `Result` with a `Config` instance in the -success case and a `&'static str` in the error case. Our error values will -always be string literals that have the `'static` lifetime. +Our `build` function returns a `Result` with a `Config` instance in the success +case and a string literal in the error case. Our error values will always be +string literals that have the `'static` lifetime. -We’ve made two changes in the body of the `new` function: instead of calling -`panic!` when the user doesn’t pass enough arguments, we now return an `Err` -value, and we’ve wrapped the `Config` return value in an `Ok`. These changes -make the function conform to its new type signature. +We’ve made two changes in the body of the function: instead of calling `panic!` +when the user doesn’t pass enough arguments, we now return an `Err` value, and +we’ve wrapped the `Config` return value in an `Ok`. These changes make the +function conform to its new type signature. -Returning an `Err` value from `Config::new` allows the `main` function to -handle the `Result` value returned from the `new` function and exit the process -more cleanly in the error case. +Returning an `Err` value from `Config::build` allows the `main` function to +handle the `Result` value returned from the `build` function and exit the +process more cleanly in the error case. -#### Calling `Config::new` and Handling Errors + + + + +#### Calling `Config::build` and Handling Errors To handle the error case and print a user-friendly message, we need to update -`main` to handle the `Result` being returned by `Config::new`, as shown in +`main` to handle the `Result` being returned by `Config::build`, as shown in Listing 12-10. We’ll also take the responsibility of exiting the command line tool with a nonzero error code away from `panic!` and instead implement it by hand. A nonzero exit status is a convention to signal to the process that called our program that the program exited with an error state. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-10: Exiting with an error code if creating a -new `Config` fails + In this listing, we’ve used a method we haven’t covered in detail yet: `unwrap_or_else`, which is defined on `Result` by the standard library. Using `unwrap_or_else` allows us to define some custom, non-`panic!` error handling. If the `Result` is an `Ok` value, this method’s behavior is similar -to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the value -is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the *closure*, which is an -anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else`. We’ll -cover closures in more detail in [Chapter 13][ch13]. For now, -you just need to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of the -`Err`, which in this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` that we -added in Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that appears -between the vertical pipes. The code in the closure can then use the `err` -value when it runs. +to `unwrap`: it returns the inner value that `Ok` is wrapping. However, if the +value is an `Err` value, this method calls the code in the _closure_, which is +an anonymous function we define and pass as an argument to `unwrap_or_else`. +We’ll cover closures in more detail in [Chapter 13][ch13]. For +now, you just need to know that `unwrap_or_else` will pass the inner value of +the `Err`, which in this case is the static string `"not enough arguments"` +that we added in Listing 12-9, to our closure in the argument `err` that +appears between the vertical pipes. The code in the closure can then use the +`err` value when it runs. We’ve added a new `use` line to bring `process` from the standard library into scope. The code in the closure that will be run in the error case is only two @@ -340,16 +344,15 @@ inspection, and we’ll be able to write tests for all the other logic. Listing 12-11 shows the extracted `run` function. For now, we’re just making the small, incremental improvement of extracting the function. We’re still -defining the function in *src/main.rs*. +defining the function in _src/main.rs_. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-11: Extracting a `run` function containing the -rest of the program logic + The `run` function now contains all the remaining logic from `main`, starting from reading the file. The `run` function takes the `Config` instance as an @@ -358,35 +361,34 @@ argument. #### Returning Errors from the `run` Function With the remaining program logic separated into the `run` function, we can -improve the error handling, as we did with `Config::new` in Listing 12-9. +improve the error handling, as we did with `Config::build` in Listing 12-9. Instead of allowing the program to panic by calling `expect`, the `run` function will return a `Result` when something goes wrong. This will let us further consolidate the logic around handling errors into `main` in a user-friendly way. Listing 12-12 shows the changes we need to make to the signature and body of `run`. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-12/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-12: Changing the `run` function to return -`Result` + We’ve made three significant changes here. First, we changed the return type of the `run` function to `Result<(), Box>`. This function previously returned the unit type, `()`, and we keep that as the value returned in the `Ok` case. -For the error type, we used the *trait object* `Box` (and we’ve +For the error type, we used the _trait object_ `Box` (and we’ve brought `std::error::Error` into scope with a `use` statement at the top). -We’ll cover trait objects in [Chapter 17][ch17]. For now, just +We’ll cover trait objects in [Chapter 18][ch18]. For now, just know that `Box` means the function will return a type that implements the `Error` trait, but we don’t have to specify what particular type the return value will be. This gives us flexibility to return error values that may be of different types in different error cases. The `dyn` keyword is short -for “dynamic.” +for _dynamic_. Second, we’ve removed the call to `expect` in favor of the `?` operator, as we talked about in [Chapter 9][ch9-question-mark]. Rather than @@ -414,7 +416,7 @@ have some error-handling code here! Let’s rectify that problem now. #### Handling Errors Returned from `run` in `main` We’ll check for errors and handle them using a technique similar to one we used -with `Config::new` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: +with `Config::build` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -423,11 +425,11 @@ with `Config::new` in Listing 12-10, but with a slight difference: ``` We use `if let` rather than `unwrap_or_else` to check whether `run` returns an -`Err` value and call `process::exit(1)` if it does. The `run` function doesn’t -return a value that we want to `unwrap` in the same way that `Config::new` -returns the `Config` instance. Because `run` returns `()` in the success case, -we only care about detecting an error, so we don’t need `unwrap_or_else` to -return the unwrapped value, which would only be `()`. +`Err` value and to call `process::exit(1)` if it does. The `run` function +doesn’t return a value that we want to `unwrap` in the same way that +`Config::build` returns the `Config` instance. Because `run` returns `()` in +the success case, we only care about detecting an error, so we don’t need +`unwrap_or_else` to return the unwrapped value, which would only be `()`. The bodies of the `if let` and the `unwrap_or_else` functions are the same in both cases: we print the error and exit. @@ -435,55 +437,52 @@ both cases: we print the error and exit. ### Splitting Code into a Library Crate Our `minigrep` project is looking good so far! Now we’ll split the -*src/main.rs* file and put some code into the *src/lib.rs* file. That way we -can test the code and have a *src/main.rs* file with fewer responsibilities. +_src/main.rs_ file and put some code into the _src/lib.rs_ file. That way, we +can test the code and have a _src/main.rs_ file with fewer responsibilities. -Let’s move all the code that isn’t the `main` function from *src/main.rs* to -*src/lib.rs*: +Let’s move all the code that isn’t in the `main` function from _src/main.rs_ to +_src/lib.rs_: -* The `run` function definition -* The relevant `use` statements -* The definition of `Config` -* The `Config::new` function definition +- The `run` function definition +- The relevant `use` statements +- The definition of `Config` +- The `Config::build` function definition -The contents of *src/lib.rs* should have the signatures shown in Listing 12-13 +The contents of _src/lib.rs_ should have the signatures shown in Listing 12-13 (we’ve omitted the bodies of the functions for brevity). Note that this won’t -compile until we modify *src/main.rs* in Listing 12-14. +compile until we modify _src/main.rs_ in Listing 12-14. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-13/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-13: Moving `Config` and `run` into -*src/lib.rs* + We’ve made liberal use of the `pub` keyword: on `Config`, on its fields and its -`new` method, and on the `run` function. We now have a library crate that has a -public API we can test! +`build` method, and on the `run` function. We now have a library crate that has +a public API we can test! -Now we need to bring the code we moved to *src/lib.rs* into the scope of the -binary crate in *src/main.rs*, as shown in Listing 12-14. +Now we need to bring the code we moved to _src/lib.rs_ into the scope of the +binary crate in _src/main.rs_, as shown in Listing 12-14. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-14/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-14: Using the `minigrep` library crate in -*src/main.rs* + We add a `use minigrep::Config` line to bring the `Config` type from the library crate into the binary crate’s scope, and we prefix the `run` function with our crate name. Now all the functionality should be connected and should -work. Run the program with `cargo run` and make sure everything works -correctly. +work. Run the program with `cargo run` and make sure everything works correctly. Whew! That was a lot of work, but we’ve set ourselves up for success in the future. Now it’s much easier to handle errors, and we’ve made the code more -modular. Almost all of our work will be done in *src/lib.rs* from here on out. +modular. Almost all of our work will be done in _src/lib.rs_ from here on out. Let’s take advantage of this newfound modularity by doing something that would have been difficult with the old code but is easy with the new code: we’ll @@ -493,5 +492,5 @@ write some tests! [ch9-custom-types]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#creating-custom-types-for-validation [ch9-error-guidelines]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#guidelines-for-error-handling [ch9-result]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch18]: ch18-00-oop.html [ch9-question-mark]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html#a-shortcut-for-propagating-errors-the--operator diff --git a/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md b/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md index 129f835aa1..92dac84aaf 100644 --- a/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md +++ b/src/ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.md @@ -1,26 +1,26 @@ ## Developing the Library’s Functionality with Test-Driven Development -Now that we’ve extracted the logic into *src/lib.rs* and left the argument -collecting and error handling in *src/main.rs*, it’s much easier to write tests +Now that we’ve extracted the logic into _src/lib.rs_ and left the argument +collecting and error handling in _src/main.rs_, it’s much easier to write tests for the core functionality of our code. We can call functions directly with various arguments and check return values without having to call our binary from the command line. -In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program -using the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: +In this section, we’ll add the searching logic to the `minigrep` program using +the test-driven development (TDD) process with the following steps: 1. Write a test that fails and run it to make sure it fails for the reason you expect. 2. Write or modify just enough code to make the new test pass. -3. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests - continue to pass. +3. Refactor the code you just added or changed and make sure the tests continue + to pass. 4. Repeat from step 1! Though it’s just one of many ways to write software, TDD can help drive code design. Writing the test before you write the code that makes the test pass helps to maintain high test coverage throughout the process. -We’ll test drive the implementation of the functionality that will actually do +We’ll test-drive the implementation of the functionality that will actually do the searching for the query string in the file contents and produce a list of lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called `search`. @@ -28,24 +28,23 @@ lines that match the query. We’ll add this functionality in a function called ### Writing a Failing Test Because we don’t need them anymore, let’s remove the `println!` statements from -*src/lib.rs* and *src/main.rs* that we used to check the program’s behavior. -Then, in *src/lib.rs*, add a `tests` module with a test function, as we did in -[Chapter 11][ch11-anatomy]. The test function specifies the -behavior we want the `search` function to have: it will take a query and the -text to search, and it will return only the lines from the text that contain -the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. +_src/lib.rs_ and _src/main.rs_ that we used to check the program’s behavior. +Then, in _src/lib.rs_, we’ll add a `tests` module with a test function, as we +did in [Chapter 11][ch11-anatomy]. The test function specifies +the behavior we want the `search` function to have: it will take a query and +the text to search, and it will return only the lines from the text that +contain the query. Listing 12-15 shows this test, which won’t compile yet. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-15/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-15: Creating a failing test for the `search` -function we wish we had + This test searches for the string `"duct"`. The text we’re searching is three -lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (Note that the backslash after the +lines, only one of which contains `"duct"` (note that the backslash after the opening double quote tells Rust not to put a newline character at the beginning of the contents of this string literal). We assert that the value returned from the `search` function contains only the line we expect. @@ -58,14 +57,13 @@ vector, as shown in Listing 12-16. Then the test should compile and fail because an empty vector doesn’t match a vector containing the line `"safe, fast, productive."` -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-16/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-16: Defining just enough of the `search` -function so our test will compile + Notice that we need to define an explicit lifetime `'a` in the signature of `search` and use that lifetime with the `contents` argument and the return @@ -77,7 +75,7 @@ argument `query`). In other words, we tell Rust that the data returned by the `search` function will live as long as the data passed into the `search` function in the -`contents` argument. This is important! The data referenced *by* a slice needs +`contents` argument. This is important! The data referenced _by_ a slice needs to be valid for the reference to be valid; if the compiler assumes we’re making string slices of `query` rather than `contents`, it will do its safety checking incorrectly. @@ -97,9 +95,9 @@ syntax. Other programming languages don’t require you to connect arguments to return values in the signature, but this practice will get easier over time. You might -want to compare this example with the [“Validating References with -Lifetimes”][validating-references-with-lifetimes] section in -Chapter 10. +want to compare this example with the examples in the [“Validating References +with Lifetimes”][validating-references-with-lifetimes] section +in Chapter 10. Now let’s run the test: @@ -114,28 +112,27 @@ Great, the test fails, exactly as we expected. Let’s get the test to pass! Currently, our test is failing because we always return an empty vector. To fix that and implement `search`, our program needs to follow these steps: -* Iterate through each line of the contents. -* Check whether the line contains our query string. -* If it does, add it to the list of values we’re returning. -* If it doesn’t, do nothing. -* Return the list of results that match. +1. Iterate through each line of the contents. +2. Check whether the line contains our query string. +3. If it does, add it to the list of values we’re returning. +4. If it doesn’t, do nothing. +5. Return the list of results that match. Let’s work through each step, starting with iterating through lines. #### Iterating Through Lines with the `lines` Method Rust has a helpful method to handle line-by-line iteration of strings, -conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note this -won’t compile yet. +conveniently named `lines`, that works as shown in Listing 12-17. Note that +this won’t compile yet. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-17/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-17: Iterating through each line in `contents` - + The `lines` method returns an iterator. We’ll talk about iterators in depth in [Chapter 13][ch13-iterators], but recall that you saw this way @@ -147,19 +144,18 @@ of using an iterator in [Listing 3-5][ch3-iter], where we used a Next, we’ll check whether the current line contains our query string. Fortunately, strings have a helpful method named `contains` that does this for us! Add a call to the `contains` method in the `search` function, as shown in -Listing 12-18. Note this still won’t compile yet. +Listing 12-18. Note that this still won’t compile yet. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-18/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-18: Adding functionality to see whether the -line contains the string in `query` + -At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get it to compile, we need -to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function +At the moment, we’re building up functionality. To get the code to compile, we +need to return a value from the body as we indicated we would in the function signature. #### Storing Matching Lines @@ -169,14 +165,13 @@ to return. For that, we can make a mutable vector before the `for` loop and call the `push` method to store a `line` in the vector. After the `for` loop, we return the vector, as shown in Listing 12-19. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-19: Storing the lines that match so we can -return them + Now the `search` function should return only the lines that contain `query`, and our test should pass. Let’s run the test: @@ -210,20 +205,20 @@ will print each line returned from `search`: We’re still using a `for` loop to return each line from `search` and print it. Now the entire program should work! Let’s try it out, first with a word that -should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem, “frog”: +should return exactly one line from the Emily Dickinson poem: _frog_. ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/no-listing-02-using-search-in-run/output.txt}} ``` -Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like “body”: +Cool! Now let’s try a word that will match multiple lines, like _body_: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-03-multiple-matches/output.txt}} ``` And finally, let’s make sure that we don’t get any lines when we search for a -word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as “monomorphization”: +word that isn’t anywhere in the poem, such as _monomorphization_: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/output-only-04-no-matches/output.txt}} @@ -237,8 +232,7 @@ To round out this project, we’ll briefly demonstrate how to work with environment variables and how to print to standard error, both of which are useful when you’re writing command line programs. -[validating-references-with-lifetimes]: -ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html#validating-references-with-lifetimes +[validating-references-with-lifetimes]: ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html#validating-references-with-lifetimes [ch11-anatomy]: ch11-01-writing-tests.html#the-anatomy-of-a-test-function [ch10-lifetimes]: ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html [ch3-iter]: ch03-05-control-flow.html#looping-through-a-collection-with-for diff --git a/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md b/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md index cfe9c86e6a..b91b00ba8a 100644 --- a/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md +++ b/src/ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.md @@ -16,27 +16,26 @@ the new `search_case_insensitive` function and rename our old test from `one_result` to `case_sensitive` to clarify the differences between the two tests, as shown in Listing 12-20. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-20/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-20: Adding a new failing test for the -case-insensitive function we’re about to add + Note that we’ve edited the old test’s `contents` too. We’ve added a new line -with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital D that shouldn’t match the query +with the text `"Duct tape."` using a capital _D_ that shouldn’t match the query `"duct"` when we’re searching in a case-sensitive manner. Changing the old test in this way helps ensure that we don’t accidentally break the case-sensitive search functionality that we’ve already implemented. This test should pass now and should continue to pass as we work on the case-insensitive search. -The new test for the case-*insensitive* search uses `"rUsT"` as its query. In +The new test for the case-_insensitive_ search uses `"rUsT"` as its query. In the `search_case_insensitive` function we’re about to add, the query `"rUsT"` -should match the line containing `"Rust:"` with a capital R and match the line -`"Trust me."` even though both have different casing from the query. This is -our failing test, and it will fail to compile because we haven’t yet defined +should match the line containing `"Rust:"` with a capital _R_ and match the +line `"Trust me."` even though both have different casing from the query. This +is our failing test, and it will fail to compile because we haven’t yet defined the `search_case_insensitive` function. Feel free to add a skeleton implementation that always returns an empty vector, similar to the way we did for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. @@ -45,28 +44,27 @@ for the `search` function in Listing 12-16 to see the test compile and fail. The `search_case_insensitive` function, shown in Listing 12-21, will be almost the same as the `search` function. The only difference is that we’ll lowercase -the `query` and each `line` so whatever the case of the input arguments, +the `query` and each `line` so that whatever the case of the input arguments, they’ll be the same case when we check whether the line contains the query. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-21/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-21: Defining the `search_case_insensitive` -function to lowercase the query and the line before comparing them + -First, we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a shadowed variable with -the same name. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is necessary so no -matter whether the user’s query is `"rust"`, `"RUST"`, `"Rust"`, or `"rUsT"`, -we’ll treat the query as if it were `"rust"` and be insensitive to the case. -While `to_lowercase` will handle basic Unicode, it won’t be 100% accurate. If -we were writing a real application, we’d want to do a bit more work here, but -this section is about environment variables, not Unicode, so we’ll leave it at -that here. +First we lowercase the `query` string and store it in a new variable with the +same name, shadowing the original. Calling `to_lowercase` on the query is +necessary so that no matter whether the user’s query is `"rust"`, `"RUST"`, +`"Rust"`, or `"rUsT"`, we’ll treat the query as if it were `"rust"` and be +insensitive to the case. While `to_lowercase` will handle basic Unicode, it +won’t be 100% accurate. If we were writing a real application, we’d want to do a +bit more work here, but this section is about environment variables, not +Unicode, so we’ll leave it at that here. -Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice, because calling +Note that `query` is now a `String` rather than a string slice because calling `to_lowercase` creates new data rather than referencing existing data. Say the query is `"rUsT"`, as an example: that string slice doesn’t contain a lowercase `u` or `t` for us to use, so we have to allocate a new `String` containing @@ -85,10 +83,10 @@ Let’s see if this implementation passes the tests: ``` Great! They passed. Now, let’s call the new `search_case_insensitive` function -from the `run` function. First, we’ll add a configuration option to the -`Config` struct to switch between case-sensitive and case-insensitive search. -Adding this field will cause compiler errors because we aren’t initializing -this field anywhere yet: +from the `run` function. First we’ll add a configuration option to the `Config` +struct to switch between case-sensitive and case-insensitive search. Adding +this field will cause compiler errors because we aren’t initializing this field +anywhere yet: Filename: src/lib.rs @@ -101,32 +99,30 @@ function to check the `ignore_case` field’s value and use that to decide whether to call the `search` function or the `search_case_insensitive` function, as shown in Listing 12-22. This still won’t compile yet. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-22/src/lib.rs:there}} ``` -Listing 12-22: Calling either `search` or -`search_case_insensitive` based on the value in `config.ignore_case` + Finally, we need to check for the environment variable. The functions for working with environment variables are in the `env` module in the standard -library, so we bring that module into scope at the top of *src/lib.rs*. Then +library, so we bring that module into scope at the top of _src/lib.rs_. Then we’ll use the `var` function from the `env` module to check to see if any value has been set for an environment variable named `IGNORE_CASE`, as shown in Listing 12-23. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-23: Checking for any value in an environment -variable named `IGNORE_CASE` + -Here, we create a new variable `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the +Here, we create a new variable, `ignore_case`. To set its value, we call the `env::var` function and pass it the name of the `IGNORE_CASE` environment variable. The `env::var` function returns a `Result` that will be the successful `Ok` variant that contains the value of the environment variable if @@ -136,8 +132,8 @@ if the environment variable is not set. We’re using the `is_ok` method on the `Result` to check whether the environment variable is set, which means the program should do a case-insensitive search. If the `IGNORE_CASE` environment variable isn’t set to anything, `is_ok` will -return false and the program will perform a case-sensitive search. We don’t -care about the *value* of the environment variable, just whether it’s set or +return `false` and the program will perform a case-sensitive search. We don’t +care about the _value_ of the environment variable, just whether it’s set or unset, so we’re checking `is_ok` rather than using `unwrap`, `expect`, or any of the other methods we’ve seen on `Result`. @@ -145,40 +141,40 @@ We pass the value in the `ignore_case` variable to the `Config` instance so the `run` function can read that value and decide whether to call `search_case_insensitive` or `search`, as we implemented in Listing 12-22. -Let’s give it a try! First, we’ll run our program without the environment +Let’s give it a try! First we’ll run our program without the environment variable set and with the query `to`, which should match any line that contains -the word “to” in all lowercase: +the word _to_ in all lowercase: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-23/output.txt}} ``` -Looks like that still works! Now, let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` -set to `1` but with the same query `to`. +Looks like that still works! Now let’s run the program with `IGNORE_CASE` set +to `1` but with the same query _to_: ```console -$ IGNORE_CASE=1 cargo run to poem.txt +$ IGNORE_CASE=1 cargo run -- to poem.txt ``` If you’re using PowerShell, you will need to set the environment variable and run the program as separate commands: ```console -PS> $Env:IGNORE_CASE=1; cargo run to poem.txt +PS> $Env:IGNORE_CASE=1; cargo run -- to poem.txt ``` -This will make `IGNORE_CASE` persist for the remainder of your shell -session. It can be unset with the `Remove-Item` cmdlet: +This will make `IGNORE_CASE` persist for the remainder of your shell session. +It can be unset with the `Remove-Item` cmdlet: ```console PS> Remove-Item Env:IGNORE_CASE ``` -We should get lines that contain “to” that might have uppercase letters: +We should get lines that contain _to_ that might have uppercase letters: @@ -189,12 +185,12 @@ To tell your name the livelong day To an admiring bog! ``` -Excellent, we also got lines containing “To”! Our `minigrep` program can now do +Excellent, we also got lines containing _To_! Our `minigrep` program can now do case-insensitive searching controlled by an environment variable. Now you know how to manage options set using either command line arguments or environment variables. -Some programs allow arguments *and* environment variables for the same +Some programs allow arguments _and_ environment variables for the same configuration. In those cases, the programs decide that one or the other takes precedence. For another exercise on your own, try controlling case sensitivity through either a command line argument or an environment variable. Decide diff --git a/src/ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.md b/src/ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.md index fd01661517..8113abf1f6 100644 --- a/src/ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.md +++ b/src/ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.md @@ -1,18 +1,18 @@ ## Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output At the moment, we’re writing all of our output to the terminal using the -`println!` macro. In most terminals, there are two kinds of output: *standard -output* (`stdout`) for general information and *standard error* (`stderr`) for +`println!` macro. In most terminals, there are two kinds of output: _standard +output_ (`stdout`) for general information and _standard error_ (`stderr`) for error messages. This distinction enables users to choose to direct the successful output of a program to a file but still print error messages to the screen. -The `println!` macro is only capable of printing to standard output, so we -have to use something else to print to standard error. +The `println!` macro is only capable of printing to standard output, so we have +to use something else to print to standard error. ### Checking Where Errors Are Written -First, let’s observe how the content printed by `minigrep` is currently being +First let’s observe how the content printed by `minigrep` is currently being written to standard output, including any error messages we want to write to standard error instead. We’ll do that by redirecting the standard output stream to a file while intentionally causing an error. We won’t redirect the standard @@ -21,11 +21,11 @@ the screen. Command line programs are expected to send error messages to the standard error stream so we can still see error messages on the screen even if we redirect the -standard output stream to a file. Our program is not currently well-behaved: +standard output stream to a file. Our program is not currently well behaved: we’re about to see that it saves the error message output to a file instead! -To demonstrate this behavior, we’ll run the program with `>` and the filename, -*output.txt*, that we want to redirect the standard output stream to. We won’t +To demonstrate this behavior, we’ll run the program with `>` and the file path, +_output.txt_, that we want to redirect the standard output stream to. We won’t pass any arguments, which should cause an error: ```console @@ -33,9 +33,9 @@ $ cargo run > output.txt ``` The `>` syntax tells the shell to write the contents of standard output to -*output.txt* instead of the screen. We didn’t see the error message we were +_output.txt_ instead of the screen. We didn’t see the error message we were expecting printed to the screen, so that means it must have ended up in the -file. This is what *output.txt* contains: +file. This is what _output.txt_ contains: ```text Problem parsing arguments: not enough arguments @@ -54,14 +54,13 @@ the `eprintln!` macro that prints to the standard error stream, so let’s chang the two places we were calling `println!` to print errors to use `eprintln!` instead. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-24/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 12-24: Writing error messages to standard error -instead of standard output using `eprintln!` + Let’s now run the program again in the same way, without any arguments and redirecting standard output with `>`: @@ -71,17 +70,17 @@ $ cargo run > output.txt Problem parsing arguments: not enough arguments ``` -Now we see the error onscreen and *output.txt* contains nothing, which is the +Now we see the error onscreen and _output.txt_ contains nothing, which is the behavior we expect of command line programs. Let’s run the program again with arguments that don’t cause an error but still redirect standard output to a file, like so: ```console -$ cargo run to poem.txt > output.txt +$ cargo run -- to poem.txt > output.txt ``` -We won’t see any output to the terminal, and *output.txt* will contain our +We won’t see any output to the terminal, and _output.txt_ will contain our results: Filename: output.txt diff --git a/src/ch13-00-functional-features.md b/src/ch13-00-functional-features.md index f743a7bc6c..8eeccf2b24 100644 --- a/src/ch13-00-functional-features.md +++ b/src/ch13-00-functional-features.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ # Functional Language Features: Iterators and Closures Rust’s design has taken inspiration from many existing languages and -techniques, and one significant influence is *functional programming*. +techniques, and one significant influence is _functional programming_. Programming in a functional style often includes using functions as values by passing them in arguments, returning them from other functions, assigning them to variables for later execution, and so forth. @@ -12,13 +12,13 @@ features in many languages often referred to as functional. More specifically, we’ll cover: -* *Closures*, a function-like construct you can store in a variable -* *Iterators*, a way of processing a series of elements -* How to use these two features to improve the I/O project in Chapter 12 -* The performance of these two features (Spoiler alert: they’re faster than you - might think!) +- _Closures_, a function-like construct you can store in a variable +- _Iterators_, a way of processing a series of elements +- How to use closures and iterators to improve the I/O project in Chapter 12 +- The performance of closures and iterators (Spoiler alert: they’re faster than + you might think!) -Other Rust features, such as pattern matching and enums, which we’ve covered in -other chapters, are influenced by the functional style as well. Mastering +We’ve already covered some other Rust features, such as pattern matching and +enums, that are also influenced by the functional style. Because mastering closures and iterators is an important part of writing idiomatic, fast Rust -code, so we’ll devote this entire chapter to them. +code, we’ll devote this entire chapter to them. diff --git a/src/ch13-01-closures.md b/src/ch13-01-closures.md index 88f578eb24..3f4e50cfe5 100644 --- a/src/ch13-01-closures.md +++ b/src/ch13-01-closures.md @@ -1,82 +1,98 @@ -## Closures: Anonymous Functions that Can Capture Their Environment + + + + +## Closures: Anonymous Functions that Capture Their Environment Rust’s closures are anonymous functions you can save in a variable or pass as arguments to other functions. You can create the closure in one place and then -call the closure to evaluate it in a different context. Unlike functions, -closures can capture values from the scope in which they’re defined. We’ll -demonstrate how these closure features allow for code reuse and behavior +call the closure elsewhere to evaluate it in a different context. Unlike +functions, closures can capture values from the scope in which they’re defined. +We’ll demonstrate how these closure features allow for code reuse and behavior customization. + ### Capturing the Environment with Closures -The first aspect of closures we’re going to examine is that closures can -capture values from the environment they’re defined in for later use. Here’s -the scenario: A t-shirt company gives away a free shirt to someone on their -mailing list every so often. People on the mailing list can optionally add -their favorite color to their profile. If the person chosen to get the free -shirt has their favorite color in their profile, they get that color shirt. If -the person hasn’t specified a favorite color, they get the color that the -company currently has the most of. +We’ll first examine how we can use closures to capture values from the +environment they’re defined in for later use. Here’s the scenario: Every so +often, our t-shirt company gives away an exclusive, limited-edition shirt to +someone on our mailing list as a promotion. People on the mailing list can +optionally add their favorite color to their profile. If the person chosen for +a free shirt has their favorite color set, they get that color shirt. If the +person hasn’t specified a favorite color, they get whatever color the company +currently has the most of. There are many ways to implement this. For this example, we’re going to use an -enum called `ShirtColor` that has the variants `Red` and `Blue`. The -company’s inventory is represented by an `Inventory` struct that has a field -named `shirts` that contains a `Vec` representing the shirts -currently in stock. The method `shirt_giveaway` defined on `Inventory` gets the -optional shirt color preference of the person getting the free shirt, and -returns the shirt color the person will get. This is shown in Listing 13-1: +enum called `ShirtColor` that has the variants `Red` and `Blue` (limiting the +number of colors available for simplicity). We represent the company’s +inventory with an `Inventory` struct that has a field named `shirts` that +contains a `Vec` representing the shirt colors currently in stock. +The method `giveaway` defined on `Inventory` gets the optional shirt +color preference of the free shirt winner, and returns the shirt color the +person will get. This setup is shown in Listing 13-1: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 13-1: Shirt company giveaway + -The `store` defined in `main` has two blue shirts and one red shirt in stock. -Then it calls the `giveaway` method for a user with a preference for a red -shirt and a user without any preference. Running this code prints: - -```console -{{#include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-01/output.txt}} -``` +The `store` defined in `main` has two blue shirts and one red shirt remaining +to distribute for this limited-edition promotion. We call the `giveaway` method +for a user with a preference for a red shirt and a user without any preference. -Again, this code could be implemented in many ways, but this way uses concepts -you’ve already learned, except for the body of the `giveaway` method that uses -a closure. The `giveaway` method takes the user preference `Option` -and calls `unwrap_or_else` on it. The [`unwrap_or_else` method on +Again, this code could be implemented in many ways, and here, to focus on +closures, we’ve stuck to concepts you’ve already learned except for the body of +the `giveaway` method that uses a closure. In the `giveaway` method, we get the +user preference as a parameter of type `Option` and call the +`unwrap_or_else` method on `user_preference`. The [`unwrap_or_else` method on `Option`][unwrap-or-else] is defined by the standard library. It takes one argument: a closure without any arguments that returns a value `T` -(the same type stored in the `Some` variant of the `Option`, in this case, a +(the same type stored in the `Some` variant of the `Option`, in this case `ShirtColor`). If the `Option` is the `Some` variant, `unwrap_or_else` returns the value from within the `Some`. If the `Option` is the `None` variant, `unwrap_or_else` calls the closure and returns the value returned by the closure. -This is interesting because we’ve passed a closure that calls +We specify the closure expression `|| self.most_stocked()` as the argument to +`unwrap_or_else`. This is a closure that takes no parameters itself (if the +closure had parameters, they would appear between the two vertical bars). The +body of the closure calls `self.most_stocked()`. We’re defining the closure +here, and the implementation of `unwrap_or_else` will evaluate the closure +later if the result is needed. + +Running this code prints: + +```console +{{#include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-01/output.txt}} +``` + +One interesting aspect here is that we’ve passed a closure that calls `self.most_stocked()` on the current `Inventory` instance. The standard library didn’t need to know anything about the `Inventory` or `ShirtColor` types we -defined, or the logic we want to use in this scenario. The closure captured an -immutable reference to the `self` `Inventory` instance and passed it with the -code we specified to the `unwrap_or_else` method. Functions are not able to -capture their environment in this way. +defined, or the logic we want to use in this scenario. The closure captures an +immutable reference to the `self` `Inventory` instance and passes it with the +code we specify to the `unwrap_or_else` method. Functions, on the other hand, +are not able to capture their environment in this way. ### Closure Type Inference and Annotation There are more differences between functions and closures. Closures don’t usually require you to annotate the types of the parameters or the return value -like `fn` functions do. Type annotations are required on functions because -they’re part of an explicit interface exposed to your users. Defining this +like `fn` functions do. Type annotations are required on functions because the +types are part of an explicit interface exposed to your users. Defining this interface rigidly is important for ensuring that everyone agrees on what types -of values a function uses and returns. But closures aren’t used in an exposed -interface like this: they’re stored in variables and used without naming them -and exposing them to users of our library. +of values a function uses and returns. Closures, on the other hand, aren’t used +in an exposed interface like this: they’re stored in variables and used without +naming them and exposing them to users of our library. Closures are typically short and relevant only within a narrow context rather than in any arbitrary scenario. Within these limited contexts, the compiler can @@ -87,23 +103,24 @@ needs closure type annotations too). As with variables, we can add type annotations if we want to increase explicitness and clarity at the cost of being more verbose than is strictly necessary. Annotating the types for a closure would look like the definition -shown in Listing 13-2. +shown in Listing 13-2. In this example, we’re defining a closure and storing it +in a variable rather than defining the closure in the spot we pass it as an +argument as we did in Listing 13-1. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-2: Adding optional type annotations of the -parameter and return value types in the closure + With type annotations added, the syntax of closures looks more similar to the -syntax of functions. The following is a vertical comparison of the syntax for -the definition of a function that adds 1 to its parameter and a closure that -has the same behavior. We’ve added some spaces to line up the relevant parts. -This illustrates how closure syntax is similar to function syntax except for -the use of pipes and the amount of syntax that is optional: +syntax of functions. Here we define a function that adds 1 to its parameter and +a closure that has the same behavior, for comparison. We’ve added some spaces +to line up the relevant parts. This illustrates how closure syntax is similar +to function syntax except for the use of pipes and the amount of syntax that is +optional: ```rust,ignore fn add_one_v1 (x: u32) -> u32 { x + 1 } @@ -113,29 +130,31 @@ let add_one_v4 = |x| x + 1 ; ``` The first line shows a function definition, and the second line shows a fully -annotated closure definition. The third line removes the type annotations from -the closure definition, and the fourth line removes the brackets, which are -optional because the closure body has only one expression. These are all valid -definitions that will produce the same behavior when they’re called. Calling -the closures is required for `add_one_v3` and `add_one_v4` to be able to -compile because the types will be inferred from their usage. - -Closure definitions will have one concrete type inferred for each of their -parameters and for their return value. For instance, Listing 13-3 shows the -definition of a short closure that just returns the value it receives as a +annotated closure definition. In the third line, we remove the type annotations +from the closure definition. In the fourth line, we remove the brackets, which +are optional because the closure body has only one expression. These are all +valid definitions that will produce the same behavior when they’re called. The +`add_one_v3` and `add_one_v4` lines require the closures to be evaluated to be +able to compile because the types will be inferred from their usage. This is +similar to `let v = Vec::new();` needing either type annotations or values of +some type to be inserted into the `Vec` for Rust to be able to infer the type. + +For closure definitions, the compiler will infer one concrete type for each of +their parameters and for their return value. For instance, Listing 13-3 shows +the definition of a short closure that just returns the value it receives as a parameter. This closure isn’t very useful except for the purposes of this -example. Note that we haven’t added any type annotations to the definition: if -we then try to call the closure twice, using a `String` as an argument the -first time and a `u32` the second time, we’ll get an error. +example. Note that we haven’t added any type annotations to the definition. +Because there are no type annotations, we can call the closure with any type, +which we’ve done here with `String` the first time. If we then try to call +`example_closure` with an integer, we’ll get an error. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-3: Attempting to call a closure whose types -are inferred with two different types + The compiler gives us this error: @@ -146,7 +165,7 @@ The compiler gives us this error: The first time we call `example_closure` with the `String` value, the compiler infers the type of `x` and the return type of the closure to be `String`. Those types are then locked into the closure in `example_closure`, and we get a type -error if we try to use a different type with the same closure. +error when we next try to use a different type with the same closure. ### Capturing References or Moving Ownership @@ -156,41 +175,41 @@ immutably, borrowing mutably, and taking ownership. The closure will decide which of these to use based on what the body of the function does with the captured values. -Listing 13-4 defines a closure that captures an immutable borrow to the vector -named `list` because it only needs an immutable borrow to print the value. This -example also illustrates that a variable can bind to a closure definition, and -the closure can later be called by using the variable name and parentheses as -if the variable name were a function name: +In Listing 13-4, we define a closure that captures an immutable reference to +the vector named `list` because it only needs an immutable reference to print +the value: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 13-4: Defining and calling a closure that -captures an immutable borrow + + +This example also illustrates that a variable can bind to a closure definition, +and we can later call the closure by using the variable name and parentheses as +if the variable name were a function name. -The `list` is still accessible by the code before the closure definition, after +Because we can have multiple immutable references to `list` at the same time, +`list` is still accessible from the code before the closure definition, after the closure definition but before the closure is called, and after the closure -is called because we can have multiple immutable borrows of `list` at the same -time. This code compiles, runs, and prints: +is called. This code compiles, runs, and prints: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-04/output.txt}} ``` -Next, Listing 13-5 changes the closure definition to need a mutable borrow -because the closure body adds an element to the `list` vector: +Next, in Listing 13-5, we change the closure body so that it adds an element to +the `list` vector. The closure now captures a mutable reference: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-05/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 13-5: Defining and calling a closure that -captures a mutable borrow + This code compiles, runs, and prints: @@ -200,52 +219,84 @@ This code compiles, runs, and prints: Note that there’s no longer a `println!` between the definition and the call of the `borrows_mutably` closure: when `borrows_mutably` is defined, it captures a -mutable reference to `list`. After the closure is called, because we don’t use -the closure again after that point, the mutable borrow ends. Between the -closure definition and the closure call, an immutable borrow to print isn’t -allowed because no other borrows are allowed when there’s a mutable borrow. Try -adding a `println!` there to see what error message you get! +mutable reference to `list`. We don’t use the closure again after the closure +is called, so the mutable borrow ends. Between the closure definition and the +closure call, an immutable borrow to print isn’t allowed because no other +borrows are allowed when there’s a mutable borrow. Try adding a `println!` +there to see what error message you get! If you want to force the closure to take ownership of the values it uses in the environment even though the body of the closure doesn’t strictly need -ownership, you can use the `move` keyword before the parameter list. This -technique is mostly useful when passing a closure to a new thread to move the -data so it’s owned by the new thread. We’ll have more examples of `move` -closures in Chapter 16 when we talk about concurrency. +ownership, you can use the `move` keyword before the parameter list. - - - +This technique is mostly useful when passing a closure to a new thread to move +the data so that it’s owned by the new thread. We’ll discuss threads and why +you would want to use them in detail in Chapter 16 when we talk about +concurrency, but for now, let’s briefly explore spawning a new thread using a +closure that needs the `move` keyword. Listing 13-6 shows Listing 13-4 modified +to print the vector in a new thread rather than in the main thread: -### Moving Captured Values Out of the Closure and the `Fn` Traits + -Once a closure has captured a reference or moved a value into the closure, the -code in the body of the function also affects what happens to the references or -values as a result of calling the function. A closure body can move a captured -value out of the closure, can mutate the captured value, can neither move nor -mutate the captured value, or can capture nothing from the environment. The way -a closure captures and handles values from the environment affects which traits -the closure implements. The traits are how functions and structs can specify -what kinds of closures they can use. +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-06/src/main.rs}} +``` + + + +We spawn a new thread, giving the thread a closure to run as an argument. The +closure body prints out the list. In Listing 13-4, the closure only captured +`list` using an immutable reference because that's the least amount of access +to `list` needed to print it. In this example, even though the closure body +still only needs an immutable reference, we need to specify that `list` should +be moved into the closure by putting the `move` keyword at the beginning of the +closure definition. The new thread might finish before the rest of the main +thread finishes, or the main thread might finish first. If the main thread +maintained ownership of `list` but ended before the new thread did and dropped +`list`, the immutable reference in the thread would be invalid. Therefore, the +compiler requires that `list` be moved into the closure given to the new thread +so the reference will be valid. Try removing the `move` keyword or using `list` +in the main thread after the closure is defined to see what compiler errors you +get! -Closures will automatically implement one, two, or all three of these `Fn` -traits, in an additive fashion: + -1. `FnOnce` applies to closures that can be called at least once. All closures - implement this trait, because all closures can be called. If a closure moves - captured values out of its body, then that closure only implements `FnOnce` - and not any of the other `Fn` traits, because it can only be called once. + + + + +### Moving Captured Values Out of Closures and the `Fn` Traits + +Once a closure has captured a reference or captured ownership of a value from +the environment where the closure is defined (thus affecting what, if anything, +is moved _into_ the closure), the code in the body of the closure defines what +happens to the references or values when the closure is evaluated later (thus +affecting what, if anything, is moved _out of_ the closure). A closure body can +do any of the following: move a captured value out of the closure, mutate the +captured value, neither move nor mutate the value, or capture nothing from the +environment to begin with. + +The way a closure captures and handles values from the environment affects +which traits the closure implements, and traits are how functions and structs +can specify what kinds of closures they can use. Closures will automatically +implement one, two, or all three of these `Fn` traits, in an additive fashion, +depending on how the closure’s body handles the values: + +1. `FnOnce` applies to closures that can be called once. All closures implement + at least this trait, because all closures can be called. A closure that + moves captured values out of its body will only implement `FnOnce` and none + of the other `Fn` traits, because it can only be called once. 2. `FnMut` applies to closures that don’t move captured values out of their body, but that might mutate the captured values. These closures can be called more than once. 3. `Fn` applies to closures that don’t move captured values out of their body - and that don’t mutate captured values. These closures can be called more - than once without mutating their environment, which is important in cases - such as calling a closure multiple times concurrently. Closures that don’t - capture anything from their environment implement `Fn`. + and that don’t mutate captured values, as well as closures that capture + nothing from their environment. These closures can be called more than once + without mutating their environment, which is important in cases such as + calling a closure multiple times concurrently. Let’s look at the definition of the `unwrap_or_else` method on `Option` that -we used in Listing 13-6: +we used in Listing 13-1: ```rust,ignore impl Option { @@ -266,18 +317,18 @@ Recall that `T` is the generic type representing the type of the value in the `unwrap_or_else` function: code that calls `unwrap_or_else` on an `Option`, for example, will get a `String`. -Next, notice that the `unwrap_or_else` function has an additional generic type -parameter, `F`. The `F` type is the type of the parameter named `f`, which is +Next, notice that the `unwrap_or_else` function has the additional generic type +parameter `F`. The `F` type is the type of the parameter named `f`, which is the closure we provide when calling `unwrap_or_else`. The trait bound specified on the generic type `F` is `FnOnce() -> T`, which -means `F` must be able to be called at least once, take no arguments, and -return a `T`. Using `FnOnce` in the trait bound expresses the constraint that +means `F` must be able to be called once, take no arguments, and return a `T`. +Using `FnOnce` in the trait bound expresses the constraint that `unwrap_or_else` is only going to call `f` at most one time. In the body of `unwrap_or_else`, we can see that if the `Option` is `Some`, `f` won’t be called. If the `Option` is `None`, `f` will be called once. Because all -closures implement `FnOnce`, `unwrap_or_else` accepts the most different kinds -of closures and is as flexible as it can be. +closures implement `FnOnce`, `unwrap_or_else` accepts all three kinds of +closures and is as flexible as it can be. > Note: Functions can implement all three of the `Fn` traits too. If what we > want to do doesn’t require capturing a value from the environment, we can use @@ -287,21 +338,21 @@ of closures and is as flexible as it can be. > value is `None`. Now let’s look at the standard library method `sort_by_key` defined on slices, -to see how that differs. It takes a closure that implements `FnMut`. The -closure gets one argument, a reference to the current item in the slice being -considered, and returns a value of type `K` that can be ordered. This function -is useful when you want to sort a slice by a particular attribute of each item. -In Listing 13-7, we have a list of `Rectangle` instances and we use -`sort_by_key` to order them by their `width` attribute from low to high: +to see how that differs from `unwrap_or_else` and why `sort_by_key` uses +`FnMut` instead of `FnOnce` for the trait bound. The closure gets one argument +in the form of a reference to the current item in the slice being considered, +and returns a value of type `K` that can be ordered. This function is useful +when you want to sort a slice by a particular attribute of each item. In +Listing 13-7, we have a list of `Rectangle` instances and we use `sort_by_key` +to order them by their `width` attribute from low to high: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-07/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 13-7: Using `sort_by_key` and a closure to sort a -list of `Rectangle` instances by their `width` value + This code prints: @@ -314,23 +365,22 @@ the closure multiple times: once for each item in the slice. The closure `|r| r.width` doesn’t capture, mutate, or move out anything from its environment, so it meets the trait bound requirements. -In contrast, Listing 13-8 shows an example of a closure that only implements -`FnOnce` because it moves a value out of the environment. The compiler won’t -let us use this closure with `sort_by_key`: +In contrast, Listing 13-8 shows an example of a closure that implements just +the `FnOnce` trait, because it moves a value out of the environment. The +compiler won’t let us use this closure with `sort_by_key`: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-08/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 13-8: Attempting to use an `FnOnce` closure with -`sort_by_key` + This is a contrived, convoluted way (that doesn’t work) to try and count the -number of times `sort_by_key` gets called when sorting `list`. This code -attempts to do this counting by pushing `value`, a `String` from the closure’s -environment, into the `sort_operations` vector. The closure captures `value` +number of times `sort_by_key` calls the closure when sorting `list`. This code +attempts to do this counting by pushing `value`—a `String` from the closure’s +environment—into the `sort_operations` vector. The closure captures `value` then moves `value` out of the closure by transferring ownership of `value` to the `sort_operations` vector. This closure can be called once; trying to call it a second time wouldn’t work because `value` would no longer be in the @@ -345,25 +395,24 @@ implement `FnMut`: The error points to the line in the closure body that moves `value` out of the environment. To fix this, we need to change the closure body so that it doesn’t -move values out of the environment. If we’re interested in the number of times -`sort_by_key` is called, keeping a counter in the environment and incrementing -its value in the closure body is a more straightforward way to calculate that. -The closure in Listing 13-9 works with `sort_by_key` because it is only -capturing a mutable reference to the `num_sort_operations` counter and can -therefore be called more than once: +move values out of the environment. To count the number of times the closure +is called, keeping a counter in the environment and incrementing its value in +the closure body is a more straightforward way to calculate that. The closure +in Listing 13-9 works with `sort_by_key` because it is only capturing a mutable +reference to the `num_sort_operations` counter and can therefore be called more +than once: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-09/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 13-9: Using an `FnMut` closure with `sort_by_key` -is allowed + The `Fn` traits are important when defining or using functions or types that -make use of closures. The next section discusses iterators, and many iterator -methods take closure arguments. Keep these details of closures in mind as we -explore iterators! +make use of closures. In the next section, we’ll discuss iterators. Many +iterator methods take closure arguments, so keep these closure details in mind +as we continue! [unwrap-or-else]: ../std/option/enum.Option.html#method.unwrap_or_else diff --git a/src/ch13-02-iterators.md b/src/ch13-02-iterators.md index f6a0485c9d..65573f114c 100644 --- a/src/ch13-02-iterators.md +++ b/src/ch13-02-iterators.md @@ -5,34 +5,38 @@ turn. An iterator is responsible for the logic of iterating over each item and determining when the sequence has finished. When you use iterators, you don’t have to reimplement that logic yourself. -In Rust, iterators are *lazy*, meaning they have no effect until you call +In Rust, iterators are _lazy_, meaning they have no effect until you call methods that consume the iterator to use it up. For example, the code in Listing 13-10 creates an iterator over the items in the vector `v1` by calling the `iter` method defined on `Vec`. This code by itself doesn’t do anything useful. ++ ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-10: Creating an iterator + + +The iterator is stored in the `v1_iter` variable. Once we’ve created an +iterator, we can use it in a variety of ways. In Listing 3-5 in Chapter 3, we +iterated over an array using a `for` loop to execute some code on each of its +items. Under the hood this implicitly created and then consumed an iterator, +but we glossed over how exactly that works until now. -Once we’ve created an iterator, we can use it in a variety of ways. In Listing -3-5 in Chapter 3, we iterated over an array using a `for` loop to execute some -code on each of its items. Under the hood this implicitly created and then -consumed an iterator, but we glossed over how exactly that works until now. +In the example in Listing 13-11, we separate the creation of the iterator from +the use of the iterator in the `for` loop. When the `for` loop is called using +the iterator in `v1_iter`, each element in the iterator is used in one +iteration of the loop, which prints out each value. -The example in Listing 13-11 separates the creation of the iterator from the -use of the iterator in the `for` loop. The iterator is stored in the `v1_iter` -variable, and no iteration takes place at that time. When the `for` loop is -called using the iterator in `v1_iter`, each element in the iterator is used in -one iteration of the loop, which prints out each value. + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-11: Using an iterator in a `for` loop + In languages that don’t have iterators provided by their standard libraries, you would likely write this same functionality by starting a variable at index @@ -61,8 +65,8 @@ pub trait Iterator { ``` Notice this definition uses some new syntax: `type Item` and `Self::Item`, -which are defining an *associated type* with this trait. We’ll talk about -associated types in depth in Chapter 19. For now, all you need to know is that +which are defining an _associated type_ with this trait. We’ll talk about +associated types in depth in Chapter 20. For now, all you need to know is that this code says implementing the `Iterator` trait requires that you also define an `Item` type, and this `Item` type is used in the return type of the `next` method. In other words, the `Item` type will be the type returned from the @@ -76,18 +80,17 @@ We can call the `next` method on iterators directly; Listing 13-12 demonstrates what values are returned from repeated calls to `next` on the iterator created from the vector. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-12/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-12: Calling the `next` method on an -iterator + Note that we needed to make `v1_iter` mutable: calling the `next` method on an iterator changes internal state that the iterator uses to keep track of where -it is in the sequence. In other words, this code *consumes*, or uses up, the +it is in the sequence. In other words, this code _consumes_, or uses up, the iterator. Each call to `next` eats up an item from the iterator. We didn’t need to make `v1_iter` mutable when we used a `for` loop because the loop took ownership of `v1_iter` and made it mutable behind the scenes. @@ -108,101 +111,102 @@ trait. Some of these methods call the `next` method in their definition, which is why you’re required to implement the `next` method when implementing the `Iterator` trait. -Methods that call `next` are called *consuming adaptors*, because calling them +Methods that call `next` are called _consuming adapters_, because calling them uses up the iterator. One example is the `sum` method, which takes ownership of the iterator and iterates through the items by repeatedly calling `next`, thus consuming the iterator. As it iterates through, it adds each item to a running total and returns the total when iteration is complete. Listing 13-13 has a test illustrating a use of the `sum` method: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-13/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-13: Calling the `sum` method to get the total -of all items in the iterator + We aren’t allowed to use `v1_iter` after the call to `sum` because `sum` takes ownership of the iterator we call it on. ### Methods that Produce Other Iterators -Other methods defined on the `Iterator` trait, known as *iterator adaptors*, -allow you to change iterators into different kinds of iterators. You can chain -multiple calls to iterator adaptors to perform complex actions in a readable -way. But because all iterators are lazy, you have to call one of the consuming -adaptor methods to get results from calls to iterator adaptors. +_Iterator adapters_ are methods defined on the `Iterator` trait that don’t +consume the iterator. Instead, they produce different iterators by changing +some aspect of the original iterator. -Listing 13-14 shows an example of calling the iterator adaptor method `map`, -which takes a closure to call on each item to produce a new iterator. The -closure here creates a new iterator in which each item from the vector has been -incremented by 1. However, this code produces a warning: +Listing 13-14 shows an example of calling the iterator adapter method `map`, +which takes a closure to call on each item as the items are iterated through. +The `map` method returns a new iterator that produces the modified items. The +closure here creates a new iterator in which each item from the vector will be +incremented by 1: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,not_desired_behavior {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-14/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-14: Calling the iterator adaptor `map` to -create a new iterator + -The warning we get is this: +However, this code produces a warning: ```console {{#include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-14/output.txt}} ``` The code in Listing 13-14 doesn’t do anything; the closure we’ve specified -never gets called. The warning reminds us why: iterator adaptors are lazy, and +never gets called. The warning reminds us why: iterator adapters are lazy, and we need to consume the iterator here. -To fix this and consume the iterator, we’ll use the `collect` method, which we -used in Chapter 12 with `env::args` in Listing 12-1. This method consumes the -iterator and collects the resulting values into a collection data type. +To fix this warning and consume the iterator, we’ll use the `collect` method, +which we used in Chapter 12 with `env::args` in Listing 12-1. This method +consumes the iterator and collects the resulting values into a collection data +type. In Listing 13-15, we collect the results of iterating over the iterator that’s returned from the call to `map` into a vector. This vector will end up containing each item from the original vector incremented by 1. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-15/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-15: Calling the `map` method to create a new -iterator and then calling the `collect` method to consume the new iterator and -create a vector + Because `map` takes a closure, we can specify any operation we want to perform on each item. This is a great example of how closures let you customize some behavior while reusing the iteration behavior that the `Iterator` trait provides. +You can chain multiple calls to iterator adapters to perform complex actions in +a readable way. But because all iterators are lazy, you have to call one of the +consuming adapter methods to get results from calls to iterator adapters. + ### Using Closures that Capture Their Environment -Now that we’ve introduced iterators, we can demonstrate a common use of -closures that capture their environment by using the `filter` iterator adaptor. -The `filter` method on an iterator takes a closure that takes each item from -the iterator and returns a Boolean. If the closure returns `true`, the value -will be included in the iterator produced by `filter`. If the closure returns -`false`, the value won’t be included in the resulting iterator. +Many iterator adapters take closures as arguments, and commonly the closures +we’ll specify as arguments to iterator adapters will be closures that capture +their environment. + +For this example, we’ll use the `filter` method that takes a closure. The +closure gets an item from the iterator and returns a `bool`. If the closure +returns `true`, the value will be included in the iteration produced by +`filter`. If the closure returns `false`, the value won’t be included. In Listing 13-16, we use `filter` with a closure that captures the `shoe_size` variable from its environment to iterate over a collection of `Shoe` struct instances. It will return only shoes that are the specified size. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-16/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 13-16: Using the `filter` method with a closure -that captures `shoe_size` + The `shoes_in_size` function takes ownership of a vector of shoes and a shoe size as parameters. It returns a vector containing only shoes of the specified diff --git a/src/ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.md b/src/ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.md index 2f5d6cdc68..489bdc10fa 100644 --- a/src/ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.md +++ b/src/ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.md @@ -3,46 +3,45 @@ With this new knowledge about iterators, we can improve the I/O project in Chapter 12 by using iterators to make places in the code clearer and more concise. Let’s look at how iterators can improve our implementation of the -`Config::new` function and the `search` function. +`Config::build` function and the `search` function. ### Removing a `clone` Using an Iterator In Listing 12-6, we added code that took a slice of `String` values and created an instance of the `Config` struct by indexing into the slice and cloning the values, allowing the `Config` struct to own those values. In Listing 13-17, -we’ve reproduced the implementation of the `Config::new` function as it was in -Listing 12-23: +we’ve reproduced the implementation of the `Config::build` function as it was +in Listing 12-23: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-23-reproduced/src/lib.rs:ch13}} ``` -Listing 13-17: Reproduction of the `Config::new` function -from Listing 12-23 + At the time, we said not to worry about the inefficient `clone` calls because we would remove them in the future. Well, that time is now! We needed `clone` here because we have a slice with `String` elements in the -parameter `args`, but the `new` function doesn’t own `args`. To return +parameter `args`, but the `build` function doesn’t own `args`. To return ownership of a `Config` instance, we had to clone the values from the `query` -and `filename` fields of `Config` so the `Config` instance can own its values. +and `file_path` fields of `Config` so the `Config` instance can own its values. -With our new knowledge about iterators, we can change the `new` function to +With our new knowledge about iterators, we can change the `build` function to take ownership of an iterator as its argument instead of borrowing a slice. We’ll use the iterator functionality instead of the code that checks the length of the slice and indexes into specific locations. This will clarify what the -`Config::new` function is doing because the iterator will access the values. +`Config::build` function is doing because the iterator will access the values. -Once `Config::new` takes ownership of the iterator and stops using indexing +Once `Config::build` takes ownership of the iterator and stops using indexing operations that borrow, we can move the `String` values from the iterator into `Config` rather than calling `clone` and making a new allocation. #### Using the Returned Iterator Directly -Open your I/O project’s *src/main.rs* file, which should look like this: +Open your I/O project’s _src/main.rs_ file, which should look like this: Filename: src/main.rs @@ -50,47 +49,45 @@ Open your I/O project’s *src/main.rs* file, which should look like this: {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-12-24-reproduced/src/main.rs:ch13}} ``` -We’ll change the start of the `main` function that we had in Listing 12-24 to -the code in Listing 13-18. This won’t compile until we update `Config::new` as -well. +We’ll first change the start of the `main` function that we had in Listing +12-24 to the code in Listing 13-18, which this time uses an iterator. This +won’t compile until we update `Config::build` as well. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-18: Passing the return value of `env::args` to -`Config::new` + The `env::args` function returns an iterator! Rather than collecting the -iterator values into a vector and then passing a slice to `Config::new`, now +iterator values into a vector and then passing a slice to `Config::build`, now we’re passing ownership of the iterator returned from `env::args` to -`Config::new` directly. +`Config::build` directly. -Next, we need to update the definition of `Config::new`. In your I/O project’s -*src/lib.rs* file, let’s change the signature of `Config::new` to look like -Listing 13-19. This still won’t compile because we need to update the function -body. +Next, we need to update the definition of `Config::build`. In your I/O +project’s _src/lib.rs_ file, let’s change the signature of `Config::build` to +look like Listing 13-19. This still won’t compile because we need to update the +function body. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-19/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-19: Updating the signature of `Config::new` to -expect an iterator + The standard library documentation for the `env::args` function shows that the type of the iterator it returns is `std::env::Args`, and that type implements the `Iterator` trait and returns `String` values. -We’ve updated the signature of the `Config::new` function so the parameter +We’ve updated the signature of the `Config::build` function so the parameter `args` has a generic type with the trait bounds `impl Iterator` instead of `&[String]`. This usage of the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed in the [“Traits as Parameters”][impl-trait] section of Chapter 10 -means that `args` can be any type that implements the `Iterator` type and +means that `args` can be any type that implements the `Iterator` trait and returns `String` items. Because we’re taking ownership of `args` and we’ll be mutating `args` by @@ -99,18 +96,17 @@ iterating over it, we can add the `mut` keyword into the specification of the #### Using `Iterator` Trait Methods Instead of Indexing -Next, we’ll fix the body of `Config::new`. Because `args` implements the +Next, we’ll fix the body of `Config::build`. Because `args` implements the `Iterator` trait, we know we can call the `next` method on it! Listing 13-20 updates the code from Listing 12-23 to use the `next` method: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-20/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-20: Changing the body of `Config::new` to use -iterator methods + Remember that the first value in the return value of `env::args` is the name of the program. We want to ignore that and get to the next value, so first we call @@ -118,51 +114,51 @@ the program. We want to ignore that and get to the next value, so first we call value we want to put in the `query` field of `Config`. If `next` returns a `Some`, we use a `match` to extract the value. If it returns `None`, it means not enough arguments were given and we return early with an `Err` value. We do -the same thing for the `filename` value. +the same thing for the `file_path` value. -### Making Code Clearer with Iterator Adaptors +### Making Code Clearer with Iterator Adapters We can also take advantage of iterators in the `search` function in our I/O project, which is reproduced here in Listing 13-21 as it was in Listing 12-19: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch12-an-io-project/listing-12-19/src/lib.rs:ch13}} ``` -Listing 13-21: The implementation of the `search` -function from Listing 12-19 + -We can write this code in a more concise way using iterator adaptor methods. +We can write this code in a more concise way using iterator adapter methods. Doing so also lets us avoid having a mutable intermediate `results` vector. The functional programming style prefers to minimize the amount of mutable state to make code clearer. Removing the mutable state might enable a future enhancement to make searching happen in parallel, because we wouldn’t have to manage concurrent access to the `results` vector. Listing 13-22 shows this change: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch13-functional-features/listing-13-22/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 13-22: Using iterator adaptor methods in the -implementation of the `search` function + Recall that the purpose of the `search` function is to return all lines in `contents` that contain the `query`. Similar to the `filter` example in Listing -13-16, this code uses the `filter` adaptor to keep only the lines that +13-16, this code uses the `filter` adapter to keep only the lines that `line.contains(query)` returns `true` for. We then collect the matching lines into another vector with `collect`. Much simpler! Feel free to make the same change to use iterator methods in the `search_case_insensitive` function as well. +### Choosing Between Loops or Iterators + The next logical question is which style you should choose in your own code and why: the original implementation in Listing 13-21 or the version using iterators in Listing 13-22. Most Rust programmers prefer to use the iterator style. It’s a bit tougher to get the hang of at first, but once you get a feel -for the various iterator adaptors and what they do, iterators can be easier to +for the various iterator adapters and what they do, iterators can be easier to understand. Instead of fiddling with the various bits of looping and building new vectors, the code focuses on the high-level objective of the loop. This abstracts away some of the commonplace code so it’s easier to see the concepts diff --git a/src/ch13-04-performance.md b/src/ch13-04-performance.md index 5d09bf2940..d9cc06f99b 100644 --- a/src/ch13-04-performance.md +++ b/src/ch13-04-performance.md @@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ To determine whether to use loops or iterators, you need to know which implementation is faster: the version of the `search` function with an explicit `for` loop or the version with iterators. -We ran a benchmark by loading the entire contents of *The Adventures of -Sherlock Holmes* by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle into a `String` and looking for the -word *the* in the contents. Here are the results of the benchmark on the +We ran a benchmark by loading the entire contents of _The Adventures of +Sherlock Holmes_ by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle into a `String` and looking for the +word _the_ in the contents. Here are the results of the benchmark on the version of `search` using the `for` loop and the version using iterators: ```text @@ -24,10 +24,10 @@ various sizes as the `contents`, different words and words of different lengths as the `query`, and all kinds of other variations. The point is this: iterators, although a high-level abstraction, get compiled down to roughly the same code as if you’d written the lower-level code yourself. Iterators are one -of Rust’s *zero-cost abstractions*, by which we mean using the abstraction +of Rust’s _zero-cost abstractions_, by which we mean using the abstraction imposes no additional runtime overhead. This is analogous to how Bjarne Stroustrup, the original designer and implementor of C++, defines -*zero-overhead* in “Foundations of C++” (2012): +_zero-overhead_ in “Foundations of C++” (2012): > In general, C++ implementations obey the zero-overhead principle: What you > don’t use, you don’t pay for. And further: What you do use, you couldn’t hand @@ -65,12 +65,12 @@ multiply the values together, sum all the results, and shift the bits in the sum `qlp_shift` bits to the right. Calculations in applications like audio decoders often prioritize performance -most highly. Here, we’re creating an iterator, using two adaptors, and then +most highly. Here, we’re creating an iterator, using two adapters, and then consuming the value. What assembly code would this Rust code compile to? Well, as of this writing, it compiles down to the same assembly you’d write by hand. There’s no loop at all corresponding to the iteration over the values in `coefficients`: Rust knows that there are 12 iterations, so it “unrolls” the -loop. *Unrolling* is an optimization that removes the overhead of the loop +loop. _Unrolling_ is an optimization that removes the overhead of the loop controlling code and instead generates repetitive code for each iteration of the loop. diff --git a/src/ch14-00-more-about-cargo.md b/src/ch14-00-more-about-cargo.md index 8f8b8e51c7..a6d0d91549 100644 --- a/src/ch14-00-more-about-cargo.md +++ b/src/ch14-00-more-about-cargo.md @@ -4,12 +4,11 @@ So far we’ve used only the most basic features of Cargo to build, run, and tes our code, but it can do a lot more. In this chapter, we’ll discuss some of its other, more advanced features to show you how to do the following: -* Customize your build through release profiles -* Publish libraries on [crates.io](https://crates.io/) -* Organize large projects with workspaces -* Install binaries from [crates.io](https://crates.io/) -* Extend Cargo using custom commands +- Customize your build through release profiles +- Publish libraries on [crates.io](https://crates.io/) +- Organize large projects with workspaces +- Install binaries from [crates.io](https://crates.io/) +- Extend Cargo using custom commands Cargo can do even more than the functionality we cover in this chapter, so for -a full explanation of all its features, see [its -documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/). +a full explanation of all its features, see [its documentation](https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/). diff --git a/src/ch14-01-release-profiles.md b/src/ch14-01-release-profiles.md index 44391ae611..6dd52c6425 100644 --- a/src/ch14-01-release-profiles.md +++ b/src/ch14-01-release-profiles.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ ## Customizing Builds with Release Profiles -In Rust, *release profiles* are predefined and customizable profiles with +In Rust, _release profiles_ are predefined and customizable profiles with different configurations that allow a programmer to have more control over various options for compiling code. Each profile is configured independently of the others. @@ -21,15 +21,15 @@ and ensure output below is accurate ```console $ cargo build - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.00s $ cargo build --release - Finished release [optimized] target(s) in 0.0s + Finished `release` profile [optimized] target(s) in 0.32s ``` The `dev` and `release` are these different profiles used by the compiler. Cargo has default settings for each of the profiles that apply when you haven't -explicitly added any `[profile.*]` sections in the project’s *Cargo.toml* file. +explicitly added any `[profile.*]` sections in the project’s _Cargo.toml_ file. By adding `[profile.*]` sections for any profile you want to customize, you override any subset of the default settings. For example, here are the default values for the `opt-level` setting for the `dev` and `release` profiles: @@ -55,8 +55,8 @@ so release mode trades longer compile time for code that runs faster. That is why the default `opt-level` for the `release` profile is `3`. You can override a default setting by adding a different value for it in -*Cargo.toml*. For example, if we want to use optimization level 1 in the -development profile, we can add these two lines to our project’s *Cargo.toml* +_Cargo.toml_. For example, if we want to use optimization level 1 in the +development profile, we can add these two lines to our project’s _Cargo.toml_ file: Filename: Cargo.toml diff --git a/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md b/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md index e28e28ec71..5b9b36d321 100644 --- a/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md +++ b/src/ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.md @@ -16,31 +16,30 @@ Accurately documenting your packages will help other users know how and when to use them, so it’s worth investing the time to write documentation. In Chapter 3, we discussed how to comment Rust code using two slashes, `//`. Rust also has a particular kind of comment for documentation, known conveniently as a -*documentation comment*, that will generate HTML documentation. The HTML +_documentation comment_, that will generate HTML documentation. The HTML displays the contents of documentation comments for public API items intended -for programmers interested in knowing how to *use* your crate as opposed to how -your crate is *implemented*. +for programmers interested in knowing how to _use_ your crate as opposed to how +your crate is _implemented_. Documentation comments use three slashes, `///`, instead of two and support Markdown notation for formatting the text. Place documentation comments just before the item they’re documenting. Listing 14-1 shows documentation comments for an `add_one` function in a crate named `my_crate`. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-01/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 14-1: A documentation comment for a -function + Here, we give a description of what the `add_one` function does, start a section with the heading `Examples`, and then provide code that demonstrates how to use the `add_one` function. We can generate the HTML documentation from this documentation comment by running `cargo doc`. This command runs the `rustdoc` tool distributed with Rust and puts the generated HTML documentation -in the *target/doc* directory. +in the _target/doc_ directory. For convenience, running `cargo doc --open` will build the HTML for your current crate’s documentation (as well as the documentation for all of your @@ -59,15 +58,15 @@ We used the `# Examples` Markdown heading in Listing 14-1 to create a section in the HTML with the title “Examples.” Here are some other sections that crate authors commonly use in their documentation: -* **Panics**: The scenarios in which the function being documented could +- **Panics**: The scenarios in which the function being documented could panic. Callers of the function who don’t want their programs to panic should make sure they don’t call the function in these situations. -* **Errors**: If the function returns a `Result`, describing the kinds of +- **Errors**: If the function returns a `Result`, describing the kinds of errors that might occur and what conditions might cause those errors to be returned can be helpful to callers so they can write code to handle the different kinds of errors in different ways. -* **Safety**: If the function is `unsafe` to call (we discuss unsafety in - Chapter 19), there should be a section explaining why the function is unsafe +- **Safety**: If the function is `unsafe` to call (we discuss unsafety in + Chapter 20), there should be a section explaining why the function is unsafe and covering the invariants that the function expects callers to uphold. Most documentation comments don’t need all of these sections, but this is a @@ -107,27 +106,26 @@ that the example and the code are out of sync with each other! The style of doc comment `//!` adds documentation to the item that contains the comments rather than to the items following the comments. We typically use -these doc comments inside the crate root file (*src/lib.rs* by convention) or +these doc comments inside the crate root file (_src/lib.rs_ by convention) or inside a module to document the crate or the module as a whole. For example, to add documentation that describes the purpose of the `my_crate` crate that contains the `add_one` function, we add documentation comments that -start with `//!` to the beginning of the *src/lib.rs* file, as shown in Listing +start with `//!` to the beginning of the _src/lib.rs_ file, as shown in Listing 14-2: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-02/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 14-2: Documentation for the `my_crate` crate as a -whole + Notice there isn’t any code after the last line that begins with `//!`. Because we started the comments with `//!` instead of `///`, we’re documenting the item that contains this comment rather than an item that follows this comment. In -this case, that item is the *src/lib.rs* file, which is the crate root. These +this case, that item is the _src/lib.rs_ file, which is the crate root. These comments describe the entire crate. When we run `cargo doc --open`, these comments will display on the front @@ -160,7 +158,7 @@ They might also be annoyed at having to enter `use` `my_crate::some_module::another_module::UsefulType;` rather than `use` `my_crate::UsefulType;`. -The good news is that if the structure *isn’t* convenient for others to use +The good news is that if the structure _isn’t_ convenient for others to use from another library, you don’t have to rearrange your internal organization: instead, you can re-export items to make a public structure that’s different from your private structure by using `pub use`. Re-exporting takes a public @@ -172,14 +170,13 @@ Within this library are two modules: a `kinds` module containing two enums named `PrimaryColor` and `SecondaryColor` and a `utils` module containing a function named `mix`, as shown in Listing 14-3: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground,test_harness {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-03/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 14-3: An `art` library with items organized into -`kinds` and `utils` modules + Figure 14-3 shows what the front page of the documentation for this crate generated by `cargo doc` would look like: @@ -198,14 +195,13 @@ bring the items from `art` into scope, specifying the module structure that’s currently defined. Listing 14-4 shows an example of a crate that uses the `PrimaryColor` and `mix` items from the `art` crate: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-04/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 14-4: A crate using the `art` crate’s items with -its internal structure exported + The author of the code in Listing 14-4, which uses the `art` crate, had to figure out that `PrimaryColor` is in the `kinds` module and `mix` is in the @@ -220,14 +216,13 @@ To remove the internal organization from the public API, we can modify the `art` crate code in Listing 14-3 to add `pub use` statements to re-export the items at the top level, as shown in Listing 14-5: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-05/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 14-5: Adding `pub use` statements to re-export -items + The API documentation that `cargo doc` generates for this crate will now list and link re-exports on the front page, as shown in Figure 14-4, making the @@ -242,18 +237,19 @@ The `art` crate users can still see and use the internal structure from Listing 14-3 as demonstrated in Listing 14-4, or they can use the more convenient structure in Listing 14-5, as shown in Listing 14-6: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/listing-14-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 14-6: A program using the re-exported items from -the `art` crate + In cases where there are many nested modules, re-exporting the types at the top level with `pub use` can make a significant difference in the experience of -people who use the crate. +people who use the crate. Another common use of `pub use` is to re-export +definitions of a dependency in the current crate to make that crate's +definitions part of your crate’s public API. Creating a useful public API structure is more of an art than a science, and you can iterate to find the API that works best for your users. Choosing `pub @@ -271,14 +267,15 @@ in via a GitHub account. (The GitHub account is currently a requirement, but the site might support other ways of creating an account in the future.) Once you’re logged in, visit your account settings at [https://crates.io/me/](https://crates.io/me/) and retrieve your -API key. Then run the `cargo login` command with your API key, like this: +API key. Then run the `cargo login` command and paste your API key when prompted, like this: ```console -$ cargo login abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz012345 +$ cargo login +abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz012345 ``` This command will inform Cargo of your API token and store it locally in -*~/.cargo/credentials*. Note that this token is a *secret*: do not share it +_~/.cargo/credentials_. Note that this token is a _secret_: do not share it with anyone else. If you do share it with anyone for any reason, you should revoke it and generate a new token on [crates.io](https://crates.io/). @@ -286,7 +283,7 @@ revoke it and generate a new token on [crates.io](https://crates.io/) for others to use. -Be careful, because a publish is *permanent*. The version can never be +Be careful, because a publish is _permanent_. The version can never be overwritten, and the code cannot be deleted. One major goal of [crates.io](https://crates.io/) is to act as a permanent archive of code so that builds of all projects that depend on crates from @@ -404,7 +401,7 @@ $ cargo publish Verifying guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) Compiling guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game/target/package/guessing_game-0.1.0) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.19s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.19s Uploading guessing_game v0.1.0 (file:///projects/guessing_game) ``` @@ -414,12 +411,13 @@ anyone can easily add your crate as a dependency of their project. ### Publishing a New Version of an Existing Crate When you’ve made changes to your crate and are ready to release a new version, -you change the `version` value specified in your *Cargo.toml* file and +you change the `version` value specified in your _Cargo.toml_ file and republish. Use the [Semantic Versioning rules][semver] to decide what an appropriate next version number is based on the kinds of changes you’ve made. Then run `cargo publish` to upload the new version. + ### Deprecating Versions from Crates.io with `cargo yank` @@ -427,19 +425,28 @@ Then run `cargo publish` to upload the new version. Although you can’t remove previous versions of a crate, you can prevent any future projects from adding them as a new dependency. This is useful when a crate version is broken for one reason or another. In such situations, Cargo -supports *yanking* a crate version. +supports _yanking_ a crate version. Yanking a version prevents new projects from depending on that version while allowing all existing projects that depend on it to continue. Essentially, a -yank means that all projects with a *Cargo.lock* will not break, and any future -*Cargo.lock* files generated will not use the yanked version. +yank means that all projects with a _Cargo.lock_ will not break, and any future +_Cargo.lock_ files generated will not use the yanked version. To yank a version of a crate, in the directory of the crate that you’ve previously published, run `cargo yank` and specify which version you want to -yank: +yank. For example, if we've published a crate named `guessing_game` version +1.0.1 and we want to yank it, in the project directory for `guessing_game` we'd +run: + + ```console $ cargo yank --vers 1.0.1 + Updating crates.io index + Yank guessing_game@1.0.1 ``` By adding `--undo` to the command, you can also undo a yank and allow projects @@ -447,9 +454,11 @@ to start depending on a version again: ```console $ cargo yank --vers 1.0.1 --undo + Updating crates.io index + Unyank guessing_game@1.0.1 ``` -A yank *does not* delete any code. It cannot, for example, delete accidentally +A yank _does not_ delete any code. It cannot, for example, delete accidentally uploaded secrets. If that happens, you must reset those secrets immediately. [spdx]: http://spdx.org/licenses/ diff --git a/src/ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.md b/src/ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.md index a7e42aafce..8f257b5849 100644 --- a/src/ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.md +++ b/src/ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.md @@ -3,12 +3,12 @@ In Chapter 12, we built a package that included a binary crate and a library crate. As your project develops, you might find that the library crate continues to get bigger and you want to split your package further into -multiple library crates. Cargo offers a feature called *workspaces* that can +multiple library crates. Cargo offers a feature called _workspaces_ that can help manage multiple related packages that are developed in tandem. ### Creating a Workspace -A *workspace* is a set of packages that share the same *Cargo.lock* and output +A _workspace_ is a set of packages that share the same _Cargo.lock_ and output directory. Let’s make a project using a workspace—we’ll use trivial code so we can concentrate on the structure of the workspace. There are multiple ways to structure a workspace, so we'll just show one common way. We’ll have a @@ -23,21 +23,24 @@ $ mkdir add $ cd add ``` -Next, in the *add* directory, we create the *Cargo.toml* file that will -configure the entire workspace. This file won’t have a `[package]` section or -the metadata we’ve seen in other *Cargo.toml* files. Instead, it will start -with a `[workspace]` section that will allow us to add members to the workspace -by specifying the path to the package with our binary crate; in this case, -that path is *adder*: +Next, in the _add_ directory, we create the _Cargo.toml_ file that will +configure the entire workspace. This file won’t have a `[package]` section. +Instead, it will start with a `[workspace]` section that will allow us to add +members to the workspace. We also make a point to use the latest and greatest +version of Cargo’s resolver algorithm in our workspace by setting the +`resolver` to `"2"`. + +by specifying the path to the package with our binary +crate; in this case, that path is _adder_: Filename: Cargo.toml ```toml -{{#include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace-with-adder-crate/add/Cargo.toml}} +{{#include ../listings/ch14-more-about-cargo/no-listing-01-workspace/add/Cargo.toml}} ``` Next, we’ll create the `adder` binary crate by running `cargo new` within the -*add* directory: +_add_ directory: add_one/src/lib.rs:1:5 @@ -237,17 +249,16 @@ warning: unused import: `rand` | = note: `#[warn(unused_imports)]` on by default -warning: 1 warning emitted - +warning: `add_one` (lib) generated 1 warning (run `cargo fix --lib -p add_one` to apply 1 suggestion) Compiling adder v0.1.0 (file:///projects/add/adder) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 10.18s + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.95s ``` -The top-level *Cargo.lock* now contains information about the dependency of +The top-level _Cargo.lock_ now contains information about the dependency of `add_one` on `rand`. However, even though `rand` is used somewhere in the workspace, we can’t use it in other crates in the workspace unless we add -`rand` to their *Cargo.toml* files as well. For example, if we add `use rand;` -to the *adder/src/main.rs* file for the `adder` package, we’ll get an error: +`rand` to their _Cargo.toml_ files as well. For example, if we add `use rand;` +to the _adder/src/main.rs_ file for the `adder` package, we’ll get an error: + ## Installing Binaries with `cargo install` @@ -7,18 +8,17 @@ The `cargo install` command allows you to install and use binary crates locally. This isn’t intended to replace system packages; it’s meant to be a convenient way for Rust developers to install tools that others have shared on [crates.io](https://crates.io/). Note that you can only install -packages that have binary targets. A *binary target* is the runnable program -that is created if the crate has a *src/main.rs* file or another file specified +packages that have binary targets. A _binary target_ is the runnable program +that is created if the crate has a _src/main.rs_ file or another file specified as a binary, as opposed to a library target that isn’t runnable on its own but is suitable for including within other programs. Usually, crates have -information in the *README* file about whether a crate is a library, has a +information in the _README_ file about whether a crate is a library, has a binary target, or both. All binaries installed with `cargo install` are stored in the installation -root’s *bin* folder. If you installed Rust using *rustup.rs* and don’t have any +root’s _bin_ folder. If you installed Rust using _rustup.rs_ and don’t have any custom configurations, this directory will be *$HOME/.cargo/bin*. Ensure that -directory is in your `$PATH` to be able to run programs you’ve installed with -`cargo install`. +directory is in your `$PATH`to be able to run programs you’ve installed with`cargo install`. For example, in Chapter 12 we mentioned that there’s a Rust implementation of the `grep` tool called `ripgrep` for searching files. To install `ripgrep`, we @@ -31,14 +31,14 @@ cargo install something you don't have, copy relevant output below ```console $ cargo install ripgrep Updating crates.io index - Downloaded ripgrep v11.0.2 + Downloaded ripgrep v13.0.0 Downloaded 1 crate (243.3 KB) in 0.88s - Installing ripgrep v11.0.2 + Installing ripgrep v13.0.0 --snip-- - Compiling ripgrep v11.0.2 - Finished release [optimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 3m 10s + Compiling ripgrep v13.0.0 + Finished `release` profile [optimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 10.64s Installing ~/.cargo/bin/rg - Installed package `ripgrep v11.0.2` (executable `rg`) + Installed package `ripgrep v13.0.0` (executable `rg`) ``` The second-to-last line of the output shows the location and the name of the diff --git a/src/ch15-00-smart-pointers.md b/src/ch15-00-smart-pointers.md index c38ba3e846..323463bf40 100644 --- a/src/ch15-00-smart-pointers.md +++ b/src/ch15-00-smart-pointers.md @@ -1,27 +1,27 @@ # Smart Pointers -A *pointer* is a general concept for a variable that contains an address in +A _pointer_ is a general concept for a variable that contains an address in memory. This address refers to, or “points at,” some other data. The most common kind of pointer in Rust is a reference, which you learned about in Chapter 4. References are indicated by the `&` symbol and borrow the value they point to. They don’t have any special capabilities other than referring to data, and have no overhead. -*Smart pointers*, on the other hand, are data structures that act like a +_Smart pointers_, on the other hand, are data structures that act like a pointer but also have additional metadata and capabilities. The concept of smart pointers isn’t unique to Rust: smart pointers originated in C++ and exist in other languages as well. Rust has a variety of smart pointers defined in the standard library that provide functionality beyond that provided by references. -To explore the general concept, we'll look at a couple of different examples of -smart pointers, including a *reference counting* smart pointer type. This +To explore the general concept, we’ll look at a couple of different examples of +smart pointers, including a _reference counting_ smart pointer type. This pointer enables you to allow data to have multiple owners by keeping track of the number of owners and, when no owners remain, cleaning up the data. Rust, with its concept of ownership and borrowing, has an additional difference between references and smart pointers: while references only borrow data, in -many cases, smart pointers *own* the data they point to. +many cases, smart pointers _own_ the data they point to. -Though we didn't call them as much at the time, we’ve already encountered a few +Though we didn’t call them as such at the time, we’ve already encountered a few smart pointers in this book, including `String` and `Vec` in Chapter 8. Both these types count as smart pointers because they own some memory and allow you to manipulate it. They also have metadata and extra capabilities or guarantees. @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ Smart pointers are usually implemented using structs. Unlike an ordinary struct, smart pointers implement the `Deref` and `Drop` traits. The `Deref` trait allows an instance of the smart pointer struct to behave like a reference so you can write your code to work with either references or smart pointers. -The `Drop` trait allows you to customize the code that's run when an instance +The `Drop` trait allows you to customize the code that’s run when an instance of the smart pointer goes out of scope. In this chapter, we’ll discuss both traits and demonstrate why they’re important to smart pointers. @@ -41,13 +41,13 @@ frequently in Rust, this chapter won’t cover every existing smart pointer. Man libraries have their own smart pointers, and you can even write your own. We’ll cover the most common smart pointers in the standard library: -* `Box` for allocating values on the heap -* `Rc`, a reference counting type that enables multiple ownership -* `Ref` and `RefMut`, accessed through `RefCell`, a type that enforces +- `Box` for allocating values on the heap +- `Rc`, a reference counting type that enables multiple ownership +- `Ref` and `RefMut`, accessed through `RefCell`, a type that enforces the borrowing rules at runtime instead of compile time -In addition, we’ll cover the *interior mutability* pattern where an immutable +In addition, we’ll cover the _interior mutability_ pattern where an immutable type exposes an API for mutating an interior value. We’ll also discuss -*reference cycles*: how they can leak memory and how to prevent them. +_reference cycles_: how they can leak memory and how to prevent them. Let’s dive in! diff --git a/src/ch15-01-box.md b/src/ch15-01-box.md index 0166d6abd5..f53ee6aaa7 100644 --- a/src/ch15-01-box.md +++ b/src/ch15-01-box.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ ## Using `Box` to Point to Data on the Heap -The most straightforward smart pointer is a *box*, whose type is written +The most straightforward smart pointer is a _box_, whose type is written `Box`. Boxes allow you to store data on the heap rather than the stack. What remains on the stack is the pointer to the heap data. Refer to Chapter 4 to review the difference between the stack and the heap. @@ -9,11 +9,11 @@ Boxes don’t have performance overhead, other than storing their data on the heap instead of on the stack. But they don’t have many extra capabilities either. You’ll use them most often in these situations: -* When you have a type whose size can’t be known at compile time and you want +- When you have a type whose size can’t be known at compile time and you want to use a value of that type in a context that requires an exact size -* When you have a large amount of data and you want to transfer ownership but +- When you have a large amount of data and you want to transfer ownership but ensure the data won’t be copied when you do so -* When you want to own a value and you care only that it’s a type that +- When you want to own a value and you care only that it’s a type that implements a particular trait rather than being of a specific type We’ll demonstrate the first situation in the [“Enabling Recursive Types with @@ -23,10 +23,10 @@ time because the data is copied around on the stack. To improve performance in this situation, we can store the large amount of data on the heap in a box. Then, only the small amount of pointer data is copied around on the stack, while the data it references stays in one place on the heap. The third case is -known as a *trait object*, and Chapter 17 devotes an entire section, [“Using +known as a _trait object_, and Chapter 18 devotes an entire section, [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types,”][trait-objects] just to that topic. So what you learn here you’ll apply again in -Chapter 17! +Chapter 18! ### Using a `Box` to Store Data on the Heap @@ -35,14 +35,13 @@ syntax and how to interact with values stored within a `Box`. Listing 15-1 shows how to use a box to store an `i32` value on the heap: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-1: Storing an `i32` value on the heap using a -box + We define the variable `b` to have the value of a `Box` that points to the value `5`, which is allocated on the heap. This program will print `b = 5`; in @@ -60,14 +59,14 @@ wouldn’t be allowed to if we didn’t have boxes. ### Enabling Recursive Types with Boxes -A value of *recursive type* can have another value of the same type as part of +A value of _recursive type_ can have another value of the same type as part of itself. Recursive types pose an issue because at compile time Rust needs to know how much space a type takes up. However, the nesting of values of recursive types could theoretically continue infinitely, so Rust can’t know how much space the value needs. Because boxes have a known size, we can enable recursive types by inserting a box in the recursive type definition. -As an example of a recursive type, let’s explore the *cons list*. This is a data +As an example of a recursive type, let’s explore the _cons list_. This is a data type commonly found in functional programming languages. The cons list type we’ll define is straightforward except for the recursion; therefore, the concepts in the example we’ll work with will be useful any time you get into @@ -75,13 +74,14 @@ more complex situations involving recursive types. #### More Information About the Cons List -A *cons list* is a data structure that comes from the Lisp programming language -and its dialects and is made up of nested pairs. Its name comes from the `cons` -function (short for “construct function”) in Lisp that constructs a new pair -from its two arguments. By calling `cons` on a pair consisting of a value and -another pair, we can construct cons lists made up of recursive pairs. +A _cons list_ is a data structure that comes from the Lisp programming language +and its dialects and is made up of nested pairs, and is the Lisp version of a +linked list. Its name comes from the `cons` function (short for “construct +function”) in Lisp that constructs a new pair from its two arguments. By +calling `cons` on a pair consisting of a value and another pair, we can +construct cons lists made up of recursive pairs. -For example, here's a pseudocode representation of a cons list containing the +For example, here’s a pseudocode representation of a cons list containing the list 1, 2, 3 with each pair in parentheses: ```text @@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ which is an invalid or absent value. The cons list isn’t a commonly used data structure in Rust. Most of the time when you have a list of items in Rust, `Vec` is a better choice to use. -Other, more complex recursive data types *are* useful in various situations, +Other, more complex recursive data types _are_ useful in various situations, but by starting with the cons list in this chapter, we can explore how boxes let us define a recursive data type without much distraction. @@ -105,14 +105,13 @@ Listing 15-2 contains an enum definition for a cons list. Note that this code won’t compile yet because the `List` type doesn’t have a known size, which we’ll demonstrate. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-2: The first attempt at defining an enum to -represent a cons list data structure of `i32` values + > Note: We’re implementing a cons list that holds only `i32` values for the > purposes of this example. We could have implemented it using generics, as we @@ -122,14 +121,13 @@ represent a cons list data structure of `i32` values Using the `List` type to store the list `1, 2, 3` would look like the code in Listing 15-3: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-3: Using the `List` enum to store the list `1, -2, 3` + The first `Cons` value holds `1` and another `List` value. This `List` value is another `Cons` value that holds `2` and another `List` value. This `List` value @@ -139,17 +137,18 @@ is one more `Cons` value that holds `3` and a `List` value, which is finally If we try to compile the code in Listing 15-3, we get the error shown in Listing 15-4: ++ ```console {{#include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-03/output.txt}} ``` -Listing 15-4: The error we get when attempting to define -a recursive enum + The error shows this type “has infinite size.” The reason is that we’ve defined `List` with a variant that is recursive: it holds another value of itself directly. As a result, Rust can’t figure out how much space it needs to store a -`List` value. Let’s break down why we get this error. First, we'll look at how +`List` value. Let’s break down why we get this error. First, we’ll look at how Rust decides how much space it needs to store a value of a non-recursive type. #### Computing the Size of a Non-Recursive Type @@ -192,10 +191,10 @@ after doing automatic regeneration, look at listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing --> ```text -help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to make `List` representable +help: insert some indirection (e.g., a `Box`, `Rc`, or `&`) to break the cycle | 2 | Cons(i32, Box), - | ^^^^ ^ + | ++++ + ``` In this suggestion, “indirection” means that instead of storing a value @@ -214,14 +213,13 @@ rather than inside one another. We can change the definition of the `List` enum in Listing 15-2 and the usage of the `List` in Listing 15-3 to the code in Listing 15-5, which will compile: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-05/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-5: Definition of `List` that uses `Box` in -order to have a known size + The `Cons` variant needs the size of an `i32` plus the space to store the box’s pointer data. The `Nil` variant stores no values, so it needs less space @@ -241,7 +239,7 @@ other special capabilities, like those we’ll see with the other smart pointer types. They also don’t have the performance overhead that these special capabilities incur, so they can be useful in cases like the cons list where the indirection is the only feature we need. We’ll look at more use cases for boxes -in Chapter 17, too. +in Chapter 18, too. The `Box` type is a smart pointer because it implements the `Deref` trait, which allows `Box` values to be treated like references. When a `Box` @@ -251,4 +249,4 @@ even more important to the functionality provided by the other smart pointer types we’ll discuss in the rest of this chapter. Let’s explore these two traits in more detail. -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types diff --git a/src/ch15-02-deref.md b/src/ch15-02-deref.md index 73ce0c3b78..a0b00e1a7e 100644 --- a/src/ch15-02-deref.md +++ b/src/ch15-02-deref.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ ## Treating Smart Pointers Like Regular References with the `Deref` Trait Implementing the `Deref` trait allows you to customize the behavior of the -*dereference operator* `*` (not to be confused with the multiplication or glob +_dereference operator_ `*` (not to be confused with the multiplication or glob operator). By implementing `Deref` in such a way that a smart pointer can be treated like a regular reference, you can write code that operates on references and use that code with smart pointers too. @@ -11,15 +11,16 @@ Then we’ll try to define a custom type that behaves like `Box`, and see why the dereference operator doesn’t work like a reference on our newly defined type. We’ll explore how implementing the `Deref` trait makes it possible for smart pointers to work in ways similar to references. Then we’ll look at -Rust’s *deref coercion* feature and how it lets us work with either references +Rust’s _deref coercion_ feature and how it lets us work with either references or smart pointers. -> Note: there’s one big difference between the `MyBox` type we’re about to +> Note: There’s one big difference between the `MyBox` type we’re about to > build and the real `Box`: our version will not store its data on the heap. > We are focusing this example on `Deref`, so where the data is actually stored > is less important than the pointer-like behavior. + ### Following the Pointer to the Value @@ -29,19 +30,18 @@ as an arrow to a value stored somewhere else. In Listing 15-6, we create a reference to an `i32` value and then use the dereference operator to follow the reference to the value: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-06/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-6: Using the dereference operator to follow a -reference to an `i32` value + The variable `x` holds an `i32` value `5`. We set `y` equal to a reference to `x`. We can assert that `x` is equal to `5`. However, if we want to make an assertion about the value in `y`, we have to use `*y` to follow the reference -to the value it’s pointing to (hence *dereference*) so the compiler can compare +to the value it’s pointing to (hence _dereference_) so the compiler can compare the actual value. Once we dereference `y`, we have access to the integer value `y` is pointing to that we can compare with `5`. @@ -63,21 +63,21 @@ reference; the dereference operator used on the `Box` in Listing 15-7 functions in the same way as the dereference operator used on the reference in Listing 15-6: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-07/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-7: Using the dereference operator on a -`Box` + The main difference between Listing 15-7 and Listing 15-6 is that here we set -`y` to be an instance of a box pointing to a copied value of `x` rather than a -reference pointing to the value of `x`. In the last assertion, we can use the -dereference operator to follow the box’s pointer in the same way that we did -when `y` was a reference. Next, we’ll explore what is special about `Box` -that enables us to use the dereference operator by defining our own box type. +`y` to be an instance of a `Box` pointing to a copied value of `x` rather +than a reference pointing to the value of `x`. In the last assertion, we can +use the dereference operator to follow the pointer of the `Box` in the same +way that we did when `y` was a reference. Next, we’ll explore what is special +about `Box` that enables us to use the dereference operator by defining our +own type. ### Defining Our Own Smart Pointer @@ -90,13 +90,13 @@ The `Box` type is ultimately defined as a tuple struct with one element, so Listing 15-8 defines a `MyBox` type in the same way. We’ll also define a `new` function to match the `new` function defined on `Box`. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-8: Defining a `MyBox` type + We define a struct named `MyBox` and declare a generic parameter `T`, because we want our type to hold values of any type. The `MyBox` type is a tuple struct @@ -108,14 +108,13 @@ changing it to use the `MyBox` type we’ve defined instead of `Box`. The code in Listing 15-9 won’t compile because Rust doesn’t know how to dereference `MyBox`. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-9: Attempting to use `MyBox` in the same -way we used references and `Box` + Here’s the resulting compilation error: @@ -136,18 +135,18 @@ by the standard library, requires us to implement one method named `deref` that borrows `self` and returns a reference to the inner data. Listing 15-10 contains an implementation of `Deref` to add to the definition of `MyBox`: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-10: Implementing `Deref` on `MyBox` + The `type Target = T;` syntax defines an associated type for the `Deref` trait to use. Associated types are a slightly different way of declaring a generic parameter, but you don’t need to worry about them for now; we’ll cover -them in more detail in Chapter 19. +them in more detail in Chapter 20. We fill in the body of the `deref` method with `&self.0` so `deref` returns a reference to the value we want to access with the `*` operator; recall from the @@ -189,10 +188,10 @@ Listing 15-9. ### Implicit Deref Coercions with Functions and Methods -*Deref coercion* converts a reference to a type that implements the `Deref` +_Deref coercion_ converts a reference to a type that implements the `Deref` trait into a reference to another type. For example, deref coercion can convert `&String` to `&str` because `String` implements the `Deref` trait such that it -returns `&str`. Deref conversion is a convenience Rust performs on arguments to +returns `&str`. Deref coercion is a convenience Rust performs on arguments to functions and methods, and works only on types that implement the `Deref` trait. It happens automatically when we pass a reference to a particular type’s value as an argument to a function or method that doesn’t match the parameter @@ -209,27 +208,25 @@ Listing 15-8 as well as the implementation of `Deref` that we added in Listing 15-10. Listing 15-11 shows the definition of a function that has a string slice parameter: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-11: A `hello` function that has the parameter -`name` of type `&str` + We can call the `hello` function with a string slice as an argument, such as `hello("Rust");` for example. Deref coercion makes it possible to call `hello` with a reference to a value of type `MyBox`, as shown in Listing 15-12: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-12/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-12: Calling `hello` with a reference to a -`MyBox` value, which works because of deref coercion + Here we’re calling the `hello` function with the argument `&m`, which is a reference to a `MyBox` value. Because we implemented the `Deref` trait @@ -243,14 +240,13 @@ If Rust didn’t implement deref coercion, we would have to write the code in Listing 15-13 instead of the code in Listing 15-12 to call `hello` with a value of type `&MyBox`. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-13/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-13: The code we would have to write if Rust -didn’t have deref coercion + The `(*m)` dereferences the `MyBox` into a `String`. Then the `&` and `[..]` take a string slice of the `String` that is equal to the whole string to @@ -273,9 +269,9 @@ operator on mutable references. Rust does deref coercion when it finds types and trait implementations in three cases: -* From `&T` to `&U` when `T: Deref` -* From `&mut T` to `&mut U` when `T: DerefMut` -* From `&mut T` to `&U` when `T: Deref` +- From `&T` to `&U` when `T: Deref` +- From `&mut T` to `&mut U` when `T: DerefMut` +- From `&mut T` to `&U` when `T: Deref` The first two cases are the same as each other except that the second implements mutability. The first case states that if you have a `&T`, and `T` @@ -283,7 +279,7 @@ implements `Deref` to some type `U`, you can get a `&U` transparently. The second case states that the same deref coercion happens for mutable references. The third case is trickier: Rust will also coerce a mutable reference to an -immutable one. But the reverse is *not* possible: immutable references will +immutable one. But the reverse is _not_ possible: immutable references will never coerce to mutable references. Because of the borrowing rules, if you have a mutable reference, that mutable reference must be the only reference to that data (otherwise, the program wouldn’t compile). Converting one mutable diff --git a/src/ch15-03-drop.md b/src/ch15-03-drop.md index fcc7dc491e..4f0b96bd97 100644 --- a/src/ch15-03-drop.md +++ b/src/ch15-03-drop.md @@ -3,14 +3,15 @@ The second trait important to the smart pointer pattern is `Drop`, which lets you customize what happens when a value is about to go out of scope. You can provide an implementation for the `Drop` trait on any type, and that code can -be used to release resources like files or network connections. We’re -introducing `Drop` in the context of smart pointers because the functionality -of the `Drop` trait is almost always used when implementing a smart pointer. -For example, when a `Box` is dropped it will deallocate the space on the -heap that the box points to. +be used to release resources like files or network connections. + +We’re introducing `Drop` in the context of smart pointers because the +functionality of the `Drop` trait is almost always used when implementing a +smart pointer. For example, when a `Box` is dropped it will deallocate the +space on the heap that the box points to. In some languages, for some types, the programmer must call code to free memory -or resources every time they finish using an instance those types. Examples +or resources every time they finish using an instance of those types. Examples include file handles, sockets, or locks. If they forget, the system might become overloaded and crash. In Rust, you can specify that a particular bit of code be run whenever a value goes out of scope, and the compiler will insert @@ -27,14 +28,13 @@ Listing 15-14 shows a `CustomSmartPointer` struct whose only custom functionality is that it will print `Dropping CustomSmartPointer!` when the instance goes out of scope, to show when Rust runs the `drop` function. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-14/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-14: A `CustomSmartPointer` struct that -implements the `Drop` trait where we would put our cleanup code + The `Drop` trait is included in the prelude, so we don’t need to bring it into scope. We implement the `Drop` trait on `CustomSmartPointer` and provide an @@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ When we run this program, we’ll see the following output: Rust automatically called `drop` for us when our instances went out of scope, calling the code we specified. Variables are dropped in the reverse order of -their creation, so `d` was dropped before `c`. This example's purpose is to +their creation, so `d` was dropped before `c`. This example’s purpose is to give you a visual guide to how the `drop` method works; usually you would specify the cleanup code that your type needs to run rather than a print message. @@ -78,14 +78,13 @@ If we try to call the `Drop` trait’s `drop` method manually by modifying the `main` function from Listing 15-14, as shown in Listing 15-15, we’ll get a compiler error: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-15/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-15: Attempting to call the `drop` method from -the `Drop` trait manually to clean up early + When we try to compile this code, we’ll get this error: @@ -94,14 +93,14 @@ When we try to compile this code, we’ll get this error: ``` This error message states that we’re not allowed to explicitly call `drop`. The -error message uses the term *destructor*, which is the general programming term -for a function that cleans up an instance. A *destructor* is analogous to a -*constructor*, which creates an instance. The `drop` function in Rust is one +error message uses the term _destructor_, which is the general programming term +for a function that cleans up an instance. A _destructor_ is analogous to a +_constructor_, which creates an instance. The `drop` function in Rust is one particular destructor. Rust doesn’t let us call `drop` explicitly because Rust would still automatically call `drop` on the value at the end of `main`. This would cause a -*double free* error because Rust would be trying to clean up the same value +_double free_ error because Rust would be trying to clean up the same value twice. We can’t disable the automatic insertion of `drop` when a value goes out of @@ -113,14 +112,13 @@ trait. We call it by passing as an argument the value we want to force drop. The function is in the prelude, so we can modify `main` in Listing 15-15 to call the `drop` function, as shown in Listing 15-16: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-16/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-16: Calling `std::mem::drop` to explicitly -drop a value before it goes out of scope + Running this code will print the following: @@ -128,7 +126,7 @@ Running this code will print the following: {{#include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-16/output.txt}} ``` -The text ```Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `some data`!``` is printed +The text ``Dropping CustomSmartPointer with data `some data`!`` is printed between the `CustomSmartPointer created.` and `CustomSmartPointer dropped before the end of main.` text, showing that the `drop` method code is called to drop `c` at that point. diff --git a/src/ch15-04-rc.md b/src/ch15-04-rc.md index 87a42eb1a5..6d1b243fc3 100644 --- a/src/ch15-04-rc.md +++ b/src/ch15-04-rc.md @@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ that point to it. A node shouldn’t be cleaned up unless it doesn’t have any edges pointing to it and so has no owners. You have to enable multiple ownership explicitly by using the Rust type -`Rc`, which is an abbreviation for *reference counting*. The `Rc` type +`Rc`, which is an abbreviation for _reference counting_. The `Rc` type keeps track of the number of references to a value to determine whether or not the value is still in use. If there are zero references to a value, the value can be cleaned up without any references becoming invalid. @@ -48,14 +48,13 @@ words, both lists will share the first list containing 5 and 10. Trying to implement this scenario using our definition of `List` with `Box` won’t work, as shown in Listing 15-17: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-17/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-17: Demonstrating we’re not allowed to have -two lists using `Box` that try to share ownership of a third list + When we compile this code, we get this error: @@ -84,14 +83,13 @@ we call `Rc::clone`, the reference count to the data within the `Rc` will increase, and the data won’t be cleaned up unless there are zero references to it. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-18/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-18: A definition of `List` that uses -`Rc` + We need to add a `use` statement to bring `Rc` into scope because it’s not in the prelude. In `main`, we create the list holding 5 and 10 and store it in @@ -118,13 +116,13 @@ counts changing as we create and drop references to the `Rc` in `a`. In Listing 15-19, we’ll change `main` so it has an inner scope around list `c`; then we can see how the reference count changes when `c` goes out of scope. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-19/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-19: Printing the reference count + At each point in the program where the reference count changes, we print the reference count, which we get by calling the `Rc::strong_count` function. This diff --git a/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md b/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md index 7573c0c8f9..77180db94d 100644 --- a/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md +++ b/src/ch15-05-interior-mutability.md @@ -1,16 +1,17 @@ ## `RefCell` and the Interior Mutability Pattern -*Interior mutability* is a design pattern in Rust that allows you to mutate +_Interior mutability_ is a design pattern in Rust that allows you to mutate data even when there are immutable references to that data; normally, this action is disallowed by the borrowing rules. To mutate data, the pattern uses `unsafe` code inside a data structure to bend Rust’s usual rules that govern -mutation and borrowing. We haven’t yet covered unsafe code that indicates we're -checking the rules manually instead of the compiler checking them for us; we -will discuss unsafe code more in Chapter 19. We can use types that use the -interior mutability pattern only when we can ensure that the borrowing rules -will be followed at runtime, even though the compiler can’t guarantee that. The -`unsafe` code involved is then wrapped in a safe API, and the outer type is -still immutable. +mutation and borrowing. Unsafe code indicates to the compiler that we’re +checking the rules manually instead of relying on the compiler to check them +for us; we will discuss unsafe code more in Chapter 20. + +We can use types that use the interior mutability pattern only when we can +ensure that the borrowing rules will be followed at runtime, even though the +compiler can’t guarantee that. The `unsafe` code involved is then wrapped in a +safe API, and the outer type is still immutable. Let’s explore this concept by looking at the `RefCell` type that follows the interior mutability pattern. @@ -21,12 +22,12 @@ Unlike `Rc`, the `RefCell` type represents single ownership over the data it holds. So, what makes `RefCell` different from a type like `Box`? Recall the borrowing rules you learned in Chapter 4: -* At any given time, you can have *either* (but not both) one mutable reference +- At any given time, you can have _either_ (but not both) one mutable reference or any number of immutable references. -* References must always be valid. +- References must always be valid. With references and `Box`, the borrowing rules’ invariants are enforced at -compile time. With `RefCell`, these invariants are enforced *at runtime*. +compile time. With `RefCell`, these invariants are enforced _at runtime_. With references, if you break these rules, you’ll get a compiler error. With `RefCell`, if you break these rules, your program will panic and exit. @@ -59,16 +60,16 @@ multithreaded program in Chapter 16. Here is a recap of the reasons to choose `Box`, `Rc`, or `RefCell`: -* `Rc` enables multiple owners of the same data; `Box` and `RefCell` +- `Rc` enables multiple owners of the same data; `Box` and `RefCell` have single owners. -* `Box` allows immutable or mutable borrows checked at compile time; `Rc` +- `Box` allows immutable or mutable borrows checked at compile time; `Rc` allows only immutable borrows checked at compile time; `RefCell` allows immutable or mutable borrows checked at runtime. -* Because `RefCell` allows mutable borrows checked at runtime, you can +- Because `RefCell` allows mutable borrows checked at runtime, you can mutate the value inside the `RefCell` even when the `RefCell` is immutable. -Mutating the value inside an immutable value is the *interior mutability* +Mutating the value inside an immutable value is the _interior mutability_ pattern. Let’s look at a situation in which interior mutability is useful and examine how it’s possible. @@ -102,11 +103,11 @@ an immutable value and see why that is useful. #### A Use Case for Interior Mutability: Mock Objects Sometimes during testing a programmer will use a type in place of another type, -in order to observe particular behavior and assert it's implemented correctly. -This placeholder type is called a *test double*. Think of it in the sense of a -"stunt double" in filmmaking, where a person steps in and substitutes for an +in order to observe particular behavior and assert it’s implemented correctly. +This placeholder type is called a _test double_. Think of it in the sense of a +“stunt double” in filmmaking, where a person steps in and substitutes for an actor to do a particular tricky scene. Test doubles stand in for other types -when we're running tests. *Mock objects* are specific types of test doubles +when we’re running tests. _Mock objects_ are specific types of test doubles that record what happens during a test so you can assert that the correct actions took place. @@ -128,14 +129,13 @@ email, send a text message, or something else. The library doesn’t need to kno that detail. All it needs is something that implements a trait we’ll provide called `Messenger`. Listing 15-20 shows the library code: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-20/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-20: A library to keep track of how close a -value is to a maximum value and warn when the value is at certain levels + One important part of this code is that the `Messenger` trait has one method called `send` that takes an immutable reference to `self` and the text of the @@ -155,14 +155,13 @@ mock object, call the `set_value` method on `LimitTracker`, and then check that the mock object has the messages we expect. Listing 15-21 shows an attempt to implement a mock object to do just that, but the borrow checker won’t allow it: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-21/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-21: An attempt to implement a `MockMessenger` -that isn’t allowed by the borrow checker + This test code defines a `MockMessenger` struct that has a `sent_messages` field with a `Vec` of `String` values to keep track of the messages it’s told @@ -190,23 +189,23 @@ However, there’s one problem with this test, as shown here: We can’t modify the `MockMessenger` to keep track of the messages, because the `send` method takes an immutable reference to `self`. We also can’t take the -suggestion from the error text to use `&mut self` instead, because then the -signature of `send` wouldn’t match the signature in the `Messenger` trait -definition (feel free to try and see what error message you get). +suggestion from the error text to use `&mut self` in both the `impl` method and +the `trait` definition. We do not want to change the `Messenger` trait solely +for the sake of testing. Instead, we need to find a way to make our test code +work correctly with our existing design. This is a situation in which interior mutability can help! We’ll store the `sent_messages` within a `RefCell`, and then the `send` method will be able to modify `sent_messages` to store the messages we’ve seen. Listing 15-22 shows what that looks like: -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-22/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-22: Using `RefCell` to mutate an inner -value while the outer value is considered immutable + The `sent_messages` field is now of type `RefCell>` instead of `Vec`. In the `new` function, we create a new `RefCell>` @@ -248,14 +247,13 @@ Listing 15-22. We’re deliberately trying to create two mutable borrows active for the same scope to illustrate that `RefCell` prevents us from doing this at runtime. -Filename: src/lib.rs + ```rust,ignore,panics {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-23/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-23: Creating two mutable references in the -same scope to see that `RefCell` will panic + We create a variable `one_borrow` for the `RefMut` smart pointer returned from `borrow_mut`. Then we create another mutable borrow in the same way in the @@ -272,7 +270,7 @@ BorrowMutError`. This is how `RefCell` handles violations of the borrowing rules at runtime. Choosing to catch borrowing errors at runtime rather than compile time, as -we've done here, means you'd potentially be finding mistakes in your code later +we’ve done here, means you’d potentially be finding mistakes in your code later in the development process: possibly not until your code was deployed to production. Also, your code would incur a small runtime performance penalty as a result of keeping track of the borrows at runtime rather than compile time. @@ -287,7 +285,7 @@ provide. A common way to use `RefCell` is in combination with `Rc`. Recall that `Rc` lets you have multiple owners of some data, but it only gives immutable access to that data. If you have an `Rc` that holds a `RefCell`, you can -get a value that can have multiple owners *and* that you can mutate! +get a value that can have multiple owners _and_ that you can mutate! For example, recall the cons list example in Listing 15-18 where we used `Rc` to allow multiple lists to share ownership of another list. Because @@ -297,14 +295,13 @@ change the values in the lists. Listing 15-24 shows that by using a `RefCell` in the `Cons` definition, we can modify the value stored in all the lists: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-24/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-24: Using `Rc>` to create a -`List` that we can mutate + We create a value that is an instance of `Rc>` and store it in a variable named `value` so we can access it directly later. Then we create a @@ -336,13 +333,8 @@ immutable `List` value. But we can use the methods on `RefCell` that provide access to its interior mutability so we can modify our data when we need to. The runtime checks of the borrowing rules protect us from data races, and it’s sometimes worth trading a bit of speed for this flexibility in our data -structures. - -The standard library has other types that provide interior mutability, such as -`Cell`, which is similar except that instead of giving references to the -inner value, the value is copied in and out of the `Cell`. There’s also -`Mutex`, which offers interior mutability that’s safe to use across threads; -we’ll discuss its use in Chapter 16. Check out the standard library docs for -more details on the differences between these types. +structures. Note that `RefCell` does not work for multithreaded code! +`Mutex` is the thread-safe version of `RefCell` and we’ll discuss +`Mutex` in Chapter 16. [wheres-the---operator]: ch05-03-method-syntax.html#wheres-the---operator diff --git a/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md b/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md index 89665f8656..91b176f3b6 100644 --- a/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md +++ b/src/ch15-06-reference-cycles.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ ## Reference Cycles Can Leak Memory Rust’s memory safety guarantees make it difficult, but not impossible, to -accidentally create memory that is never cleaned up (known as a *memory leak*). +accidentally create memory that is never cleaned up (known as a _memory leak_). Preventing memory leaks entirely is not one of Rust’s guarantees, meaning memory leaks are memory safe in Rust. We can see that Rust allows memory leaks by using `Rc` and `RefCell`: it’s possible to create references where @@ -15,14 +15,13 @@ Let’s look at how a reference cycle might happen and how to prevent it, starting with the definition of the `List` enum and a `tail` method in Listing 15-25: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-25/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 15-25: A cons list definition that holds a -`RefCell` so we can modify what a `Cons` variant is referring to + We’re using another variation of the `List` definition from Listing 15-5. The second element in the `Cons` variant is now `RefCell>`, meaning that @@ -37,14 +36,13 @@ the list in `a`. Then it modifies the list in `a` to point to `b`, creating a reference cycle. There are `println!` statements along the way to show what the reference counts are at various points in this process. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-26/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-26: Creating a reference cycle of two `List` -values pointing to each other + We create an `Rc` instance holding a `List` value in the variable `a` with an initial list of `5, Nil`. We then create an `Rc` instance holding @@ -66,7 +64,7 @@ moment, we’ll get this output: The reference count of the `Rc` instances in both `a` and `b` are 2 after we change the list in `a` to point to `b`. At the end of `main`, Rust drops the -variable `b`, which decreases the reference count of the `Rc` instance +variable `b`, which decreases the reference count of the `b` `Rc` instance from 2 to 1. The memory that `Rc` has on the heap won’t be dropped at this point, because its reference count is 1, not 0. Then Rust drops `a`, which decreases the reference count of the `a` `Rc` instance from 2 to 1 as @@ -84,7 +82,7 @@ If you uncomment the last `println!` and run the program, Rust will try to print this cycle with `a` pointing to `b` pointing to `a` and so forth until it overflows the stack. -Compared to a real-world program, the consequences creating a reference cycle +Compared to a real-world program, the consequences of creating a reference cycle in this example aren’t very dire: right after we create the reference cycle, the program ends. However, if a more complex program allocated lots of memory in a cycle and held onto it for a long time, the program would use more memory @@ -113,11 +111,11 @@ reference cycles. So far, we’ve demonstrated that calling `Rc::clone` increases the `strong_count` of an `Rc` instance, and an `Rc` instance is only cleaned -up if its `strong_count` is 0. You can also create a *weak reference* to the +up if its `strong_count` is 0. You can also create a _weak reference_ to the value within an `Rc` instance by calling `Rc::downgrade` and passing a reference to the `Rc`. Strong references are how you can share ownership of an `Rc` instance. Weak references don’t express an ownership relationship, -and their count doesn't affect when an `Rc` instance is cleaned up. They +and their count doesn’t affect when an `Rc` instance is cleaned up. They won’t cause a reference cycle because any cycle involving some weak references will be broken once the strong reference count of values involved is 0. @@ -138,7 +136,7 @@ Rust will ensure that the `Some` case and the `None` case are handled, and there won’t be an invalid pointer. As an example, rather than using a list whose items know only about the next -item, we’ll create a tree whose items know about their children items *and* +item, we’ll create a tree whose items know about their children items _and_ their parent items. #### Creating a Tree Data Structure: a `Node` with Child Nodes @@ -163,14 +161,13 @@ Next, we’ll use our struct definition and create one `Node` instance named `leaf` with the value 3 and no children, and another instance named `branch` with the value 5 and `leaf` as one of its children, as shown in Listing 15-27: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-27/src/main.rs:there}} ``` -Listing 15-27: Creating a `leaf` node with no children -and a `branch` node with `leaf` as one of its children + We clone the `Rc` in `leaf` and store that in `branch`, meaning the `Node` in `leaf` now has two owners: `leaf` and `branch`. We can get from @@ -207,14 +204,13 @@ A node will be able to refer to its parent node but doesn’t own its parent. In Listing 15-28, we update `main` to use this new definition so the `leaf` node will have a way to refer to its parent, `branch`: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-28/src/main.rs:there}} ``` -Listing 15-28: A `leaf` node with a weak reference to its -parent node `branch` + Creating the `leaf` node looks similar to Listing 15-27 with the exception of the `parent` field: `leaf` starts out without a parent, so we create a new, @@ -235,7 +231,7 @@ We still have `leaf` as one of the children of `branch`. Once we have the reference to its parent. We use the `borrow_mut` method on the `RefCell>` in the `parent` field of `leaf`, and then we use the `Rc::downgrade` function to create a `Weak` reference to `branch` from -the `Rc` in `branch.` +the `Rc` in `branch`. When we print the parent of `leaf` again, this time we’ll get a `Some` variant holding `branch`: now `leaf` can access its parent! When we print `leaf`, we @@ -260,14 +256,13 @@ instances change by creating a new inner scope and moving the creation of created and then dropped when it goes out of scope. The modifications are shown in Listing 15-29: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch15-smart-pointers/listing-15-29/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 15-29: Creating `branch` in an inner scope and -examining strong and weak reference counts + After `leaf` is created, its `Rc` has a strong count of 1 and a weak count of 0. In the inner scope, we create `branch` and associate it with diff --git a/src/ch16-00-concurrency.md b/src/ch16-00-concurrency.md index 410f3e40da..27293fd239 100644 --- a/src/ch16-00-concurrency.md +++ b/src/ch16-00-concurrency.md @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ # Fearless Concurrency Handling concurrent programming safely and efficiently is another of Rust’s -major goals. *Concurrent programming*, where different parts of a program -execute independently, and *parallel programming*, where different parts of a +major goals. _Concurrent programming_, where different parts of a program +execute independently, and _parallel programming_, where different parts of a program execute at the same time, are becoming increasingly important as more computers take advantage of their multiple processors. Historically, programming in these contexts has been difficult and error prone: Rust hopes to @@ -11,22 +11,22 @@ change that. Initially, the Rust team thought that ensuring memory safety and preventing concurrency problems were two separate challenges to be solved with different methods. Over time, the team discovered that the ownership and type systems are -a powerful set of tools to help manage memory safety *and* concurrency +a powerful set of tools to help manage memory safety _and_ concurrency problems! By leveraging ownership and type checking, many concurrency errors are compile-time errors in Rust rather than runtime errors. Therefore, rather than making you spend lots of time trying to reproduce the exact circumstances under which a runtime concurrency bug occurs, incorrect code will refuse to compile and present an error explaining the problem. As a result, you can fix your code while you’re working on it rather than potentially after it has been -shipped to production. We’ve nicknamed this aspect of Rust *fearless* -*concurrency*. Fearless concurrency allows you to write code that is free of +shipped to production. We’ve nicknamed this aspect of Rust _fearless_ +_concurrency_. Fearless concurrency allows you to write code that is free of subtle bugs and is easy to refactor without introducing new bugs. > Note: For simplicity’s sake, we’ll refer to many of the problems as -> *concurrent* rather than being more precise by saying *concurrent and/or -> parallel*. If this book were about concurrency and/or parallelism, we’d be -> more specific. For this chapter, please mentally substitute *concurrent -> and/or parallel* whenever we use *concurrent*. +> _concurrent_ rather than being more precise by saying _concurrent and/or +> parallel_. If this book were about concurrency and/or parallelism, we’d be +> more specific. For this chapter, please mentally substitute _concurrent +> and/or parallel_ whenever we use _concurrent_. Many languages are dogmatic about the solutions they offer for handling concurrent problems. For example, Erlang has elegant functionality for @@ -41,9 +41,9 @@ for your situation and requirements. Here are the topics we’ll cover in this chapter: -* How to create threads to run multiple pieces of code at the same time -* *Message-passing* concurrency, where channels send messages between threads -* *Shared-state* concurrency, where multiple threads have access to some piece +- How to create threads to run multiple pieces of code at the same time +- _Message-passing_ concurrency, where channels send messages between threads +- _Shared-state_ concurrency, where multiple threads have access to some piece of data -* The `Sync` and `Send` traits, which extend Rust’s concurrency guarantees to +- The `Sync` and `Send` traits, which extend Rust’s concurrency guarantees to user-defined types as well as types provided by the standard library diff --git a/src/ch16-01-threads.md b/src/ch16-01-threads.md index 52947a99b9..17d56ef7b5 100644 --- a/src/ch16-01-threads.md +++ b/src/ch16-01-threads.md @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ ## Using Threads to Run Code Simultaneously In most current operating systems, an executed program’s code is run in a -*process*, and the operating system will manage multiple processes at once. +_process_, and the operating system will manage multiple processes at once. Within a program, you can also have independent parts that run simultaneously. -The features that run these independent parts are called *threads*. For +The features that run these independent parts are called _threads_. For example, a web server could have multiple threads so that it could respond to more than one request at the same time. @@ -13,11 +13,11 @@ Because threads can run simultaneously, there’s no inherent guarantee about th order in which parts of your code on different threads will run. This can lead to problems, such as: -* Race conditions, where threads are accessing data or resources in an +- Race conditions, where threads are accessing data or resources in an inconsistent order -* Deadlocks, where two threads are waiting for each other, preventing both +- Deadlocks, where two threads are waiting for each other, preventing both threads from continuing -* Bugs that happen only in certain situations and are hard to reproduce and fix +- Bugs that happen only in certain situations and are hard to reproduce and fix reliably Rust attempts to mitigate the negative effects of using threads, but @@ -26,11 +26,12 @@ a code structure that is different from that in programs running in a single thread. Programming languages implement threads in a few different ways, and many -operating systems provide an API the language can call for creating new -threads. The Rust standard library uses a *1:1* model of thread implementation, -whereby a program uses one operating system thread per one language thread. -There are crates that implement other models of threading that make different -tradeoffs to the 1:1 model. +operating systems provide an API the language can call for creating new threads. +The Rust standard library uses a _1:1_ model of thread implementation, whereby a +program uses one operating system thread per one language thread. There are +crates that implement other models of threading that make different tradeoffs to +the 1:1 model. (Rust’s async system, which we will see in the next chapter, +provides another approach to concurrency as well.) ### Creating a New Thread with `spawn` @@ -39,14 +40,13 @@ closure (we talked about closures in Chapter 13) containing the code we want to run in the new thread. The example in Listing 16-1 prints some text from a main thread and other text from a new thread: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-1: Creating a new thread to print one thing -while the main thread prints something else + Note that when the main thread of a Rust program completes, all spawned threads are shut down, whether or not they have finished running. The output from this @@ -95,17 +95,16 @@ call the `join` method on it, will wait for its thread to finish. Listing 16-2 shows how to use the `JoinHandle` of the thread we created in Listing 16-1 and call `join` to make sure the spawned thread finishes before `main` exits: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-02/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-2: Saving a `JoinHandle` from `thread::spawn` -to guarantee the thread is run to completion + Calling `join` on the handle blocks the thread currently running until the -thread represented by the handle terminates. *Blocking* a thread means that +thread represented by the handle terminates. _Blocking_ a thread means that thread is prevented from performing work or exiting. Because we’ve put the call to `join` after the main thread’s `for` loop, running Listing 16-2 should produce output similar to this: @@ -136,12 +135,14 @@ call to `handle.join()` and does not end until the spawned thread is finished. But let’s see what happens when we instead move `handle.join()` before the `for` loop in `main`, like this: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/no-listing-01-join-too-early/src/main.rs}} ``` + + The main thread will wait for the spawned thread to finish and then run its `for` loop, so the output won’t be interleaved anymore, as shown here: @@ -173,7 +174,7 @@ threads run at the same time. We'll often use the `move` keyword with closures passed to `thread::spawn` because the closure will then take ownership of the values it uses from the environment, thus transferring ownership of those values from one thread to -another. In the [“Capturing the Environment with Closures”][capture] section of Chapter 13, we discussed `move` in the context of closures. Now, we’ll concentrate more on the interaction between `move` and `thread::spawn`. @@ -184,14 +185,13 @@ spawned thread’s closure must capture the values it needs. Listing 16-3 shows an attempt to create a vector in the main thread and use it in the spawned thread. However, this won’t yet work, as you’ll see in a moment. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-3: Attempting to use a vector created by the -main thread in another thread + The closure uses `v`, so it will capture `v` and make it part of the closure’s environment. Because `thread::spawn` runs this closure in a new thread, we @@ -202,7 +202,7 @@ example, we get the following error: {{#include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-03/output.txt}} ``` -Rust *infers* how to capture `v`, and because `println!` only needs a reference +Rust _infers_ how to capture `v`, and because `println!` only needs a reference to `v`, the closure tries to borrow `v`. However, there’s a problem: Rust can’t tell how long the spawned thread will run, so it doesn’t know if the reference to `v` will always be valid. @@ -210,14 +210,13 @@ to `v` will always be valid. Listing 16-4 provides a scenario that’s more likely to have a reference to `v` that won’t be valid: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-04/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-4: A thread with a closure that attempts to -capture a reference to `v` from a main thread that drops `v` + If Rust allowed us to run this code, there’s a possibility the spawned thread would be immediately put in the background without running at all. The spawned @@ -245,14 +244,13 @@ ownership of the values it’s using rather than allowing Rust to infer that it should borrow the values. The modification to Listing 16-3 shown in Listing 16-5 will compile and run as we intend: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-05/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-5: Using the `move` keyword to force a closure -to take ownership of the values it uses + We might be tempted to try the same thing to fix the code in Listing 16-4 where the main thread called `drop` by using a `move` closure. However, this fix will @@ -276,6 +274,6 @@ Rust’s conservative default of borrowing; it doesn’t let us violate the ownership rules. With a basic understanding of threads and the thread API, let’s look at what we -can *do* with threads. +can _do_ with threads. -[capture]: ch13-01-closures.html#capturing-the-environment-with-closures +[capture]: ch13-01-closures.html#capturing-references-or-moving-ownership diff --git a/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md b/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md index 72bef16978..d5b3c91ec1 100644 --- a/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md +++ b/src/ch16-02-message-passing.md @@ -1,13 +1,12 @@ ## Using Message Passing to Transfer Data Between Threads -One increasingly popular approach to ensuring safe concurrency is *message -passing*, where threads or actors communicate by sending each other messages -containing data. Here’s the idea in a slogan from [the Go language -documentation](https://golang.org/doc/effective_go.html#concurrency): +One increasingly popular approach to ensuring safe concurrency is _message +passing_, where threads or actors communicate by sending each other messages +containing data. Here’s the idea in a slogan from [the Go language documentation](https://golang.org/doc/effective_go.html#concurrency): “Do not communicate by sharing memory; instead, share memory by communicating.” To accomplish message-sending concurrency, Rust's standard library provides an -implementation of *channels*. A channel is a general programming concept by +implementation of _channels_. A channel is a general programming concept by which data is sent from one thread to another. You can imagine a channel in programming as being like a directional channel of @@ -19,13 +18,13 @@ the upstream location where you put rubber ducks into the river, and the receiver half is where the rubber duck ends up downstream. One part of your code calls methods on the transmitter with the data you want to send, and another part checks the receiving end for arriving messages. A channel is said -to be *closed* if either the transmitter or receiver half is dropped. +to be _closed_ if either the transmitter or receiver half is dropped. Here, we’ll work up to a program that has one thread to generate values and send them down a channel, and another thread that will receive the values and print them out. We’ll be sending simple values between threads using a channel to illustrate the feature. Once you’re familiar with the technique, you could -use channels for any threads that needs to communicate between each other, such +use channels for any threads that need to communicate between each other, such as a chat system or a system where many threads perform parts of a calculation and send the parts to one thread that aggregates the results. @@ -43,21 +42,21 @@ want to send over the channel. halves to `tx` and `rx` We create a new channel using the `mpsc::channel` function; `mpsc` stands for -*multiple producer, single consumer*. In short, the way Rust’s standard library -implements channels means a channel can have multiple *sending* ends that -produce values but only one *receiving* end that consumes those values. Imagine +_multiple producer, single consumer_. In short, the way Rust’s standard library +implements channels means a channel can have multiple _sending_ ends that +produce values but only one _receiving_ end that consumes those values. Imagine multiple streams flowing together into one big river: everything sent down any of the streams will end up in one river at the end. We’ll start with a single producer for now, but we’ll add multiple producers when we get this example working. The `mpsc::channel` function returns a tuple, the first element of which is the -sending end--the transmitter--and the second element is the receiving end--the +sending end—the transmitter—and the second element is the receiving end—the receiver. The abbreviations `tx` and `rx` are traditionally used in many fields -for *transmitter* and *receiver* respectively, so we name our variables as such +for _transmitter_ and _receiver_ respectively, so we name our variables as such to indicate each end. We’re using a `let` statement with a pattern that destructures the tuples; we’ll discuss the use of patterns in `let` statements -and destructuring in Chapter 18. For now, know that using a `let` statement +and destructuring in Chapter 19. For now, know that using a `let` statement this way is a convenient approach to extract the pieces of the tuple returned by `mpsc::channel`. @@ -66,14 +65,13 @@ string so the spawned thread is communicating with the main thread, as shown in Listing 16-7. This is like putting a rubber duck in the river upstream or sending a chat message from one thread to another. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-07/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-7: Moving `tx` to a spawned thread and sending -“hi” + Again, we’re using `thread::spawn` to create a new thread and then using `move` to move `tx` into the closure so the spawned thread owns `tx`. The spawned @@ -89,17 +87,16 @@ In Listing 16-8, we’ll get the value from the receiver in the main thread. Thi is like retrieving the rubber duck from the water at the end of the river or receiving a chat message. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-08/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-8: Receiving the value “hi” in the main thread -and printing it + The receiver has two useful methods: `recv` and `try_recv`. We’re using `recv`, -short for *receive*, which will block the main thread’s execution and wait +short for _receive_, which will block the main thread’s execution and wait until a value is sent down the channel. Once a value is sent, `recv` will return it in a `Result`. When the transmitter closes, `recv` will return an error to signal that no more values will be coming. @@ -135,18 +132,17 @@ The ownership rules play a vital role in message sending because they help you write safe, concurrent code. Preventing errors in concurrent programming is the advantage of thinking about ownership throughout your Rust programs. Let’s do an experiment to show how channels and ownership work together to prevent -problems: we’ll try to use a `val` value in the spawned thread *after* we’ve +problems: we’ll try to use a `val` value in the spawned thread _after_ we’ve sent it down the channel. Try compiling the code in Listing 16-9 to see why this code isn’t allowed: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-09/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-9: Attempting to use `val` after we’ve sent it -down the channel + Here, we try to print `val` after we’ve sent it down the channel via `tx.send`. Allowing this would be a bad idea: once the value has been sent to another @@ -172,14 +168,13 @@ two separate threads were talking to each other over the channel. In Listing running concurrently: the spawned thread will now send multiple messages and pause for a second between each message. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-10/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-10: Sending multiple messages and pausing -between each + This time, the spawned thread has a vector of strings that we want to send to the main thread. We iterate over them, sending each individually, and pause @@ -210,19 +205,18 @@ the spawned thread. ### Creating Multiple Producers by Cloning the Transmitter -Earlier we mentioned that `mpsc` was an acronym for *multiple producer, -single consumer*. Let’s put `mpsc` to use and expand the code in Listing 16-10 +Earlier we mentioned that `mpsc` was an acronym for _multiple producer, +single consumer_. Let’s put `mpsc` to use and expand the code in Listing 16-10 to create multiple threads that all send values to the same receiver. We can do so by cloning the transmitter, as shown in Listing 16-11: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,noplayground {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Listing 16-11: Sending multiple messages from multiple -producers + This time, before we create the first spawned thread, we call `clone` on the transmitter. This will give us a new transmitter we can pass to the first diff --git a/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md b/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md index 8f08ac219e..52de2fb7dc 100644 --- a/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md +++ b/src/ch16-03-shared-state.md @@ -20,18 +20,18 @@ for shared memory. ### Using Mutexes to Allow Access to Data from One Thread at a Time -*Mutex* is an abbreviation for *mutual exclusion*, as in, a mutex allows only +_Mutex_ is an abbreviation for _mutual exclusion_, as in, a mutex allows only one thread to access some data at any given time. To access the data in a mutex, a thread must first signal that it wants access by asking to acquire the -mutex’s *lock*. The lock is a data structure that is part of the mutex that +mutex’s _lock_. The lock is a data structure that is part of the mutex that keeps track of who currently has exclusive access to the data. Therefore, the -mutex is described as *guarding* the data it holds via the locking system. +mutex is described as _guarding_ the data it holds via the locking system. Mutexes have a reputation for being difficult to use because you have to remember two rules: -* You must attempt to acquire the lock before using the data. -* When you’re done with the data that the mutex guards, you must unlock the +- You must attempt to acquire the lock before using the data. +- When you’re done with the data that the mutex guards, you must unlock the data so other threads can acquire the lock. For a real-world metaphor for a mutex, imagine a panel discussion at a @@ -52,14 +52,13 @@ system and ownership rules, you can’t get locking and unlocking wrong. As an example of how to use a mutex, let’s start by using a mutex in a single-threaded context, as shown in Listing 16-12: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-12/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-12: Exploring the API of `Mutex` in a -single-threaded context for simplicity + As with many types, we create a `Mutex` using the associated function `new`. To access the data inside the mutex, we use the `lock` method to acquire the @@ -73,12 +72,12 @@ that case, no one would ever be able to get the lock, so we’ve chosen to After we’ve acquired the lock, we can treat the return value, named `num` in this case, as a mutable reference to the data inside. The type system ensures that we acquire a lock before using the value in `m`. The type of `m` is -`Mutex`, not `i32`, so we *must* call `lock` to be able to use the `i32` +`Mutex`, not `i32`, so we _must_ call `lock` to be able to use the `i32` value. We can’t forget; the type system won’t let us access the inner `i32` otherwise. As you might suspect, `Mutex` is a smart pointer. More accurately, the call -to `lock` *returns* a smart pointer called `MutexGuard`, wrapped in a +to `lock` _returns_ a smart pointer called `MutexGuard`, wrapped in a `LockResult` that we handled with the call to `unwrap`. The `MutexGuard` smart pointer implements `Deref` to point at our inner data; the smart pointer also has a `Drop` implementation that releases the lock automatically when a @@ -98,14 +97,13 @@ the counter goes from 0 to 10. The next example in Listing 16-13 will have a compiler error, and we’ll use that error to learn more about using `Mutex` and how Rust helps us use it correctly. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-13/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-13: Ten threads each increment a counter -guarded by a `Mutex` + We create a `counter` variable to hold an `i32` inside a `Mutex`, as we did in Listing 16-12. Next, we create 10 threads by iterating over a range of @@ -128,7 +126,7 @@ We hinted that this example wouldn’t compile. Now let’s find out why! The error message states that the `counter` value was moved in the previous iteration of the loop. Rust is telling us that we can’t move the ownership -of lock `counter` into multiple threads. Let’s fix the compiler error with a +of `counter` into multiple threads. Let’s fix the compiler error with a multiple-ownership method we discussed in Chapter 15. #### Multiple Ownership with Multiple Threads @@ -138,14 +136,13 @@ In Chapter 15, we gave a value multiple owners by using the smart pointer what happens. We’ll wrap the `Mutex` in `Rc` in Listing 16-14 and clone the `Rc` before moving ownership to the thread. -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-14/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-14: Attempting to use `Rc` to allow -multiple threads to own the `Mutex` + Once again, we compile and get... different errors! The compiler is teaching us a lot. @@ -156,7 +153,7 @@ a lot. Wow, that error message is very wordy! Here’s the important part to focus on: `` `Rc>` cannot be sent between threads safely ``. The compiler is -also telling us the reason why: ``the trait `Send` is not implemented for +also telling us the reason why: `` the trait `Send` is not implemented for `Rc>` ``. We’ll talk about `Send` in the next section: it’s one of the traits that ensures the types we use with threads are meant for use in concurrent situations. @@ -172,9 +169,9 @@ to the reference count in a thread-safe way. #### Atomic Reference Counting with `Arc` -Fortunately, `Arc` *is* a type like `Rc` that is safe to use in -concurrent situations. The *a* stands for *atomic*, meaning it’s an *atomically -reference counted* type. Atomics are an additional kind of concurrency +Fortunately, `Arc` _is_ a type like `Rc` that is safe to use in +concurrent situations. The _a_ stands for _atomic_, meaning it’s an _atomically +reference counted_ type. Atomics are an additional kind of concurrency primitive that we won’t cover in detail here: see the standard library documentation for [`std::sync::atomic`][atomic] for more details. At this point, you just need to know that atomics work like primitive @@ -191,14 +188,13 @@ Let’s return to our example: `Arc` and `Rc` have the same API, so we fix our program by changing the `use` line, the call to `new`, and the call to `clone`. The code in Listing 16-15 will finally compile and run: -Filename: src/main.rs + ```rust {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch16-fearless-concurrency/listing-16-15/src/main.rs}} ``` -Listing 16-15: Using an `Arc` to wrap the `Mutex` -to be able to share ownership across multiple threads + This code will print the following: @@ -217,6 +213,12 @@ counter. Using this strategy, you can divide a calculation into independent parts, split those parts across threads, and then use a `Mutex` to have each thread update the final result with its part. +Note that if you are doing simple numerical operations, there are types simpler +than `Mutex` types provided by the [`std::sync::atomic` module of the +standard library][atomic]. These types provide safe, concurrent, +atomic access to primitive types. We chose to use `Mutex` with a primitive +type for this example so we could concentrate on how `Mutex` works. + ### Similarities Between `RefCell`/`Rc` and `Mutex`/`Arc` You might have noticed that `counter` is immutable but we could get a mutable @@ -229,7 +231,7 @@ Another detail to note is that Rust can’t protect you from all kinds of logic errors when you use `Mutex`. Recall in Chapter 15 that using `Rc` came with the risk of creating reference cycles, where two `Rc` values refer to each other, causing memory leaks. Similarly, `Mutex` comes with the risk of -creating *deadlocks*. These occur when an operation needs to lock two resources +creating _deadlocks_. These occur when an operation needs to lock two resources and two threads have each acquired one of the locks, causing them to wait for each other forever. If you’re interested in deadlocks, try creating a Rust program that has a deadlock; then research deadlock mitigation strategies for diff --git a/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md b/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md index 4586b8d2c4..4bae9d68c6 100644 --- a/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md +++ b/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ ## Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits -Interestingly, the Rust language has *very* few concurrency features. Almost +Interestingly, the Rust language has _very_ few concurrency features. Almost every concurrency feature we’ve talked about so far in this chapter has been part of the standard library, not the language. Your options for handling concurrency are not limited to the language or the standard library; you can @@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ compiled. Any type composed entirely of `Send` types is automatically marked as `Send` as well. Almost all primitive types are `Send`, aside from raw pointers, which -we’ll discuss in Chapter 19. +we’ll discuss in Chapter 20. ### Allowing Access from Multiple Threads with `Sync` @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ marker traits, they don’t even have any methods to implement. They’re just useful for enforcing invariants related to concurrency. Manually implementing these traits involves implementing unsafe Rust code. -We’ll talk about using unsafe Rust code in Chapter 19; for now, the important +We’ll talk about using unsafe Rust code in Chapter 20; for now, the important information is that building new concurrent types not made up of `Send` and `Sync` parts requires careful thought to uphold the safety guarantees. [“The Rustonomicon”][nomicon] has more information about these guarantees and how to @@ -62,9 +62,10 @@ uphold them. ## Summary -This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in -Chapter 20 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation -than the smaller examples discussed here. +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the whole next +chapter focuses on async programming, and the project in Chapter 21 will use the +concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation than the smaller examples +discussed here. As mentioned earlier, because very little of how Rust handles concurrency is part of the language, many concurrency solutions are implemented as crates. @@ -81,10 +82,5 @@ run on multiple threads without the kinds of hard-to-track-down bugs common in other languages. Concurrent programming is no longer a concept to be afraid of: go forth and make your programs concurrent, fearlessly! -Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions -as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms -relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. - -[sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads]: -ch16-03-shared-state.html#sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads +[sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads]: ch16-03-shared-state.html#sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads [nomicon]: ../nomicon/index.html diff --git a/src/ch17-00-async-await.md b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..acd0ed3762 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md @@ -0,0 +1,153 @@ +## Async and Await + +Many operations we ask the computer to do can take a while to finish. For +example, if you used a video editor to create a video of a family celebration, +exporting it could take anywhere from minutes to hours. Similarly, downloading a +video shared by someone in your family might take a long time. It would be nice +if we could do something else while we are waiting for those long-running +processes to complete. + +The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you only had +one CPU core, and your operating system never paused that export until it +completed, you couldn’t do anything else on your computer while it was running. +That would be a pretty frustrating experience, though. Instead, your computer’s +operating system can—and does!—invisibly interrupt the export often enough to +let you get other work done along the way. + +The file download is different. It does not take up very much CPU time. Instead, +the CPU needs to wait on data to arrive from the network. While you can start +reading the data once some of it is present, it might take a while for the rest +to show up. Even once the data is all present, a video can be quite large, so it +might take some time to load it all. Maybe it only takes a second or two—but +that’s a very long time for a modern processor, which can do billions of +operations every second. It would be nice to be able to put the CPU to use for +other work while waiting for the network call to finish—so, again, your +operating system will invisibly interrupt your program so other things can +happen while the network operation is still ongoing. + +> Note: The video export is the kind of operation which is often described as +> “CPU-bound” or “compute-bound”. It’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> ability to process data within the _CPU_ or _GPU_, and how much of that speed +> it can use. The video download is the kind of operation which is often +> described as “IO-bound,” because it’s limited by the speed of the computer’s +> _input and output_. It can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the +> network. + +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a +form of concurrency. That concurrency only happens at the level of a whole +program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other +programs get work done. In many cases, because we understand our programs at a +much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot lots of +opportunities for concurrency that the operating system cannot see. + +For example, if we’re building a tool to manage file downloads, we should be +able to write our program in such a way that starting one download does not lock +up the UI, and users should be able to start multiple downloads at the same +time. Many operating system APIs for interacting with the network are +_blocking_, though. That is, these APIs block the program’s progress until the +data that they are processing is completely ready. + +> Note: This is how _most_ function calls work, if you think about it! However, +> we normally reserve the term “blocking” for function calls which interact with +> files, the network, or other resources on the computer, because those are the +> places where an individual program would benefit from the operation being +> _non_-blocking. + +We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to +download each file. However, we would eventually find that the overhead of those +threads was a problem. It would also be nicer if the call were not blocking in +the first place. Last but not least, it would be better if we could write in the +same direct style we use in blocking code. Something similar to this: + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; +println!("{data}"); +``` + +That is exactly what Rust’s async abstraction gives us. Before we see how this +works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour into the differences +between parallelism and concurrency. + +### Parallelism and Concurrency + +In the previous chapter, we treated parallelism and concurrency as mostly +interchangeable. Now we need to distinguish between them more precisely, because +the differences will show up as we start working. + +Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. We +could assign a single individual multiple tasks, or we could assign one task per +team member, or we could do a mix of both approaches. + +When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is +complete, this is _concurrency_. Maybe you have two different projects checked +out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch +to the other. You’re just one person, so you can’t make progress on both tasks +at the exact same time—but you can multi-task, making progress on multiple +tasks by switching between them. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B.
+ +
+ +When you agree to split up a group of tasks between the people on the team, with +each person taking one task and working on it alone, this is _parallelism_. Each +person on the team can make progress at the exact same time. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently.
+ +
+ +With both of these situations, you might have to coordinate between different +tasks. Maybe you _thought_ the task that one person was working on was totally +independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually needs something finished +by another person on the team. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but +some of it was actually _serial_: it could only happen in a series, one thing +after the other, as in Figure 17-3. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-3: A partially parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently until task A3 is blocked on the results of task B3.
+ +
+ +Likewise, you might realize that one of your own tasks depends on another of +your tasks. Now your concurrent work has also become serial. + +Parallelism and concurrency can intersect with each other, too. If you learn +that a colleague is stuck until you finish one of your tasks, you’ll probably +focus all your efforts on that task to “unblock” your colleague. You and your +coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you’re also no longer able +to work concurrently on your own tasks. + +The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine +with a single CPU core, the CPU can only do one operation at a time, but it can +still work concurrently. Using tools such as threads, processes, and async, the +computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually cycling +back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, it can +also do work in parallel. One core can be doing one thing while another core +does something completely unrelated, and those actually happen at the same +time. + +When working with async in Rust, we’re always dealing with concurrency. +Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are +using—more on async runtimes shortly!—that concurrency may also use parallelism +under the hood. + +Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works! In the rest +of this chapter, we will: + +- see how to use Rust’s `async` and `await` syntax +- explore how to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we + looked at in Chapter 16 +- look at how multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, which + you can even use together in many cases diff --git a/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..81975f3a7c --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md @@ -0,0 +1,394 @@ +## Futures and the Async Syntax + +The key elements of asynchronous programming in Rust are _futures_ and Rust’s +`async` and `await` keywords. + +A _future_ is a value which may not be ready now, but will become ready at some +point in the future. (This same concept shows up in many languages, sometimes +under other names such as “task” or “promise”.) Rust provides a `Future` trait +as a building block so different async operations can be implemented with +different data structures, but with a common interface. In Rust, we say that +types which implement the `Future` trait are futures. Each type which +implements `Future` holds its own information about the progress that has been +made and what "ready" means. + +The `async` keyword can be applied to blocks and functions to specify that they +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can +use the `await` keyword to wait for a future to become ready, called _awaiting a +future_. Each place you await a future within an async block or function is a +place that async block or function may get paused and resumed. The process of +checking with a future to see if its value is available yet is called _polling_. + +Some other languages also use `async` and `await` keywords for async +programming. If you’re familiar with those languages, you may notice some +significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it handles the +syntax. That’s for good reason, as we’ll see! + +Most of the time when writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` +keywords. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much +as it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we’ll see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. +We’ll return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig +into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. + +That may all feel a bit abstract. Let’s write our first async program: a little +web scraper. We’ll pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of them +concurrently, and return the result of whichever one finishes first. This +example will have a fair bit of new syntax, but don’t worry. We’ll explain +everything you need to know as we go. + +### Our First Async Program + +To keep this chapter focused on learning async, rather than juggling parts of +the ecosystem, we have created the `trpl` crate (`trpl` is short for “The Rust +Programming Language”). It re-exports all the types, traits, and functions +you’ll need, primarily from the [`futures`][futures-crate] and +[`tokio`][tokio] crates. + +- The `futures` crate is an official home for Rust experimentation for async + code, and is actually where the `Future` type was originally designed. + +- Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially (but + not only!) for web applications. There are other great runtimes out there, + and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use Tokio under the hood + for `trpl` because it’s well-tested and widely used. + +In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to let us stay +focused on the details relevant to this chapter. If you want to understand what +the crate does, we encourage you to check out [its source +code][crate-source]. You’ll be able to see what crate each +re-export comes from, and we’ve left extensive comments explaining what the +crate does. + +Create a new binary project named `hello-async` and add the `trpl` crate as a +dependency: + +```console +$ cargo new hello-async +$ cd hello-async +$ cargo add trpl +``` + +Now we can use the various pieces provided by `trpl` to write our first async +program. We’ll build a little command line tool which fetches two web pages, +pulls the `` element from each, and prints out the title of whichever +finishes that whole process first. + +Let’s start by writing a function that takes one page URL as a parameter, makes +a request to it, and returns the text of the title element: + +<Listing number="17-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-01/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-1, we define a function named `page_title`, and we mark it with +the `async` keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL +is passed in, and we await the response by using the `await` keyword. Then we +get the text of the response by calling its `text` method, and once again await +it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For `get`, +we need to wait for the server to send back the first part of its response, +which will include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on. That part of the response +can be delivered separately from the body of the request. Especially if the +body is very large, it can take some time for it all to arrive. Thus, we have +to wait for the _entirety_ of the response to arrive, so the `text` method is +also async. + +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +_lazy_: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you don’t use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators [back in Chapter 13][iterators-lazy]<!-- +ignore -->. +Iterators do nothing unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or +using `for` loops or methods such as `map` which use `next` under the hood. With +futures, the same basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask +them to. This laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it’s +actually needed. + +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in +> the previous chapter, where the closure we passed to another thread started +> running immediately. It’s also different from how many other languages +> approach async! But it’s important for Rust. We’ll see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we’ll get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Because there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it’s +present, and do nothing if it isn’t. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. + +Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes after the expression you’re awaiting, +not before it. That is, it’s a _postfix keyword_. This may be different from +what you might be used to if you have used async in other languages. Rust chose +this because it makes chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we +can change the body of `page_url_for` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` +function calls together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2: + +<Listing number="17-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Chaining with the `await` keyword"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-02/src/main.rs:chaining}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add +some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we’ve +written and what it means. + +When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type which implements the `Future` trait. When Rust sees +a function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function whose +body is an async block. An async function’s return type is the type of the +anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. + +Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function which returns a +_future_ of the return type. When the compiler sees a function definition such +as the `async fn page_title` in Listing 17-1, it’s equivalent to a non-async +function defined like this: + +```rust +# extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test +use std::future::Future; +use trpl::Html; + +fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ { + async move { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()) + } +} +``` + +Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: + +- It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in the [“Traits as + Parameters”][impl-trait]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 10. +- The returned trait is a `Future`, with an associated type of `Output`. Notice + that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the the + original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +- All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an + `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is + the expression returned from the function. +- This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as described + above. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is just + like other blocks you have seen. +- The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the + `url` parameter. (We’ll talk about `async` vs. `async move` much more later + in the chapter.) +- The new version of the function has a kind of lifetime we haven’t seen before + in the output type: `'_`. Because the function returns a `Future` which refers + to a reference—in this case, the reference from the `url` parameter—we need to + tell Rust that we mean for that reference to be included. We don’t have to + name the lifetime here, because Rust is smart enough to know there is only one + reference which could be involved, but we _do_ have to be explicit that the + resulting `Future` is bound by that lifetime. + +Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. To start, we’ll just get the title +for a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow the same pattern we used for +getting command line arguments back in Chapter 12. Then we pass the first URL +`page_title`, and await the result. Because the value produced by the future is +an `Option<String>`, we use a `match` expression to print different messages to +account for whether the page had a `<title>`. + +<Listing number="17-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a user-supplied argument"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. The only place we can use the `await` +keyword is in async functions or blocks, and Rust won’t let us mark the +special `main` function as `async`. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03 +cargo build +copy just the compiler error +--> + +```text +error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async` + --> src/main.rs:6:1 + | +6 | async fn main() { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async` +``` + +The reason `main` can’t be marked `async` is that async code needs a _runtime_: +a Rust crate which manages the details of executing asynchronous code. A +program’s `main` function can _initialize_ a runtime, but it’s not a runtime +_itself_. (We’ll see more about why this is a bit later.) Every Rust program +that executes async code has at least one place where it sets up a runtime and +executes the futures. + +Most languages which support async bundle a runtime with the language. Rust does +not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which +makes different tradeoffs suitable to the use case they target. For example, a +high-throughput web server with many CPU cores and a large amount of RAM has +very different needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a small amount +of RAM, and no ability to do heap allocations. The crates which provide those +runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality such as file +or network I/O. + +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we’ll use the `run` function +from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to +completion. Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime to use to run the +future passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the +future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`. Once it +completed, we would be able to match on the resulting `Option<String>`, the way +we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter +(and most async code in the real world!), we’ll be doing more than just one +async function call, so instead we’ll pass an `async` block and explicitly +await the result of calling `page_title`, as in Listing 17-4. + +<Listing number="17-4" caption="Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook test does not pass args --> + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs:run}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this, we get the behavior we might have expected initially: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04 +cargo build # skip all the build noise +cargo run https://www.rust-lang.org +# copy the output here +--> + +```console +$ cargo run -- https://www.rust-lang.org + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.05s + Running `target/debug/async_await 'https://www.rust-lang.org'` +The title for https://www.rust-lang.org was + Rust Programming Language +``` + +Phew: we finally have some working async code! This now compiles, and we can run +it. Before we add code to race two sites against each other, let’s briefly turn +our attention back to how futures work. + +Each _await point_—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` +keyword—represents a place where control gets handed back to the runtime. To +make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async +block, so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when +it’s ready to try advancing this one again. This is an invisible state machine, +as if you wrote an enum in this way to save the current state at each `await` +point: + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-state-machine/src/lib.rs:enum}} +``` + +Writing the code to transition between each state by hand would be tedious and +error-prone, especially when adding more functionality and more states to the +code later. Instead, the Rust compiler creates and manages the state machine +data structures for async code automatically. If you’re wondering: yep, the +normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all apply. Happily, +the compiler also handles checking those for us, and has good error messages. +We’ll work through a few of those later in the chapter! + +Ultimately, something has to execute that state machine. That something is a +runtime. (This is why you may sometimes come across references to _executors_ +when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +executing the async code.) + +Now we can understand why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an +async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something +else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, +but `main` is the starting point for the program! Instead, we call the +`trpl::run` function in `main`, which sets up a runtime and runs the future +returned by the `async` block until it returns `Ready`. + +> Note: some runtimes provide macros to make it so you _can_ write an async main +> function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal `fn +> main` which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a +> function which runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. + +Let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code, by +calling `page_title` with two different URLs passed in from the command line +and racing them. + +<Listing number="17-5" caption="" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook does not pass args --> + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-5, we begin by calling `page_title` for each of the user-supplied +URLs. We save the futures produced by calling `page_title` as `title_fut_1` and +`title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do anything yet, because futures are lazy, +and we haven’t yet awaited them. Then we pass the futures to `trpl::race`, +which returns a value to indicate which of the futures passed to it finishes +first. + +> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, +> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` +> function can do a lot of things that `trpl::race` function can’t, but it also +> has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. + +Either future can legitimately “win,” so it doesn’t make sense to return a +`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we haven’t seen before, +`trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat similar to a `Result`, in that it +has two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or +failure baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate +“one or the other”. + +```rust +enum Either<A, B> { + Left(A), + Right(B), +} +``` + +The `race` function returns `Left` if the first argument finishes first, with +that future’s output, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if +_that_ one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear when +calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. + +We also update `page_title` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if +the page which returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can +still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and +what the `<title>` was for the web page at that URL, if any. + +You have built a small working web scraper now! Pick a couple URLs and run the +command line tool. You may discover that some sites are reliably faster than +others, while in other cases which site “wins” varies from run to run. More +importantly, you’ve learned the basics of working with futures, so we can now +dig into even more of the things we can do with async. + +[impl-trait]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-as-parameters +[iterators-lazy]: ch13-02-iterators.html + +<!-- TODO: map source link version to version of Rust? --> + +[crate-source]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl +[futures-crate]: https://crates.io/crates/futures +[tokio]: https://tokio.rs diff --git a/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2348144d6d --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,382 @@ +## Concurrency With Async + +In this section, we’ll apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges +we tackled with threads in chapter 16. Because we already talked about a lot of +the key ideas there, in this section we’ll focus on what’s different between +threads and futures. + +In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very +similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped +quite differently. Even when the APIs _look_ similar between threads and async, +they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different +performance characteristics. + +### Counting + +The first task we tackled in Chapter 16 was counting up on two separate threads. +Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function +which looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function +which is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together +to implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6. + +<Listing number="17-6" caption="Using `spawn_task` to count with two" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so +that our top-level function can be async. + +> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we’ll often skip it +> just as we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! + +Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it, +which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a +top-level `for` loop. We also add an `await` after the `sleep` calls. + +This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the +fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own +terminal when you run it. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +``` + +This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block +finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main +function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you +will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With +threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. +In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task +handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it +after awaiting it. + +<Listing number="17-7" caption="Using `await` with a join handle to run a task to completion" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs:handle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This updated version runs till _both_ loops finish. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just +with different syntax: using `await` instead of calling `join` on the join +handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. + +The bigger difference is that we didn’t need to spawn another operating system +thread to do this. In fact, we don’t even need to spawn a task here. Because +async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async +block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` +function. + +In Chapter 16, we showed how to use the `join` method on the `JoinHandle` type +returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` function is +similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces a single new +future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the futures you passed +in once _both_ complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use `trpl::join` to wait for +both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do _not_ await `fut1` and `fut2`, but +instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We ignore the output, because +it’s just a tuple with two unit values in it. + +<Listing number="17-8" caption="Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:join}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this, we see both futures run to completion: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +Here, you’ll see the exact same order every time, which is very different from +what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is _fair_, +meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never +lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system +decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the +runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated +because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as +part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work +for a runtime—but it’s still possible!) Runtimes don’t have to guarantee +fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let +you choose whether you want fairness or not. + +Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they +do: + +- Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops. +- Await each async block immediately after defining it. +- Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future + after the body of second loop. + +For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in +each case _before_ running the code! + +### Message Passing + +Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we’ll use message passing +again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We’ll take a +slightly different path than we did in Chapter 16, to illustrate some of the key +differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In Listing 17-9, +we’ll begin with just a single async block—_not_ spawning a separate task as +we spawned a separate thread. + +<Listing number="17-9" caption="Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` and `rx`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:channel}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, +single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in Chapter 16. The async +version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based version: it +uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its `recv` method +produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. Now +we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we don’t have +to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the `rx.recv` +call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until +it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it +is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either +a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we +don’t await the `send` call, because it doesn’t block. It doesn’t need to, +because the channel we’re sending it into is unbounded. + +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` +> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code _outside_ it +> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the +> `trpl::run` function: it lets you _choose_ where to block on some set of async +> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async +> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. + +Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away! +Second, although we use a future here, there’s no concurrency yet. Everything +in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures +involved. + +Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in +between them, as shown in Listing 17-10: + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-10" caption="Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel and sleeping with an `await` between each message" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs:many-messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we +could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we +know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we’ll +generally be waiting on some _unknown_ number of messages. In that case, we need +to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. + +In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a +synchronous channel. However, Rust doesn’t yet have a way to write a `for` loop +over an _asynchronous_ series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of +loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let` +loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in Chapter 6. The +loop will continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to +match the value. + +The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause +the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +regardless of whether _any_ messages have arrived, the future will instead +resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop +polling—that is, stop awaiting. + +The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling +`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can +use it in the loop body, just as we could with `if let`. If the result is +`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point +again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. + +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, +there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at +half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds) +after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, +it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span +class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. + +Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full +delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given +async block, the order that `await` keywords appear in the code is also the +order they happen when running the program. + +There’s only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs +linearly. There’s still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, +interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the `await` +points on the `recv` calls. + +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving +each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async +blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`, +just as in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling +`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures +in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we’re +trying _not_ to do. + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-11" caption="Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and awaiting the futures for those blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at +500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds. + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +interacts with `trpl::join`: + +- The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once _both_ futures + passed to it have completed. +- The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last + message in `vals`. +- The `rx` future won’t complete until the `while let` loop ends. +- The `while let` loop won’t end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. +- Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel + is closed. +- The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, + `tx`, is dropped. +- We don’t call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` won’t be dropped until the + outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. +- The block can’t end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which + takes us back to the top of this list! + +We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that doesn’t +make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would +make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way +to make sure that `tx` gets dropped _before_ the end of the function. + +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx` because +sending a message doesn’t require ownership, but if we could move `tx` into +that async block, it would be dropped once that block ends. In Chapter 13, we +learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and in Chapter 16, we saw +that we often need to move data into closures when working with threads. The +same basic dynamics apply to async blocks, so the `move` keyword works with +async blocks just as it does with closures. + +In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain +`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run _this_ version of the code, +it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received. + +<Listing number="17-12" caption="A working example of sending and receiving messages between futures which correctly shuts down when complete" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs:with-move}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` +on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we +clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into +that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original +`tx` into a _new_ async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower +delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving +messages, but it could go before it just as well. The key is the order of the +futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in. + +Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so +that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we’ll +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from +`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. + +<Listing number="17-13" caption="Using multiple producers with async blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending +futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also +received at those different intervals. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'the' +received 'messages' +received 'future' +received 'for' +received 'you' +``` + +This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with +`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. diff --git a/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..c850ffc2f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md @@ -0,0 +1,627 @@ +## Working With Any Number of Futures + +When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we +also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to +have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we +wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an +arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. +Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of +`join3`, as in Listing 17-14: + +<Listing number="17-14" caption="Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and +`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we +know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing +futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that +collection to complete is a common pattern. + +To check all the futures in some collection, we’ll need to iterate over and +join on _all_ of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which +implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in Chapter 13, so +it seems like just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and +replace `join!` with `join_all`. + +<Listing number="17-15" caption="Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all`"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this doesn’t compile. Instead, we get this error: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/ +cargo build +copy just the compiler error +--> + +```text +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:45:37 + | +10 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | ---------- the expected `async` block +... +24 | let rx_fut = async { + | ----- the found `async` block +... +45 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:24:22: 24:27}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object +``` + +This might be surprising. After all, none of them return anything, so each +block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a +concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated +by the compiler for async blocks. You can’t put two different hand-written +structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs +generated by the compiler. + +To make this work, we need to use _trait objects_, just as we did in [“Returning +Errors from the run function”][dyn]<!-- ignore --> in Chapter 12. (We’ll cover trait objects +in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each of the +anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, because all of them +implement the `Future` trait. + +> Note: In Chapter 8, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a +> `Vec`: using an enum to represent each of the different types which can +> appear in the vector. We can’t do that here, though. For one thing, we have +> no way to name the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, +> the reason we reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be +> able to work with a dynamic collection of futures where we don’t know what +> they will all be until runtime. + +We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown +in Listing 17-16. + +<Listing number="17-16" caption="Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a `Vec`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this still doesn’t compile. In fact, we have the same basic +error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new` +calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come +back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the +`Box::new` calls, by explicitly annotating the type of the `futures` variable: + +<Listing number="17-17" caption="Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit type declaration" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: + +- The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of + the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. +- Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. +- The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. +- Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items. + +That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have +the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that +each is very similar in its contents. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16 +cargo build +# copy *only* the errors +# fix the paths +--> + +```text +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:46:46 + | +10 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | ---------- the expected `async` block +... +24 | let rx_fut = async { + | ----- the found `async` block +... +46 | vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + | -------- ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | | + | arguments to this function are incorrect + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:24:22: 24:27}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object +note: associated function defined here + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/alloc/src/boxed.rs:255:12 + | +255 | pub fn new(x: T) -> Self { + | ^^^ + +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:46:64 + | +10 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | ---------- the expected `async` block +... +30 | let tx_fut = async move { + | ---------- the found `async` block +... +46 | vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + | -------- ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | | + | arguments to this function are incorrect + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:30:22: 30:32}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and casting it to a trait object +note: associated function defined here + --> file:///home/.rustup/toolchains/1.82/lib/rustlib/src/rust/library/alloc/src/boxed.rs:255:12 + | +255 | pub fn new(x: T) -> Self { + | ^^^ + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:48:24 + | +48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` + | | + | required by a bound introduced by this call + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` +note: required by a bound in `join_all` + --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 + | +102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> + | -------- required by a bound in this function +... +105 | I::Item: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:48:9 + | +48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` +note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` + --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:48:33 + | +48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` +note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` + --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` +``` + +That is a _lot_ to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message +tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not +implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve +it. Later in the chapter, we’ll dig into a few more details about `Pin` and +`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get +unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for +`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin +the futures themselves. + +<Listing number="17-18" caption="Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'messages' +received 'the' +received 'for' +received 'future' +received 'you' +``` + +Phew! + +There’s a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` +comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the +heap with `Box`—and we’re only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t +actually _need_ the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this +particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can +get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we +reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly +with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. + +However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; +otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, +which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future +when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable +references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19. + +<Listing number="17-19" caption="Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary heap allocations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` +types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements +`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements `Future<Output = +&str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements `Future<Output = bool>`. + +<Listing number="17-20" caption="Three futures with distinct types" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in +multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We _cannot_ use +`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same +type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`! + +This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of +futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal +with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, +even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other +types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice +syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing. + +### Racing futures + +When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we +require _all_ of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only +need _some_ future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of similar to +racing one future against another. + +In Listing 17-21, we once again use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and +`fast`, against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running, +pauses for some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints +another message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for +one of them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!) +Unlike when we used `race` back in [“Our First Async Program”][async-program]<!-- +ignore -->, we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, because all of +the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. + +<Listing number="17-21" caption="Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the +“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes +first. That’s because the implementation of this particular `race` function is +not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they’re +passed. Other implementations _are_ fair, and will randomly choose which future +to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we’re using is +fair, though, _one_ of the futures will run up to the first `await` in its body +before another task can start. + +Recall from [Our First Async Program][async-program]<!-- ignore --> that at each await point, +Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and switch to another one if the +future being awaited isn’t ready. The inverse is also true: Rust _only_ pauses +async blocks and hands control back to a runtime at an await point. Everything +between await points is synchronous. + +That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, +that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes +hear this referred to as one future _starving_ other futures. In some cases, +that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive +setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some +particular task indefinitely, you’ll need to think about when and where to +hand control back to the runtime. + +By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a +useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to +each other. + +But _how_ would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? + +### Yielding + +Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` +function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use +`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and +blocking. + +<Listing number="17-22" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs:slow}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime +_after_ carrying out a bunch of slow operations. + +<Listing number="17-23" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs:slow-futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, you will see this output: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/ +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'b' ran for 350ms +'a' finished. +``` + +As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. +There’s no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all +of its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does +all of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a` +future completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow +tasks, we need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That +means we need something we can await! + +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete +without the `b` future running _at all_. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function +as a starting point? + +<Listing number="17-24" caption="Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call +to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24 +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'a' finished. +``` + +The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because +it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures +swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we +have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work +however makes the most sense to us. + +We don’t really want to _sleep_ here, though: we want to make progress as fast +as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that +directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those +`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-25" caption="Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs:yields}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster +than using `sleep`, because timers such as the one used by `sleep` often have +limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for +example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a +`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are _fast_: they can do a +lot in one millisecond! + +You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, such as the one +in Listing 17-26. (This isn’t an especially rigorous way to do performance +testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the +status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let +each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run +for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes +compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-26" caption="Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The version with `yield_now` is _way_ faster! + +This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on +what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a +form of _cooperative multitasking_, where each future has the power to determine +when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore also has the +responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based embedded +operating systems, this is the _only_ kind of multitasking! + +In real-world code, you won’t usually be alternating function calls with await +points on every single line, of course. While yielding control in this way is +relatively inexpensive, it’s not free! In many cases, trying to break up a +compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it’s better +for _overall_ performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always +measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The +underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you _are_ seeing a +lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently, +though! + +### Building Our Own Async Abstractions + +We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can +build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When +we’re done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up +yet further async abstractions. + +Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +future. + +<Listing number="17-27" caption="Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: + +- It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it. +- Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow + it to work with any future. +- Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`, + that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`. +- It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the + `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout + elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout + waited for. + +Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. + +<!-- This is not tested because it intentionally does not compile. --> + +<Listing number="17-28" caption="Defining the signature of `timeout`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs:declaration}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the _behavior_ we +need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to +run that timer with the future the caller passes in. + +We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are +passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to +complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try` +finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If +`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of +`()`. + +In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the +`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. +If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` +with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. + +<Listing number="17-29" caption="Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs:implementation}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If +we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout: + +```text +Failed after 2 seconds +``` + +Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same +approach to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things +such as network calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter! + +In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `await`, and +secondarily with functions and macros such as `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and +so on. You’ll only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those +APIs. + +We’ve now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same +time. Up next, we’ll look at how we can work with multiple futures in a +sequence over time, with _streams_. Here are a couple more things you might want +to consider first, though: + +- We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group + to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in + sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? + +- Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` + crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about + the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine + with any collection of futures.) + +[collections]: ch08-01-vectors.html#using-an-enum-to-store-multiple-types +[dyn]: ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html +[async-program]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program diff --git a/src/ch17-04-streams.md b/src/ch17-04-streams.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e205e77add --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-04-streams.md @@ -0,0 +1,444 @@ +## Streams + +So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big +exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for our +async channel in the [“Message Passing”][17-02-messages]<!-- ignore --> earlier in the chapter. +The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an +instance of a much more general pattern, often called a _stream_. + +A sequence of items is something we’ve seen before, when we looked at the +`Iterator` trait in Chapter 13. There are two differences between iterators and +the async channel receiver, though. The first is the element of time: iterators +are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The second is the +API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call its synchronous `next` +method. With the `trpl::Receiver` stream in particular, we called an +asynchronous `recv` method instead. These APIs otherwise feel very similar. + +That similarity isn’t a coincidence. A stream is similar to an asynchronous +form of iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive +messages, though, the general-purpose stream API is much more general: it +provides the next item the way `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. The +similarity between iterators and streams in Rust means we can actually create a +stream from any iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by +calling its `next` method and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30. + +<Listing number="17-30" caption="Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/src/main.rs:stream}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call +`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream +using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the +stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop. + +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it doesn’t compile. Instead, as we +can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30 +cargo build +copy only the error output +--> + +```console +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:10:40 + | +10 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + | ^^^^ + | + = note: the full type name has been written to 'file:///projects/async_await/target/debug/deps/async_await-9de943556a6001b8.long-type-1281356139287206597.txt' + = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console + = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope +help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them + | +1 + use crate::trpl::StreamExt; + | +1 + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt; + | +1 + use std::iter::Iterator; + | +1 + use std::str::pattern::Searcher; + | +help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name + | +10 | while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await { + | ~~~~~~~~ +``` + +As the output suggests, the reason for the compiler error is that we need the +right trait in scope to be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion +so far, you might reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need +here is actually `StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a +common pattern in the Rust community for extending one trait with another. + +Why do we need `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and what does the `Stream` trait +itself do? Briefly, the answer is that throughout the Rust ecosystem, the +`Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which effectively combines the +`Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait supplies a higher-level +set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` method as well as other +utility methods similar to those provided by the `Iterator` trait. We’ll return +to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of the +chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving. + +The fix to the compiler error is to add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, +as in Listing 17-31. + +<Listing number="17-31" caption="Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With all those pieces put together, this code works the way we want! What’s +more, now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility +methods, just as with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the +`filter` method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. + +<Listing number="17-32" caption="Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Of course, this isn’t very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators +and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can +do which are unique to streams. + +### Composing Streams + +Many concepts are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in +a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only +pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the +network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other +kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example, +we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts +on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to +avoid doing needless work. + +Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, as a stand-in for a stream +of data we might see from a WebSocket or another real-time communication +protocol. In Listing 17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns +`impl Stream<Item = String>`. For its implementation, we create an async +channel, loop over the first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them +across the channel. + +We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from +the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use +a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. + +<Listing number="17-33" caption="Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-33/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Message: 'j' +``` + +We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator` +API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams: adding a timeout +which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit. + +In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` +method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the +`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant +indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the +timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either +print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the +timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to +them, because the timeout helper produces a stream which needs to be pinned to +be polled. + +<Listing number="17-34" caption="Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the items in a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs:timeout}} +``` + +</Listing> + +However, because there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not +change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages +we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the +`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along +with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items +and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays +we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is +for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. + +<Listing number="17-35" caption="Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making `get_messages` an async function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs:messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we +need to use async. However, we can’t make `get_messages` itself into an async +function, because then we’d return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = String>>` +instead of a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to await +`get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: everything in a +given future happens linearly; concurrency happens _between_ futures. Awaiting +`get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, including sleeping +between sending each message, before returning the receiver stream. As a result, +the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays in the stream itself: +the delays would all happen before the stream was even available. + +Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream, +and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. + +> Note: calling `spawn_task` in this way works because we already set up our +> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` _without_ +> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose +> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but +> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to +> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what +> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! + +Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of +messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35 +cargo run +copy only the program output, *not* the compiler output +--> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'j' +``` + +The timeout doesn’t prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get +all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can +hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message doesn’t arrive +before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls +the stream again, the message may now have arrived. + +You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or +other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our +final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with +this stream of messages. + +### Merging Streams + +First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if +we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send +a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream +from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time, +we’re going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return +type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function +`get_intervals`. + +In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define +it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given +variable.) Then we create an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop +asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends +it over the channel. Because this is all wrapped in the task created by +`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including +the infinite loop. + +<Listing number="17-36" caption="Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every millisecond" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs:intervals}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn +down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running +indefinitely. With async, this doesn’t block anything else, as long as there is +at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. + +Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`. +Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method, +which combines multiple streams into one stream that produces items from any of +the source streams as soon as the items are available, without imposing any +particular ordering. Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over +`messages` (Listing 17-37). + +<Listing number="17-37" caption="Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or mutable, +because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. However, this +call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call in the `while +let` loop, but we’ll come back to that after fixing this.) The two streams +have different types. The `messages` stream has the type `Timeout<impl +Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which implements `Stream` +for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has the type `impl +Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to transform one of +them to match the other. + +In Listing 17-38, we rework the `intervals` stream, because `messages` is +already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we +can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string. +Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Because we don’t +actually _want_ a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout +which is longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a +10-second timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make +`stream` mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate +through the stream, and pin it so that it’s safe to do so. + +<!-- We cannot directly test this one, because it never stops. --> + +<Listing number="17-38" caption="Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type of the `messages` stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That gets us _almost_ to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run +this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You’ll +need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the +messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the +interval counter messages: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the tasks running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +--snip-- +Interval: 38 +Interval: 39 +Interval: 40 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 41 +Interval: 42 +Interval: 43 +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the +`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it doesn’t overwhelm the +`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function +will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every +hundred milliseconds should do, because that is in the same ballpark as how +often our messages arrive. + +To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take` +method. We apply it to the _merged_ stream, because we want to limit the final +output, not just one stream or the other. + +<Listing number="17-39" caption="Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs:throttle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now when we run the program, it stops after pulling twenty items from the +stream, and the intervals don’t overwhelm the messages. We also don’t get +`Interval: 100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead get `Interval: 1`, +`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which _can_ +produce an event every millisecond. That’s because the `throttle` call +produces a new stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original +stream only gets polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We +don’t have a bunch of unhandled interval messages we’re choosing to +ignore. Instead, we never produce those interval messages in the first place! +This is the inherent “laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to +choose our performance characteristics. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39 +cargo run +copy and paste only the program output +--> + +```text +Interval: 1 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 2 +Interval: 3 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 4 +Message: 'b' +Interval: 5 +Message: 'c' +Interval: 6 +Interval: 7 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 8 +Message: 'd' +Interval: 9 +Message: 'e' +Interval: 10 +Interval: 11 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval: 12 +``` + +There’s one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these +channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the +channel closes—and that’s just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures +which make up the stream. Up until now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`, +but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by +ending the loop so we don’t try to send any more messages! Listing 17-40 shows +a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As +usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure +you have a strategy. + +<Listing number="17-40" caption="Handling errors and shutting down the loops"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs:errors}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now that we’ve seen a bunch of async in practice, let’s take a step back and +dig into a few of the details of how `Future`, `Stream`, and the other key +traits which Rust uses to make async work. + +[17-02-messages]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html#message-passing diff --git a/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..0aed567cdd --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,485 @@ +## Digging Into the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we’ve used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and +`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we’ve avoided digging too +far into the details of how they work or how they fit together. Much of the time +when writing Rust day to day, this is fine. Sometimes, though, you’ll hit +situations where understanding a few more of these details matters. In this +section, we’ll dig down _enough_ further to help with those situations—while +still leaving the _really_ deep dive for other documentation! + +### Future + +Back in [“Futures and the Async Syntax”][futures-syntax]<!-- ignore -->, we +noted that `Future` is a trait. Let’s start by taking a closer look at how it +works. Here is how Rust defines a `Future`: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +That trait definition includes a bunch of new types and also some syntax we +haven’t seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. + +First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. +This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. +Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` +reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, +and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We’ll talk a little more about `Pin` and +`Context` later in the section. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, +the `Poll` type: + +```rust +enum Poll<T> { + Ready(T), + Pending, +} +``` + +This `Poll` type is similar to an `Option`: it has one variant which has a value +(`Ready(T)`), and one which does not (`Pending`). It means something quite +different, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has +work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` variant +indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is +available. + +> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the +> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> becoming ready! Futures which are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in +> their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves! + +Under the hood, when you see code which uses `await`, Rust compiles that to code +which calls `poll`. If you look back at Listing 17-4, where we printed out the +page title for a single URL once it resolved, Rust compiles it into something +kind of (although not exactly) like this: + +```rust,ignore +match page_title(url).poll() { + Ready(page_title) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // But what goes here? + } +} +``` + +What should we do when the `Future` is still `Pending`? We need some way to try +again… and again, and again, until the future is finally ready. In other words, +a loop: + +```rust,ignore +let mut page_title_fut = page_title(url); +loop { + match page_title_fut.poll() { + Ready(value) => match page_title { + Some(title) => println!("The title for {url} was {title}"), + None => println!("{url} had no title"), + } + Pending => { + // continue + } + } +} +``` + +If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `await` would be +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust makes +sure that the loop can hand off control to something which can pause work on +this future and work on other futures and check this one again later. That +“something” is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is +one of the main jobs for a runtime. + +Recall our description (in the [Counting][counting] section) of waiting on +`rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a `Future`, and awaiting it polls it. In our +initial discussion, we noted that a runtime will pause the future until it’s +ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the channel closes. With our +deeper understanding of `Future` in place, and specifically `Future::poll`, we +can see how that works. The runtime knows the future isn’t ready when it +returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future is ready and +advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. + +The exact details of how a runtime does that are more than we will cover in even +this deep dive section. The key here is to see the basic mechanic of futures: a +runtime _polls_ each future it is responsible for, putting it back to sleep when +it is not yet ready. + +### Pinning and the Pin and Unpin Traits + +When we introduced the idea of pinning while working on Listing 17-16, we ran +into a very gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16 +cargo build +copy *only* the final `error` block from the errors +--> + +```text +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:48:33 + | +48 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>: Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:10:23: 10:33}>` to implement `Future` +note: required by a bound in `futures_util::future::join_all::JoinAll` + --> file:///home/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` +``` + +When we read this error message carefully, it not only tells us that we need to +pin the values, but also tells us why pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` +function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct is generic over a type +`F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. Directly awaiting a +future with `await` pins the future implicitly. That’s why we don’t need to use +`pin!` everywhere we want to await futures. + +However, we’re not directly awaiting a future here. Instead, we construct a new +future, `JoinAll`, by passing a collection of futures to the `join_all` +function. The signature for `join_all` requires that the type of the items in +the collection all implement the `Future` trait, and `Box<T>` only implements +`Future` if the `T` that it wraps is a future which implements the `Unpin` +trait. + +That’s a lot! But we can understand it, if we dive a little further into how the +`Future` type actually works, in particular around _pinning_. + +Let’s look again at the definition of `Future`: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + // Required method + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +The `cx` parameter and its `Context` type is the key to how a runtime actually +knows when to check any given future, while still being lazy. The details of how +that works are beyond the scope of this chapter, though: you generally only need +to worry about it when writing a custom `Future` implementation. + +Instead, we’ll focus on the type for `self`. This is the first time we’ve seen +a method where `self` has a type annotation. A type annotation for `self` is +similar to type annotations for other function parameters, with two key +differences. First, when we specify the type of `self` in this way, we’re +telling Rust what type `self` must be to call this method. Second, a type +annotation on `self` can’t be just any type. It’s only allowed to be the type +on which the method is implemented, a reference or smart pointer to that type, +or a `Pin` wrapping a reference to that type. We’ll see more on this syntax in +Chapter 18. For now, it’s enough to know that if we want to poll a future (to +check whether it is `Pending` or `Ready(Output)`), we need a mutable reference +to the type, which is wrapped in a `Pin`. + +`Pin` is a wrapper type. In some ways, it’s similar to the `Box`, `Rc`, and +other smart pointer types we saw in Chapter 15, which also wrap other types. +Unlike those, however, `Pin` only works with _pointer types_ such as references +(`&` and `&mut`) and smart pointers (`Box`, `Rc`, and so on). To be precise, +`Pin` works with types which implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` traits, which +we covered in Chapter 15. You can think of this restriction as equivalent to +only working with pointers, though, because implementing `Deref` or `DerefMut` +means your type behaves similarly to a pointer type. `Pin` is also not a pointer +itself, and it doesn’t have any behavior of its own the way `Rc` and `Arc` do +with ref counting. It’s purely a tool the compiler can use to uphold the +relevant guarantees, by wrapping pointers in the type. + +Recalling that `await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll`, this starts +to explain the error message we saw above—but that was in terms of `Unpin`, not +`Pin`. So what exactly are `Pin` and `Unpin`, how do they relate, and why does +`Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? + +In [Our First Async Program][first-async], we described how a series of await +points in a future get compiled into a state machine—and noted how the compiler +helps make sure that state machine follows all of Rust’s normal rules around +safety, including borrowing and ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what +data is needed between each await point and the next await point or the end of +the async block. It then creates a corresponding variant in the state machine it +creates. Each variant gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in +that section of the source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by +getting a mutable or immutable reference to it. + +So far so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a +given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around +the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass +to `join_all`, the way we did back in the [“Working With Any Number of +Futures”][any-number-futures]<!-- ignore --> section—things get trickier. + +When we move a future—whether by pushing into a data structure to use as an +iterator with `join_all`, or returning them from a function—that actually means +moving the state machine Rust creates for us. And unlike most other types in +Rust, the futures Rust creates for async blocks can end up with references to +themselves in the fields of any given variant, as in Figure 17-4 (a simplified +illustration to help you get a feel for the idea, rather than digging into what +are often fairly complicated details). + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-04.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-4: A self-referential data type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +By default, though, any object which has a reference to itself is unsafe to +move, because references always point to the actual memory address of the thing +they refer to. If you move the data structure itself, those internal references +will be left pointing to the old location. However, that memory location is now +invalid. For one thing, its value will not be updated when you make changes to +the data structure. For another—and more importantly!—the computer is now free +to reuse that memory for other things! You could end up reading completely +unrelated data later. + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-05.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-5: The unsafe result of moving a self-referential data type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +In principle, the Rust compiler could try to update every reference to an object +every time it gets moved. That would potentially be a lot of performance +overhead, especially given there can be a whole web of references that need +updating. On the other hand, if we could make sure the data structure in +question _doesn’t move in memory_, we don’t have to update any references. +This is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker requires: you can’t move an item +which has any active references to it using safe code. + +`Pin` builds on that to give us the exact guarantee we need. When we _pin_ a +value by wrapping a pointer to that value in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, +if you have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, _not_ +the `Box` pointer. Figure 17-6 illustrates this: + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-06.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-6: Pinning a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +In fact, the `Box` pointer can still move around freely. Remember: we care about +making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in its place. If a +pointer moves around, but the data it points to is in the same place, as in +Figure 17-7, there’s no potential problem. (How you would do this with a `Pin` +wrapping a `Box` is more than we’ll get into in this particular discussion, +but it would make for a good exercise! If you look at the docs for the types as +well as the `std::pin` module, you might be able to work out how you would do +that.) The key is that the self-referential type itself cannot move, because it +is still pinned. + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-07.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-7: Moving a `Box` which points to a self-referential future type.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to +be behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have +internal references. Primitive values such as numbers and booleans don’t have +any internal references, so they’re obviously safe. Neither do most types you +normally work with in Rust. A `Vec`, for example, doesn’t have any internal +references it needs to keep up to date this way, so you can move it around +without worrying. If you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you’d have to do everything +via the safe but restrictive APIs provided by `Pin`, even though a +`Vec<String>` is always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We +need a way to tell the compiler that it’s actually just fine to move items +around in cases such as these. For that, we have `Unpin`. + +`Unpin` is a marker trait, similar to the `Send` and `Sync` traits we saw in +Chapter 16. Recall that marker traits have no functionality of their own. They +exist only to tell the compiler that it’s safe to use the type which implements +a given trait in a particular context. `Unpin` informs the compiler that a given +type does _not_ need to uphold any particular guarantees about whether the value +in question can be moved. + +Just as with `Send` and `Sync`, the compiler implements `Unpin` automatically +for all types where it can prove it is safe. The special case, again similar to +`Send` and `Sync`, is the case where `Unpin` is _not_ implemented for a type. +The notation for this is `impl !Unpin for SomeType`, where `SomeType` is the +name of a type which _does_ need to uphold those guarantees to be safe whenever +a pointer to that type is used in a `Pin`. + +In other words, there are two things to keep in mind about the relationship +between `Pin` and `Unpin`. First, `Unpin` is the “normal” case, and `!Unpin` is +the special case. Second, whether a type implements `Unpin` or `!Unpin` _only_ +matters when using a pinned pointer to that type like `Pin<&mut SomeType>`. + +To make that concrete, think about a `String`: it has a length and the Unicode +characters which make it up. We can wrap a `String` in `Pin`, as seen in Figure +17-8. However, `String` automatically implements `Unpin`, the same as most other +types in Rust. + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-08.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-8: Pinning a String, with a dotted line indicating that the String implements the `Unpin` trait, so it is not pinned.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +As a result, we can do things which would be illegal if `String` implemented +`!Unpin` instead, such as replace one string with another at the exact same +location in memory as in Figure 17-9. This doesn’t violate the `Pin` contract, +because `String` has no internal references that make it unsafe to move around! +That is precisely why it implements `Unpin` rather than `!Unpin`. + +<figure> + +<img alt="Concurrent work flow" src="img/trpl17-09.svg" class="center" /> + +<figcaption>Figure 17-9: Replacing the String with an entirely different String in memory.</figcaption> + +</figure> + +Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call +from back in Listing 17-17. We originally tried to move the futures produced by +async blocks into a `Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we’ve seen, +those futures may have internal references, so they don’t implement `Unpin`. +They need to be pinned, and then we can pass the `Pin` type into the `Vec`, +confident that the underlying data in the futures will _not_ be moved. + +`Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or +when you’re building a runtime itself, rather than for day to day Rust code. +When you see these traits in error messages, though, now you’ll have a better +idea of how to fix the code! + +> Note: This combination of `Pin` and `Unpin` allows a whole class of complex +> types to be safe in Rust which are otherwise difficult to implement because +> they’re self-referential. Types which require `Pin` show up _most_ commonly +> in async Rust today, but you might—very rarely!—see it in other contexts, too. +> +> The specifics of how `Pin` and `Unpin` work, and the rules they’re required +> to uphold, are covered extensively in the API documentation for `std::pin`, so +> if you’d like to understand them more deeply, that’s a great place to start. +> +> If you want to understand how things work “under the hood” in even more +> detail, the official [_Asynchronous Programming in Rust_][async-book] book has +> you covered: +> +> - [Chapter 2: Under the Hood: Executing Futures and Tasks][under-the-hood] +> - [Chapter 4: Pinning][pinning] + +### The Stream Trait + +Now that we have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we +can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As described in the section +introducing streams, streams are similar to asynchronous iterators. Unlike +`Iterator` and `Future`, there is no definition of a `Stream` trait in the +standard library as of the time of writing, but there _is_ a very common +definition from the `futures` crate used throughout the ecosystem. + +Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits, so we can +build up to how a `Stream` trait that merges them together might look. From +`Iterator`, we have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items which become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait which puts those +features together: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_> + ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>; +} +``` + +The `Stream` trait defines an associated type `Item` for the type of the items +produced by the stream. This is similar to `Iterator`: there may be zero to +many of these, and unlike `Future`, where there is always a single `Output` +(even if it’s the unit type `()`). + +`Stream` also defines a method to get those items. We call it `poll_next`, to +make it clear that it polls in the same way `Future::poll` does and produces a +sequence of items in the same way `Iterator::next` does. Its return type +combines `Poll` with `Option`. The outer type is `Poll`, because it has to be +checked for readiness, just as a future does. The inner type is `Option`, +because it needs to signal whether there are more messages, just as an iterator +does. + +Something very similar to this will likely end up standardized as part of Rust’s +standard library. In the meantime, it’s part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover below should generally apply! + +In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we didn’t use +`poll_next` _or_ `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We _could_ +work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` +state machines, of course, just as we _could_ work with futures directly via +their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, so the `StreamExt` +trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that. + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +<!-- +TODO: update this if/when tokio/etc. update their MSRV and switch to using async functions +in traits, since the lack thereof is the reason they do not yet have this. +--> + +> Note: The actual definition we used earlier in the chapter looks slightly +> different than this, because it supports versions of Rust which did not yet +> support using async functions in traits. As a result, it looks like this: +> +> ```rust,ignore +> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin; +> ``` +> +> That `Next` type is a `struct` which implements `Future` and gives a way to +> name the lifetime of the reference to `self` with `Next<'_, Self>`, so that +> `await` can work with this method! + +The `StreamExt` trait is also the home of all the interesting methods available +to use with streams. `StreamExt` is automatically implemented for every type +which implements `Stream`, but these traits are defined separately so that the +community can iterate on the foundational trait distinctly from the convenience +APIs. + +In the version of `StreamExt` used in the `trpl` crate, the trait not only +defines the `next` method, it also supplies an implementation of `next`, which +correctly handles the details of calling `Stream::poll_next`. This means that +even when you need to write your own streaming data type, you _only_ have to +implement `Stream`, and then anyone who uses your data type can use `StreamExt` +and its methods with it automatically. + +That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. To +wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all +fit together! + +[futures-syntax]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html +[counting]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html +[async-book]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/ +[under-the-hood]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/02_execution/01_chapter.html +[pinning]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/04_pinning/01_chapter.html +[first-async]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program +[any-number-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#working-with-any-number-of-futures diff --git a/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5fa6629810 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md @@ -0,0 +1,140 @@ +## Futures, Tasks, and Threads + +As we saw in the previous chapter, threads provide one approach to concurrency. +We’ve seen another approach to concurrency in this chapter, using async with +futures and streams. You might be wondering why you would choose one or the +other. The answer is: it depends! And in many cases, the choice isn’t threads +_or_ async but rather threads _and_ async. + +Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for +decades now, and many programming languages have support for them as a result. +However, they are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they +use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for +starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your +operating system and hardware support them! Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile +computers, some embedded systems don’t have an OS at all, so they also don’t +have threads! + +The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of +tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations don’t require their own +threads. Instead, they can run on tasks, as when we used `trpl::spawn_task` to +kick off work from a synchronous function throughout the streams section. A task +is similar to a thread, but instead of being managed by the operating system, +it’s managed by library-level code: the runtime. + +In the previous section, we saw that we could build a `Stream` by using an async +channel and spawning an async task which we could call from synchronous code. We +could do the exact same thing with a thread! In Listing 17-40, we used +`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with +the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the +`get_intervals` function. + +<Listing number="17-41" caption="Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs for the `get_intervals` function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs:threads}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, the output is identical. And notice how little changes here +from the perspective of the calling code! What’s more, even though one of our +functions spawned an async task on the runtime and the other spawned an +OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the differences. + +Despite the similarities, these two approaches behave very differently, although +we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We could +spawn millions of async tasks on any modern personal computer. If we tried to do +that with threads, we would literally run out of memory! + +However, there’s a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary +for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible _between_ threads. +Tasks act as a boundary for sets of _asynchronous_ operations; concurrency is +possible both _between_ and _within_ tasks, because a task can switch between +futures in its body. Finally, futures are Rust’s most granular unit of +concurrency, and each future may represent a tree of other futures. The +runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, and tasks manage futures. In +that regard, tasks are similar to lightweight, runtime-managed threads with +added capabilities that come from being managed by a runtime instead of by the +operating system. + +This doesn’t mean that async tasks are always better than threads, any more than +that threads are always better than tasks. + +Concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming model than +concurrency with `async`. That can be a strength or a weakness. Threads are +somewhat “fire and forget,” they have no native equivalent to a future, so they +simply run to completion, without interruption except by the operating system +itself. That is, they have no built-in support for _intra-task concurrency_ the +way futures do. Threads in Rust also have no mechanisms for cancellation—a +subject we haven’t covered in depth in this chapter, but which is implicit in +the fact that whenever we ended a future, its state got cleaned up correctly. + +These limitations also make threads harder to compose than futures. It’s much +more difficult, for example, to use threads to build helpers such as the +`timeout` we built in [“Building Our Own Async Abstractions”][combining-futures] +or the `throttle` method we used with streams in [“Composing Streams”][streams]. +The fact that futures are richer data structures means they can be composed +together more naturally, as we have seen. + +Tasks then give _additional_ control over futures, allowing you to choose where +and how to group the futures. And it turns out that threads and tasks often +work very well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved +around between threads. We haven’t mentioned it up until now, but under the +hood the `Runtime` we have been using, including the `spawn_blocking` and +`spawn_task` functions, is multithreaded by default! Many runtimes use an +approach called _work stealing_ to transparently move tasks around between +threads based on the current utilization of the threads, with the aim of +improving the overall performance of the system. To build that actually requires +threads _and_ tasks, and therefore futures. + +As a default way of thinking about which to use when: + +- If the work is _very parallelizable_, such as processing a bunch of data where + each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. +- If the work is _very concurrent_, such as handling messages from a bunch of + different sources which may come in a different intervals or different rates, + async is a better choice. + +And if you need some mix of parallelism and concurrency, you don’t have to +choose between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +one serve the part it is best at. For example, Listing 17-42 shows a fairly +common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. + +<Listing number="17-42" caption="Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We begin by creating an async channel. Then we spawn a thread which takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the +numbers 1 through 10, and sleep for a second in between each. Finally, we run a +future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just as we have +throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just as in +the other message-passing examples we have seen. + +To return to the examples we opened the chapter with: you could imagine running +a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread, because video encoding +is compute bound, but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an +async channel. Examples of this kind of mix abound! + +## Summary + +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in +Chapter 21 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation +than the smaller examples discussed here—and compare more directly what it looks +like to solve these kinds of problems with threading vs. with tasks and futures. + +Whether with threads, with futures and tasks, or with the combination of them +all, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent +code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. + +Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions +as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms +relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. + +[combining-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#building-our-own-async-abstractions +[streams]: ch17-04-streams.html#composing-streams diff --git a/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/src/ch18-00-oop.md similarity index 78% rename from src/ch17-00-oop.md rename to src/ch18-00-oop.md index 5537db02a2..adcde4c5aa 100644 --- a/src/ch17-00-oop.md +++ b/src/ch18-00-oop.md @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ -# Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust +# Object-Oriented Programming Features of Rust Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of modeling programs. Objects as a programmatic concept were introduced in the programming language Simula in the 1960s. Those objects influenced Alan Kay’s programming architecture in which objects pass messages to each other. To describe this architecture, he coined -the term *object-oriented programming* in 1967. Many competing definitions -describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object oriented, +the term _object-oriented programming_ in 1967. Many competing definitions +describe what OOP is, and by some of these definitions Rust is object-oriented, but by others it is not. In this chapter, we’ll explore certain characteristics -that are commonly considered object oriented and how those characteristics +that are commonly considered object-oriented and how those characteristics translate to idiomatic Rust. We’ll then show you how to implement an object-oriented design pattern in Rust and discuss the trade-offs of doing so versus implementing a solution using some of Rust’s strengths instead. diff --git a/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md similarity index 65% rename from src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md rename to src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md index 8e92d97960..e370757468 100644 --- a/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md +++ b/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ ## Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages There is no consensus in the programming community about what features a -language must have to be considered object oriented. Rust is influenced by many +language must have to be considered object-oriented. Rust is influenced by many programming paradigms, including OOP; for example, we explored the features that came from functional programming in Chapter 13. Arguably, OOP languages share certain common characteristics, namely objects, encapsulation, and @@ -10,23 +10,23 @@ Rust supports it. ### Objects Contain Data and Behavior -The book *Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software* by +The book _Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software_ by Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides (Addison-Wesley -Professional, 1994), colloquially referred to as *The Gang of Four* book, is a +Professional, 1994), colloquially referred to as _The Gang of Four_ book, is a catalog of object-oriented design patterns. It defines OOP this way: -> Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An *object* packages both +> Object-oriented programs are made up of objects. An _object_ packages both > data and the procedures that operate on that data. The procedures are -> typically called *methods* or *operations*. +> typically called _methods_ or _operations_. -Using this definition, Rust is object oriented: structs and enums have data, +Using this definition, Rust is object-oriented: structs and enums have data, and `impl` blocks provide methods on structs and enums. Even though structs and -enums with methods aren’t *called* objects, they provide the same +enums with methods aren’t _called_ objects, they provide the same functionality, according to the Gang of Four’s definition of objects. ### Encapsulation that Hides Implementation Details -Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of *encapsulation*, +Another aspect commonly associated with OOP is the idea of _encapsulation_, which means that the implementation details of an object aren’t accessible to code using that object. Therefore, the only way to interact with an object is through its public API; code using the object shouldn’t be able to reach into @@ -41,33 +41,30 @@ can define a struct `AveragedCollection` that has a field containing a vector of `i32` values. The struct can also have a field that contains the average of the values in the vector, meaning the average doesn’t have to be computed on demand whenever anyone needs it. In other words, `AveragedCollection` will -cache the calculated average for us. Listing 17-1 has the definition of the +cache the calculated average for us. Listing 18-1 has the definition of the `AveragedCollection` struct: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-1" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An `AveragedCollection` struct that maintains a list of integers and the average of the items in the collection"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-01/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-01/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-1: An `AveragedCollection` struct that -maintains a list of integers and the average of the items in the -collection</span> +</Listing> The struct is marked `pub` so that other code can use it, but the fields within the struct remain private. This is important in this case because we want to ensure that whenever a value is added or removed from the list, the average is also updated. We do this by implementing `add`, `remove`, and `average` methods -on the struct, as shown in Listing 17-2: +on the struct, as shown in Listing 18-2: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-2" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementations of the public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` on `AveragedCollection`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-02/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-02/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-2: Implementations of the public methods -`add`, `remove`, and `average` on `AveragedCollection`</span> +</Listing> The public methods `add`, `remove`, and `average` are the only ways to access or modify data in an instance of `AveragedCollection`. When an item is added @@ -86,43 +83,45 @@ Because we’ve encapsulated the implementation details of the struct in the future. For instance, we could use a `HashSet<i32>` instead of a `Vec<i32>` for the `list` field. As long as the signatures of the `add`, `remove`, and `average` public methods stay the same, code using -`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change. If we made `list` public instead, -this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and `Vec<i32>` have -different methods for adding and removing items, so the external code would -likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. +`AveragedCollection` wouldn’t need to change in order to compile. If we made +`list` public instead, this wouldn’t necessarily be the case: `HashSet<i32>` and +`Vec<i32>` have different methods for adding and removing items, so the external +code would likely have to change if it were modifying `list` directly. -If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered object -oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or not for -different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. +If encapsulation is a required aspect for a language to be considered +object-oriented, then Rust meets that requirement. The option to use `pub` or +not for different parts of code enables encapsulation of implementation details. ### Inheritance as a Type System and as Code Sharing -*Inheritance* is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from +_Inheritance_ is a mechanism whereby an object can inherit elements from another object’s definition, thus gaining the parent object’s data and behavior without you having to define them again. If a language must have inheritance to be an object-oriented language, then Rust is not one. There is no way to define a struct that inherits the parent -struct’s fields and method implementations. However, if you’re used to having -inheritance in your programming toolbox, you can use other solutions in Rust, -depending on your reason for reaching for inheritance in the first place. +struct’s fields and method implementations without using a macro. + +However, if you’re used to having inheritance in your programming toolbox, you +can use other solutions in Rust, depending on your reason for reaching for +inheritance in the first place. You would choose inheritance for two main reasons. One is for reuse of code: you can implement particular behavior for one type, and inheritance enables you -to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can share Rust code -using default trait method implementations instead, which you saw in Listing -10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method on the -`Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have the -`summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is similar to -a parent class having an implementation of a method and an inheriting child -class also having the implementation of the method. We can also override the -default implementation of the `summarize` method when we implement the -`Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the +to reuse that implementation for a different type. You can do this in a limited +way in Rust code using default trait method implementations, which you saw in +Listing 10-14 when we added a default implementation of the `summarize` method +on the `Summary` trait. Any type implementing the `Summary` trait would have +the `summarize` method available on it without any further code. This is +similar to a parent class having an implementation of a method and an +inheriting child class also having the implementation of the method. We can +also override the default implementation of the `summarize` method when we +implement the `Summary` trait, which is similar to a child class overriding the implementation of a method inherited from a parent class. The other reason to use inheritance relates to the type system: to enable a child type to be used in the same places as the parent type. This is also -called *polymorphism*, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for +called _polymorphism_, which means that you can substitute multiple objects for each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. > ### Polymorphism @@ -133,7 +132,7 @@ each other at runtime if they share certain characteristics. > > Rust instead uses generics to abstract over different possible types and > trait bounds to impose constraints on what those types must provide. This is -> sometimes called *bounded parametric polymorphism*. +> sometimes called _bounded parametric polymorphism_. Inheritance has recently fallen out of favor as a programming design solution in many programming languages because it’s often at risk of sharing more code @@ -141,9 +140,9 @@ than necessary. Subclasses shouldn’t always share all characteristics of their parent class but will do so with inheritance. This can make a program’s design less flexible. It also introduces the possibility of calling methods on subclasses that don’t make sense or that cause errors because the methods don’t -apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow a subclass -to inherit from one class, further restricting the flexibility of a program’s -design. +apply to the subclass. In addition, some languages will only allow single +inheritance (meaning a subclass can only inherit from one class), further +restricting the flexibility of a program’s design. For these reasons, Rust takes the different approach of using trait objects instead of inheritance. Let’s look at how trait objects enable polymorphism in diff --git a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md similarity index 71% rename from src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md rename to src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md index 5a6de9d189..980b1206c7 100644 --- a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ ## Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types In Chapter 8, we mentioned that one limitation of vectors is that they can -store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-10 where +store elements of only one type. We created a workaround in Listing 8-9 where we defined a `SpreadsheetCell` enum that had variants to hold integers, floats, and text. This meant we could store different types of data in each cell and still have a vector that represented a row of cells. This is a perfectly good @@ -40,12 +40,12 @@ allow users to extend it with new types. To implement the behavior we want `gui` to have, we’ll define a trait named `Draw` that will have one method named `draw`. Then we can define a vector that -takes a *trait object*. A trait object points to both an instance of a type +takes a _trait object_. A trait object points to both an instance of a type implementing our specified trait and a table used to look up trait methods on that type at runtime. We create a trait object by specifying some sort of pointer, such as a `&` reference or a `Box<T>` smart pointer, then the `dyn` keyword, and then specifying the relevant trait. (We’ll talk about the reason -trait objects must use a pointer in Chapter 19 in the section [“Dynamically +trait objects must use a pointer in Chapter 20 in the section [“Dynamically Sized Types and the `Sized` Trait.”][dynamically-sized]<!-- ignore -->) We can use trait objects in place of a generic or concrete type. Wherever we use a trait object, Rust’s type system will ensure at compile time that any value @@ -56,67 +56,63 @@ We’ve mentioned that, in Rust, we refrain from calling structs and enums “objects” to distinguish them from other languages’ objects. In a struct or enum, the data in the struct fields and the behavior in `impl` blocks are separated, whereas in other languages, the data and behavior combined into one -concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects *are* more like +concept is often labeled an object. However, trait objects _are_ more like objects in other languages in the sense that they combine data and behavior. But trait objects differ from traditional objects in that we can’t add data to a trait object. Trait objects aren’t as generally useful as objects in other languages: their specific purpose is to allow abstraction across common behavior. -Listing 17-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named +Listing 18-3 shows how to define a trait named `Draw` with one method named `draw`: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-3" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definition of the `Draw` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-03/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-03/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-3: Definition of the `Draw` trait</span> +</Listing> This syntax should look familiar from our discussions on how to define traits -in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 17-4 defines a struct named +in Chapter 10. Next comes some new syntax: Listing 18-4 defines a struct named `Screen` that holds a vector named `components`. This vector is of type `Box<dyn Draw>`, which is a trait object; it’s a stand-in for any type inside a `Box` that implements the `Draw` trait. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-4" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definition of the `Screen` struct with a `components` field holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-04/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-04/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-4: Definition of the `Screen` struct with a -`components` field holding a vector of trait objects that implement the `Draw` -trait</span> +</Listing> On the `Screen` struct, we’ll define a method named `run` that will call the -`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 17-5: +`draw` method on each of its `components`, as shown in Listing 18-5: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-5" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the `draw` method on each component"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-05/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-05/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-5: A `run` method on `Screen` that calls the -`draw` method on each component</span> +</Listing> This works differently from defining a struct that uses a generic type parameter with trait bounds. A generic type parameter can only be substituted with one concrete type at a time, whereas trait objects allow for multiple concrete types to fill in for the trait object at runtime. For example, we could have defined the `Screen` struct using a generic type and a trait bound -as in Listing 17-6: +as in Listing 18-6: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-6" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An alternate implementation of the `Screen` struct and its `run` method using generics and trait bounds"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-06/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-06/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-6: An alternate implementation of the `Screen` -struct and its `run` method using generics and trait bounds</span> +</Listing> This restricts us to a `Screen` instance that has a list of components all of type `Button` or all of type `TextField`. If you’ll only ever have homogeneous @@ -134,16 +130,15 @@ Now we’ll add some types that implement the `Draw` trait. We’ll provide the `Button` type. Again, actually implementing a GUI library is beyond the scope of this book, so the `draw` method won’t have any useful implementation in its body. To imagine what the implementation might look like, a `Button` struct -might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 17-7: +might have fields for `width`, `height`, and `label`, as shown in Listing 18-7: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-7" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `Button` struct that implements the `Draw` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-07/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-07/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-7: A `Button` struct that implements the -`Draw` trait</span> +</Listing> The `width`, `height`, and `label` fields on `Button` will differ from the fields on other components; for example, a `TextField` type might have those @@ -157,31 +152,29 @@ types like `TextField`. If someone using our library decides to implement a `SelectBox` struct that has `width`, `height`, and `options` fields, they implement the `Draw` trait on the -`SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 17-8: +`SelectBox` type as well, as shown in Listing 18-8: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-8" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Another crate using `gui` and implementing the `Draw` trait on a `SelectBox` struct"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-8: Another crate using `gui` and implementing -the `Draw` trait on a `SelectBox` struct</span> +</Listing> Our library’s user can now write their `main` function to create a `Screen` instance. To the `Screen` instance, they can add a `SelectBox` and a `Button` by putting each in a `Box<T>` to become a trait object. They can then call the `run` method on the `Screen` instance, which will call `draw` on each of the -components. Listing 17-9 shows this implementation: +components. Listing 18-9 shows this implementation: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using trait objects to store values of different types that implement the same trait"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-9: Using trait objects to store values of -different types that implement the same trait</span> +</Listing> When we wrote the library, we didn’t know that someone might add the `SelectBox` type, but our `Screen` implementation was able to operate on the @@ -189,10 +182,10 @@ new type and draw it because `SelectBox` implements the `Draw` trait, which means it implements the `draw` method. This concept—of being concerned only with the messages a value responds to -rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of *duck -typing* in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks +rather than the value’s concrete type—is similar to the concept of _duck +typing_ in dynamically typed languages: if it walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, then it must be a duck! In the implementation of `run` on `Screen` -in Listing 17-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each +in Listing 18-5, `run` doesn’t need to know what the concrete type of each component is. It doesn’t check whether a component is an instance of a `Button` or a `SelectBox`, it just calls the `draw` method on the component. By specifying `Box<dyn Draw>` as the type of the values in the `components` @@ -205,22 +198,21 @@ value implements a particular method at runtime or worry about getting errors if a value doesn’t implement a method but we call it anyway. Rust won’t compile our code if the values don’t implement the traits that the trait objects need. -For example, Listing 17-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` +For example, Listing 18-10 shows what happens if we try to create a `Screen` with a `String` as a component: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Attempting to use a type that doesn’t implement the trait object’s trait"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-10: Attempting to use a type that doesn’t -implement the trait object’s trait</span> +</Listing> We’ll get this error because `String` doesn’t implement the `Draw` trait: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-10/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-10/output.txt}} ``` This error lets us know that either we’re passing something to `Screen` we @@ -230,16 +222,15 @@ didn’t mean to pass and so should pass a different type or we should implement ### Trait Objects Perform Dynamic Dispatch Recall in the [“Performance of Code Using -Generics”][performance-of-code-using-generics]<!-- ignore --> section in -Chapter 10 our discussion on the monomorphization process performed by the -compiler when we use trait bounds on generics: the compiler generates -nongeneric implementations of functions and methods for each concrete type that -we use in place of a generic type parameter. The code that results from -monomorphization is doing *static dispatch*, which is when the compiler knows -what method you’re calling at compile time. This is opposed to *dynamic -dispatch*, which is when the compiler can’t tell at compile time which method -you’re calling. In dynamic dispatch cases, the compiler emits code that at -runtime will figure out which method to call. +Generics”][performance-of-code-using-generics]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter +10 our discussion on the monomorphization process performed on generics by the +compiler: the compiler generates nongeneric implementations of functions and +methods for each concrete type that we use in place of a generic type parameter. +The code that results from monomorphization is doing _static dispatch_, which is +when the compiler knows what method you’re calling at compile time. This is +opposed to _dynamic dispatch_, which is when the compiler can’t tell at compile +time which method you’re calling. In dynamic dispatch cases, the compiler emits +code that at runtime will figure out which method to call. When we use trait objects, Rust must use dynamic dispatch. The compiler doesn’t know all the types that might be used with the code that’s using trait objects, @@ -247,10 +238,12 @@ so it doesn’t know which method implemented on which type to call. Instead, at runtime, Rust uses the pointers inside the trait object to know which method to call. This lookup incurs a runtime cost that doesn’t occur with static dispatch. Dynamic dispatch also prevents the compiler from choosing to inline a -method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations. However, we did get -extra flexibility in the code that we wrote in Listing 17-5 and were able to -support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. - -[performance-of-code-using-generics]: -ch10-01-syntax.html#performance-of-code-using-generics -[dynamically-sized]: ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait +method’s code, which in turn prevents some optimizations, and Rust has some +rules about where you can and cannot use dynamic dispatch, called [_dyn +compatibility_][dyn-compatibility]. However, we did get extra flexibility in the code +that we wrote in Listing 18-5 and were able to support in Listing 18-9, so it’s +a trade-off to consider. + +[performance-of-code-using-generics]: ch10-01-syntax.html#performance-of-code-using-generics +[dynamically-sized]: ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait +[dyn-compatibility]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/reference/items/traits.html#dyn-compatibility diff --git a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md similarity index 81% rename from src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md rename to src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md index aa078d42f5..8f50a56fdb 100644 --- a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -1,8 +1,8 @@ ## Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern -The *state pattern* is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the +The _state pattern_ is an object-oriented design pattern. The crux of the pattern is that we define a set of states a value can have internally. The -states are represented by a set of *state objects*, and the value’s behavior +states are represented by a set of _state objects_, and the value’s behavior changes based on its state. We’re going to work through an example of a blog post struct that has a field to hold its state, which will be a state object from the set "draft", "review", or "published". @@ -17,8 +17,12 @@ The advantage of using the state pattern is that, when the business requirements of the program change, we won’t need to change the code of the value holding the state or the code that uses the value. We’ll only need to update the code inside one of the state objects to change its rules or perhaps -add more state objects. Let’s dig in to incrementally implementing a blog post -workflow using the state pattern. +add more state objects. + +First, we’re going to implement the state pattern in a more traditional +object-oriented way, then we’ll use an approach that’s a bit more natural in +Rust. Let’s dig in to incrementally implementing a blog post workflow using the +state pattern. The final functionality will look like this: @@ -32,22 +36,21 @@ Any other changes attempted on a post should have no effect. For example, if we try to approve a draft blog post before we’ve requested a review, the post should remain an unpublished draft. -Listing 17-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the +Listing 18-11 shows this workflow in code form: this is an example usage of the API we’ll implement in a library crate named `blog`. This won’t compile yet because we haven’t implemented the `blog` crate. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Code that demonstrates the desired behavior we want our `blog` crate to have"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:all}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:all}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-11: Code that demonstrates the desired -behavior we want our `blog` crate to have</span> +</Listing> We want to allow the user to create a new draft blog post with `Post::new`. We want to allow text to be added to the blog post. If we try to get the post’s -content immediately, before approval, we shouldn't get any text because the +content immediately, before approval, we shouldn’t get any text because the post is still a draft. We’ve added `assert_eq!` in the code for demonstration purposes. An excellent unit test for this would be to assert that a draft blog post returns an empty string from the `content` method, but we’re not going to @@ -72,7 +75,7 @@ make a mistake with the states, like publishing a post before it’s reviewed. Let’s get started on the implementation of the library! We know we need a public `Post` struct that holds some content, so we’ll start with the definition of the struct and an associated public `new` function to create an -instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 17-12. We’ll also make a private +instance of `Post`, as shown in Listing 18-12. We’ll also make a private `State` trait that will define the behavior that all state objects for a `Post` must have. @@ -80,15 +83,13 @@ Then `Post` will hold a trait object of `Box<dyn State>` inside an `Option<T>` in a private field named `state` to hold the state object. You’ll see why the `Option<T>` is necessary in a bit. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-12" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` function that creates a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` struct"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-12/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-12/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-12: Definition of a `Post` struct and a `new` -function that creates a new `Post` instance, a `State` trait, and a `Draft` -struct</span> +</Listing> The `State` trait defines the behavior shared by different post states. The state objects are `Draft`, `PendingReview`, and `Published`, and they will all @@ -105,22 +106,21 @@ create a `Post` in any other state! In the `Post::new` function, we set the ### Storing the Text of the Post Content -We saw in Listing 17-11 that we want to be able to call a method named +We saw in Listing 18-11 that we want to be able to call a method named `add_text` and pass it a `&str` that is then added as the text content of the blog post. We implement this as a method, rather than exposing the `content` field as `pub`, so that later we can implement a method that will control how the `content` field’s data is read. The `add_text` method is pretty -straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 17-13 to the `impl +straightforward, so let’s add the implementation in Listing 18-13 to the `impl Post` block: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-13" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `add_text` method to add text to a post’s `content`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-13/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-13/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-13: Implementing the `add_text` method to add -text to a post’s `content`</span> +</Listing> The `add_text` method takes a mutable reference to `self`, because we’re changing the `Post` instance that we’re calling `add_text` on. We then call @@ -134,38 +134,36 @@ support. Even after we’ve called `add_text` and added some content to our post, we still want the `content` method to return an empty string slice because the post is -still in the draft state, as shown on line 7 of Listing 17-11. For now, let’s +still in the draft state, as shown on line 7 of Listing 18-11. For now, let’s implement the `content` method with the simplest thing that will fulfill this requirement: always returning an empty string slice. We’ll change this later once we implement the ability to change a post’s state so it can be published. So far, posts can only be in the draft state, so the post content should always -be empty. Listing 17-14 shows this placeholder implementation: +be empty. Listing 18-14 shows this placeholder implementation: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-14" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Adding a placeholder implementation for the `content` method on `Post` that always returns an empty string slice"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-14/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-14/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-14: Adding a placeholder implementation for -the `content` method on `Post` that always returns an empty string slice</span> +</Listing> -With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 17-11 up to line 7 +With this added `content` method, everything in Listing 18-11 up to line 7 works as intended. ### Requesting a Review of the Post Changes Its State Next, we need to add functionality to request a review of a post, which should -change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 17-15 shows this code: +change its state from `Draft` to `PendingReview`. Listing 18-15 shows this code: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-15" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing `request_review` methods on `Post` and the `State` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-15/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-15/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-15: Implementing `request_review` methods on -`Post` and the `State` trait</span> +</Listing> We give `Post` a public method named `request_review` that will take a mutable reference to `self`. Then we call an internal `request_review` method on the @@ -207,25 +205,25 @@ state is responsible for its own rules. We’ll leave the `content` method on `Post` as is, returning an empty string slice. We can now have a `Post` in the `PendingReview` state as well as in the `Draft` state, but we want the same behavior in the `PendingReview` state. -Listing 17-11 now works up to line 10! +Listing 18-11 now works up to line 10! <!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> + <a id="adding-the-approve-method-that-changes-the-behavior-of-content"></a> ### Adding `approve` to Change the Behavior of `content` The `approve` method will be similar to the `request_review` method: it will set `state` to the value that the current state says it should have when that -state is approved, as shown in Listing 17-16: +state is approved, as shown in Listing 18-16: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `approve` method on `Post` and the `State` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-16/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-16/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-16: Implementing the `approve` method on -`Post` and the `State` trait</span> +</Listing> We add the `approve` method to the `State` trait and add a new struct that implements `State`, the `Published` state. @@ -239,18 +237,17 @@ method, it returns itself, because the post should stay in the `Published` state in those cases. Now we need to update the `content` method on `Post`. We want the value -returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we're +returned from `content` to depend on the current state of the `Post`, so we’re going to have the `Post` delegate to a `content` method defined on its `state`, -as shown in Listing 17-17: +as shown in Listing 18-17: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-17" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Updating the `content` method on `Post` to delegate to a `content` method on `State`"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-17/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-17/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-17: Updating the `content` method on `Post` to -delegate to a `content` method on `State`</span> +</Listing> Because the goal is to keep all these rules inside the structs that implement `State`, we call a `content` method on the value in `state` and pass the post @@ -276,16 +273,15 @@ will take effect on the `&` and the `Box` so the `content` method will ultimately be called on the type that implements the `State` trait. That means we need to add `content` to the `State` trait definition, and that is where we’ll put the logic for what content to return depending on which state we -have, as shown in Listing 17-18: +have, as shown in Listing 18-18: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-18" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Adding the `content` method to the `State` trait"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-18/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-18/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-18: Adding the `content` method to the `State` -trait</span> +</Listing> We add a default implementation for the `content` method that returns an empty string slice. That means we don’t need to implement `content` on the `Draft` @@ -297,10 +293,19 @@ Chapter 10. We’re taking a reference to a `post` as an argument and returning reference to part of that `post`, so the lifetime of the returned reference is related to the lifetime of the `post` argument. -And we’re done—all of Listing 17-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state +And we’re done—all of Listing 18-11 now works! We’ve implemented the state pattern with the rules of the blog post workflow. The logic related to the rules lives in the state objects rather than being scattered throughout `Post`. +> #### Why Not An Enum? +> +> You may have been wondering why we didn’t use an `enum` with the different +> possible post states as variants. That’s certainly a possible solution, try +> it and compare the end results to see which you prefer! One disadvantage of +> using an enum is every place that checks the value of the enum will need a +> `match` expression or similar to handle every possible variant. This could +> get more repetitive than this trait object solution. + ### Trade-offs of the State Pattern We’ve shown that Rust is capable of implementing the object-oriented state @@ -326,10 +331,10 @@ The implementation using the state pattern is easy to extend to add more functionality. To see the simplicity of maintaining code that uses the state pattern, try a few of these suggestions: -* Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back +- Add a `reject` method that changes the post’s state from `PendingReview` back to `Draft`. -* Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. -* Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. +- Require two calls to `approve` before the state can be changed to `Published`. +- Allow users to add text content only when a post is in the `Draft` state. Hint: have the state object responsible for what might change about the content but not responsible for modifying the `Post`. @@ -344,16 +349,16 @@ another design pattern. Another downside is that we’ve duplicated some logic. To eliminate some of the duplication, we might try to make default implementations for the `request_review` and `approve` methods on the `State` trait that return `self`; -however, this would violate object safety, because the trait doesn’t know what +however, this would not be dyn compatible, because the trait doesn’t know what the concrete `self` will be exactly. We want to be able to use `State` as a -trait object, so we need its methods to be object safe. +trait object, so we need its methods to be dyn compatible. Other duplication includes the similar implementations of the `request_review` and `approve` methods on `Post`. Both methods delegate to the implementation of the same method on the value in the `state` field of `Option` and set the new value of the `state` field to the result. If we had a lot of methods on `Post` that followed this pattern, we might consider defining a macro to eliminate the -repetition (see the [“Macros”][macros]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 19). +repetition (see the [“Macros”][macros]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 20). By implementing the state pattern exactly as it’s defined for object-oriented languages, we’re not taking as full advantage of Rust’s strengths as we could. @@ -368,14 +373,16 @@ outside code has no knowledge of them, we’ll encode the states into different types. Consequently, Rust’s type checking system will prevent attempts to use draft posts where only published posts are allowed by issuing a compiler error. -Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 17-11: +Let’s consider the first part of `main` in Listing 18-11: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + We still enable the creation of new posts in the draft state using `Post::new` and the ability to add text to the post’s content. But instead of having a `content` method on a draft post that returns an empty string, we’ll make it so @@ -383,17 +390,16 @@ draft posts don’t have the `content` method at all. That way, if we try to get a draft post’s content, we’ll get a compiler error telling us the method doesn’t exist. As a result, it will be impossible for us to accidentally display draft post content in production, because that code won’t even compile. -Listing 17-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, +Listing 18-19 shows the definition of a `Post` struct and a `DraftPost` struct, as well as methods on each: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-19" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `Post` with a `content` method and `DraftPost` without a `content` method"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-19/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-19/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-19: A `Post` with a `content` method and a -`DraftPost` without a `content` method</span> +</Listing> Both the `Post` and `DraftPost` structs have a private `content` field that stores the blog post text. The structs no longer have the `state` field because @@ -420,17 +426,15 @@ pending review state should still not display any content. Let’s implement these constraints by adding another struct, `PendingReviewPost`, defining the `request_review` method on `DraftPost` to return a `PendingReviewPost`, and defining an `approve` method on `PendingReviewPost` to return a `Post`, as -shown in Listing 17-20: +shown in Listing 18-20: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-20" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by calling `request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a `PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-20/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-20/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-20: A `PendingReviewPost` that gets created by -calling `request_review` on `DraftPost` and an `approve` method that turns a -`PendingReviewPost` into a published `Post`</span> +</Listing> The `request_review` and `approve` methods take ownership of `self`, thus consuming the `DraftPost` and `PendingReviewPost` instances and transforming @@ -450,16 +454,15 @@ called on, so we need to add more `let post =` shadowing assignments to save the returned instances. We also can’t have the assertions about the draft and pending review posts’ contents be empty strings, nor do we need them: we can’t compile code that tries to use the content of posts in those states any longer. -The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 17-21: +The updated code in `main` is shown in Listing 18-21: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="18-21" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Modifications to `main` to use the new implementation of the blog post workflow"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-oop/listing-17-21/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-oop/listing-18-21/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 17-21: Modifications to `main` to use the new -implementation of the blog post workflow</span> +</Listing> The changes we needed to make to `main` to reassign `post` mean that this implementation doesn’t quite follow the object-oriented state pattern anymore: @@ -470,7 +473,7 @@ compile time! This ensures that certain bugs, such as display of the content of an unpublished post, will be discovered before they make it to production. Try the tasks suggested at the start of this section on the `blog` crate as it -is after Listing 17-21 to see what you think about the design of this version +is after Listing 18-21 to see what you think about the design of this version of the code. Note that some of the tasks might be completed already in this design. @@ -500,4 +503,4 @@ lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! [more-info-than-rustc]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#cases-in-which-you-have-more-information-than-the-compiler -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/src/ch19-00-patterns.md similarity index 66% rename from src/ch18-00-patterns.md rename to src/ch19-00-patterns.md index 33d21b9b3b..4574ac0b8e 100644 --- a/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/src/ch19-00-patterns.md @@ -1,19 +1,20 @@ # Patterns and Matching -*Patterns* are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of +_Patterns_ are a special syntax in Rust for matching against the structure of types, both complex and simple. Using patterns in conjunction with `match` expressions and other constructs gives you more control over a program’s control flow. A pattern consists of some combination of the following: -* Literals -* Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples -* Variables -* Wildcards -* Placeholders +- Literals +- Destructured arrays, enums, structs, or tuples +- Variables +- Wildcards +- Placeholders -These components describe the shape of the data we’re working with, which we -then match against values to determine whether our program has the correct data -to continue running a particular piece of code. +Some example patterns include `x`, `(a, 3)`, and `Some(Color::Red)`. In the +contexts in which patterns are valid, these components describe the shape of +data. Our program then matches values against the patterns to determine whether +it has the correct shape of data to continue running a particular piece of code. To use a pattern, we compare it to some value. If the pattern matches the value, we use the value parts in our code. Recall the `match` expressions in diff --git a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md similarity index 68% rename from src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md rename to src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index 58f5af573b..0db908a8a0 100644 --- a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ match x { The patterns in this `match` expression are the `None` and `Some(i)` on the left of each arrow. -One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be *exhaustive* in +One requirement for `match` expressions is that they need to be _exhaustive_ in the sense that all possibilities for the value in the `match` expression must be accounted for. One way to ensure you’ve covered every possibility is to have a catchall pattern for the last arm: for example, a variable name matching any @@ -52,25 +52,24 @@ way to write the equivalent of a `match` that only matches one case. Optionally, `if let` can have a corresponding `else` containing code to run if the pattern in the `if let` doesn’t match. -Listing 18-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else +Listing 19-1 shows that it’s also possible to mix and match `if let`, `else if`, and `else if let` expressions. Doing so gives us more flexibility than a `match` expression in which we can express only one value to compare with the patterns. Also, Rust doesn't require that the conditions in a series of `if let`, `else if`, `else if let` arms relate to each other. -The code in Listing 18-1 determines what color to make your background based on +The code in Listing 19-1 determines what color to make your background based on a series of checks for several conditions. For this example, we’ve created variables with hardcoded values that a real program might receive from user input. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, and `else`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-01/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-1: Mixing `if let`, `else if`, `else if let`, -and `else`</span> +</Listing> If the user specifies a favorite color, that color is used as the background. If no favorite color is specified and today is Tuesday, the background color is @@ -83,13 +82,13 @@ This conditional structure lets us support complex requirements. With the hardcoded values we have here, this example will print `Using purple as the background color`. -You can see that `if let` can also introduce shadowed variables in the same way -that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` introduces a new -shadowed `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant. This -means we need to place the `if age > 30` condition within that block: we can’t -combine these two conditions into `if let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The -shadowed `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t valid until the new scope starts -with the curly bracket. +You can see that `if let` can also introduce new variables which shadow existing +variables in the same way that `match` arms can: the line `if let Ok(age) = age` +introduces a new `age` variable that contains the value inside the `Ok` variant, +shadowing the existing `age` variable. This means we need to place the `if age > +30` condition within that block: we can’t combine these two conditions into `if +let Ok(age) = age && age > 30`. The new `age` we want to compare to 30 isn’t +valid until the new scope starts with the curly bracket. The downside of using `if let` expressions is that the compiler doesn’t check for exhaustiveness, whereas with `match` expressions it does. If we omitted the @@ -99,41 +98,45 @@ not alert us to the possible logic bug. ### `while let` Conditional Loops Similar in construction to `if let`, the `while let` conditional loop allows a -`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. In Listing -18-2 we code a `while let` loop that uses a vector as a stack and prints the -values in the vector in the opposite order in which they were pushed. +`while` loop to run for as long as a pattern continues to match. We first saw a +`while let` loop in Chapter 17, where we used it to keep looping as long as a +stream produced new values. Similarly, in Listing 19-2 we show a `while let` +loop that waits on messages sent between threads, but in this case checking a +`Result` instead of an `Option`. + +<Listing number="19-2" caption="Using a `while let` loop to print values for as long as `rx.recv()` returns `Ok`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-02/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-2: Using a `while let` loop to print values -for as long as `stack.pop()` returns `Some`</span> +</Listing> -This example prints 3, 2, and then 1. The `pop` method takes the last element -out of the vector and returns `Some(value)`. If the vector is empty, `pop` -returns `None`. The `while` loop continues running the code in its block as -long as `pop` returns `Some`. When `pop` returns `None`, the loop stops. We can -use `while let` to pop every element off our stack. +This example prints 1, 2, and 3. When we saw `recv` back in Chapter 16, we +unwrapped the error directly, or interacted with it as an iterator using a `for` +loop. As Listing 19-2 shows, though, we can also use `while let`, because the +`recv` method returns `Ok` as long as the sender is producing messages, and then +produces an `Err` once the sender side disconnects. ### `for` Loops In a `for` loop, the value that directly follows the keyword `for` is a -pattern. For example, in `for x in y` the `x` is the pattern. Listing 18-3 +pattern. For example, in `for x in y` the `x` is the pattern. Listing 19-3 demonstrates how to use a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure, or break apart, a tuple as part of the `for` loop. +<Listing number="19-3" caption="Using a pattern in a `for` loop to destructure a tuple"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-3: Using a pattern in a `for` loop to -destructure a tuple</span> +</Listing> -The code in Listing 18-3 will print the following: +The code in Listing 19-3 will print the following: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-03/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-03/output.txt}} ``` We adapt an iterator using the `enumerate` method so it produces a value and @@ -169,14 +172,15 @@ the variable `x`.” Because the name `x` is the whole pattern, this pattern effectively means “bind everything to the variable `x`, whatever the value is.” To see the pattern matching aspect of `let` more clearly, consider Listing -18-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. +19-4, which uses a pattern with `let` to destructure a tuple. + +<Listing number="19-4" caption="Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and create three variables at once"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-04/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-4: Using a pattern to destructure a tuple and -create three variables at once</span> +</Listing> Here, we match a tuple against a pattern. Rust compares the value `(1, 2, 3)` to the pattern `(x, y, z)` and sees that the value matches the pattern, so Rust @@ -185,20 +189,21 @@ pattern as nesting three individual variable patterns inside it. If the number of elements in the pattern doesn’t match the number of elements in the tuple, the overall type won’t match and we’ll get a compiler error. For -example, Listing 18-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three +example, Listing 19-5 shows an attempt to destructure a tuple with three elements into two variables, which won’t work. +<Listing number="19-5" caption="Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose variables don’t match the number of elements in the tuple"> + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-5: Incorrectly constructing a pattern whose -variables don’t match the number of elements in the tuple</span> +</Listing> Attempting to compile this code results in this type error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-05/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-05/output.txt}} ``` To fix the error, we could ignore one or more of the values in the tuple using @@ -210,29 +215,29 @@ of elements in the tuple. ### Function Parameters -Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 18-6, which +Function parameters can also be patterns. The code in Listing 19-6, which declares a function named `foo` that takes one parameter named `x` of type `i32`, should by now look familiar. +<Listing number="19-6" caption="A function signature uses patterns in the parameters"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-06/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-6: A function signature uses patterns in the -parameters</span> +</Listing> The `x` part is a pattern! As we did with `let`, we could match a tuple in a -function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 18-7 splits the values in a tuple +function’s arguments to the pattern. Listing 19-7 splits the values in a tuple as we pass it to a function. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-7" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="A function with parameters that destructure a tuple"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-07/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-07/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-7: A function with parameters that destructure -a tuple</span> +</Listing> This code prints `Current location: (3, 5)`. The values `&(3, 5)` match the pattern `&(x, y)`, so `x` is the value `3` and `y` is the value `5`. @@ -246,5 +251,4 @@ work the same in every place we can use them. In some places, the patterns must be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss these two concepts next. -[ignoring-values-in-a-pattern]: -ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern +[ignoring-values-in-a-pattern]: ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern diff --git a/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/src/ch19-02-refutability.md similarity index 72% rename from src/ch18-02-refutability.md rename to src/ch19-02-refutability.md index be3c31765c..515358879c 100644 --- a/src/ch18-02-refutability.md +++ b/src/ch19-02-refutability.md @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ ## Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match Patterns come in two forms: refutable and irrefutable. Patterns that will match -for any possible value passed are *irrefutable*. An example would be `x` in the +for any possible value passed are _irrefutable_. An example would be `x` in the statement `let x = 5;` because `x` matches anything and therefore cannot fail to match. Patterns that can fail to match for some possible value are -*refutable*. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = +_refutable_. An example would be `Some(x)` in the expression `if let Some(x) = a_value` because if the value in the `a_value` variable is `None` rather than `Some`, the `Some(x)` pattern will not match. @@ -23,16 +23,17 @@ those cases, you’ll need to change either the pattern or the construct you’r using the pattern with, depending on the intended behavior of the code. Let’s look at an example of what happens when we try to use a refutable pattern -where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 18-8 shows a +where Rust requires an irrefutable pattern and vice versa. Listing 19-8 shows a `let` statement, but for the pattern we’ve specified `Some(x)`, a refutable pattern. As you might expect, this code will not compile. +<Listing number="19-8" caption="Attempting to use a refutable pattern with `let`"> + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-8: Attempting to use a refutable pattern with -`let`</span> +</Listing> If `some_option_value` was a `None` value, it would fail to match the pattern `Some(x)`, meaning the pattern is refutable. However, the `let` statement can @@ -41,7 +42,7 @@ do with a `None` value. At compile time, Rust will complain that we’ve tried t use a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is required: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-08/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-08/output.txt}} ``` Because we didn’t cover (and couldn’t cover!) every valid value with the @@ -51,32 +52,34 @@ If we have a refutable pattern where an irrefutable pattern is needed, we can fix it by changing the code that uses the pattern: instead of using `let`, we can use `if let`. Then if the pattern doesn’t match, the code will just skip the code in the curly brackets, giving it a way to continue validly. Listing -18-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 18-8. +19-9 shows how to fix the code in Listing 19-8. + +<Listing number="19-9" caption="Using `if let` and a block with refutable patterns instead of `let`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-09/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-9: Using `if let` and a block with refutable -patterns instead of `let`</span> +</Listing> + +We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid now. However, +if we give `if let` an irrefutable pattern (a pattern that will always +match), such as `x`, as shown in Listing 19-10, the compiler will give a +warning. -We’ve given the code an out! This code is perfectly valid, although it means we -cannot use an irrefutable pattern without receiving an error. If we give `if -let` a pattern that will always match, such as `x`, as shown in Listing 18-10, -the compiler will give a warning. +<Listing number="19-10" caption="Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern with `if let`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-10: Attempting to use an irrefutable pattern -with `if let`</span> +</Listing> Rust complains that it doesn’t make sense to use `if let` with an irrefutable pattern: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-10/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-10/output.txt}} ``` For this reason, match arms must use refutable patterns, except for the last diff --git a/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md similarity index 75% rename from src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md rename to src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md index 1a808071a4..21c1137d95 100644 --- a/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ As you saw in Chapter 6, you can match patterns against literals directly. The following code gives some examples: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-01-literals/src/main.rs:here}} ``` This code prints `one` because the value in `x` is 1. This syntax is useful @@ -23,20 +23,19 @@ them many times in the book. However, there is a complication when you use named variables in `match` expressions. Because `match` starts a new scope, variables declared as part of a pattern inside the `match` expression will shadow those with the same name outside the `match` construct, as is the case -with all variables. In Listing 18-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the +with all variables. In Listing 19-11, we declare a variable named `x` with the value `Some(5)` and a variable `y` with the value `10`. We then create a `match` expression on the value `x`. Look at the patterns in the match arms and `println!` at the end, and try to figure out what the code will print before running this code or reading further. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="A `match` expression with an arm that introduces a new variable which shadows an existing variable `y`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-11/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-11: A `match` expression with an arm that -introduces a shadowed variable `y`</span> +</Listing> Let’s walk through what happens when the `match` expression runs. The pattern in the first match arm doesn’t match the defined value of `x`, so the code @@ -61,21 +60,21 @@ When the `match` expression is done, its scope ends, and so does the scope of the inner `y`. The last `println!` produces `at the end: x = Some(5), y = 10`. To create a `match` expression that compares the values of the outer `x` and -`y`, rather than introducing a shadowed variable, we would need to use a match -guard conditional instead. We’ll talk about match guards later in the [“Extra -Conditionals with Match Guards”](#extra-conditionals-with-match-guards)<!-- -ignore --> section. +`y`, rather than introducing a new variable which shadows the existing `y` +variable, we would need to use a match guard conditional instead. We’ll talk +about match guards later in the [“Extra Conditionals with Match +Guards”](#extra-conditionals-with-match-guards)<!-- ignore --> section. ### Multiple Patterns In `match` expressions, you can match multiple patterns using the `|` syntax, -which is the pattern *or* operator. For example, in the following code we match -the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an *or* option, +which is the pattern _or_ operator. For example, in the following code we match +the value of `x` against the match arms, the first of which has an _or_ option, meaning if the value of `x` matches either of the values in that arm, that arm’s code will run: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-02-multiple-patterns/src/main.rs:here}} ``` This code prints `one or two`. @@ -87,7 +86,7 @@ following code, when a pattern matches any of the values within the given range, that arm will execute: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-03-ranges/src/main.rs:here}} ``` If `x` is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, the first arm will match. This syntax is more @@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ numeric values, ranges are only allowed with numeric or `char` values. Here is an example using ranges of `char` values: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-04-ranges-of-char/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Rust can tell that `'c'` is within the first pattern’s range and prints `early @@ -116,17 +115,16 @@ different parts of these values. Let’s walk through each value. #### Destructuring Structs -Listing 18-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can +Listing 19-12 shows a `Point` struct with two fields, `x` and `y`, that we can break apart using a pattern with a `let` statement. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-12" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring a struct’s fields into separate variables"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-12/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-12/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-12: Destructuring a struct’s fields into -separate variables</span> +</Listing> This code creates the variables `a` and `b` that match the values of the `x` and `y` fields of the `p` struct. This example shows that the names of the @@ -136,18 +134,17 @@ easier to remember which variables came from which fields. Because of this common usage, and because writing `let Point { x: x, y: y } = p;` contains a lot of duplication, Rust has a shorthand for patterns that match struct fields: you only need to list the name of the struct field, and the variables created -from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 18-13 behaves in the same -way as the code in Listing 18-12, but the variables created in the `let` +from the pattern will have the same names. Listing 19-13 behaves in the same +way as the code in Listing 19-12, but the variables created in the `let` pattern are `x` and `y` instead of `a` and `b`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-13" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring struct fields using struct field shorthand"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-13/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-13/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-13: Destructuring struct fields using struct -field shorthand</span> +</Listing> This code creates the variables `x` and `y` that match the `x` and `y` fields of the `p` variable. The outcome is that the variables `x` and `y` contain the @@ -158,18 +155,17 @@ rather than creating variables for all the fields. Doing so allows us to test some of the fields for particular values while creating variables to destructure the other fields. -In Listing 18-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values +In Listing 19-14, we have a `match` expression that separates `Point` values into three cases: points that lie directly on the `x` axis (which is true when `y = 0`), on the `y` axis (`x = 0`), or neither. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-14" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring and matching literal values in one pattern"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-14/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-14/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-14: Destructuring and matching literal values -in one pattern</span> +</Listing> The first arm will match any point that lies on the `x` axis by specifying that the `y` field matches if its value matches the literal `0`. The pattern still @@ -183,22 +179,25 @@ matches any other `Point` and creates variables for both the `x` and `y` fields. In this example, the value `p` matches the second arm by virtue of `x` containing a 0, so this code will print `On the y axis at 7`. +Remember that a `match` expression stops checking arms once it has found the +first matching pattern, so even though `Point { x: 0, y: 0}` is on the `x` axis +and the `y` axis, this code would only print `On the x axis at 0`. + #### Destructuring Enums We've destructured enums in this book (for example, Listing 6-5 in Chapter 6), but haven’t yet explicitly discussed that the pattern to destructure an enum corresponds to the way the data stored within the enum is defined. As an -example, in Listing 18-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write +example, in Listing 19-15 we use the `Message` enum from Listing 6-2 and write a `match` with patterns that will destructure each inner value. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-15" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Destructuring enum variants that hold different kinds of values"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-15/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-15/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-15: Destructuring enum variants that hold -different kinds of values</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Change the color to red 0, green 160, and blue 255`. Try changing the value of `msg` to see the code from the other arms run. @@ -211,7 +210,7 @@ For struct-like enum variants, such as `Message::Move`, we can use a pattern similar to the pattern we specify to match structs. After the variant name, we place curly brackets and then list the fields with variables so we break apart the pieces to use in the code for this arm. Here we use the shorthand form as -we did in Listing 18-13. +we did in Listing 19-13. For tuple-like enum variants, like `Message::Write` that holds a tuple with one element and `Message::ChangeColor` that holds a tuple with three elements, the @@ -223,14 +222,16 @@ matching. So far, our examples have all been matching structs or enums one level deep, but matching can work on nested items too! For example, we can refactor the -code in Listing 18-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` -message, as shown in Listing 18-16. +code in Listing 19-15 to support RGB and HSV colors in the `ChangeColor` +message, as shown in Listing 19-16. + +<Listing number="19-16" caption="Matching on nested enums"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-16/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-16/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-16: Matching on nested enums</span> +</Listing> The pattern of the first arm in the `match` expression matches a `Message::ChangeColor` enum variant that contains a `Color::Rgb` variant; then @@ -246,7 +247,7 @@ The following example shows a complicated destructure where we nest structs and tuples inside a tuple and destructure all the primitive values out: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/no-listing-05-destructuring-structs-and-tuples/src/main.rs:here}} ``` This code lets us break complex types into their component parts so we can use @@ -270,15 +271,15 @@ parts of a value. Let’s explore how and why to use each of these patterns. We’ve used the underscore as a wildcard pattern that will match any value but not bind to the value. This is especially useful as the last arm in a `match` expression, but we can also use it in any pattern, including function -parameters, as shown in Listing 18-17. +parameters, as shown in Listing 19-17. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-17" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using `_` in a function signature"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-17/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-17/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-17: Using `_` in a function signature</span> +</Listing> This code will completely ignore the value `3` passed as the first argument, and will print `This code only uses the y parameter: 4`. @@ -295,18 +296,18 @@ would if you used a name instead. We can also use `_` inside another pattern to ignore just part of a value, for example, when we want to test for only part of a value but have no use for the -other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 18-18 shows code +other parts in the corresponding code we want to run. Listing 19-18 shows code responsible for managing a setting’s value. The business requirements are that the user should not be allowed to overwrite an existing customization of a setting but can unset the setting and give it a value if it is currently unset. +<Listing number="19-18" caption=" Using an underscore within patterns that match `Some` variants when we don’t need to use the value inside the `Some`"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-18/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-18: Using an underscore within patterns that -match `Some` variants when we don’t need to use the value inside the -`Some`</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Can't overwrite an existing customized value` and then `setting is Some(5)`. In the first match arm, we don’t need to match on or use @@ -320,14 +321,16 @@ In all other cases (if either `setting_value` or `new_setting_value` are `new_setting_value` to become `setting_value`. We can also use underscores in multiple places within one pattern to ignore -particular values. Listing 18-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and +particular values. Listing 19-19 shows an example of ignoring the second and fourth values in a tuple of five items. +<Listing number="19-19" caption="Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-19/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-19/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-19: Ignoring multiple parts of a tuple</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Some numbers: 2, 8, 32`, and the values 4 and 16 will be ignored. @@ -339,17 +342,16 @@ warning because an unused variable could be a bug. However, sometimes it’s useful to be able to create a variable you won’t use yet, such as when you’re prototyping or just starting a project. In this situation, you can tell Rust not to warn you about the unused variable by starting the name of the variable -with an underscore. In Listing 18-20, we create two unused variables, but when +with an underscore. In Listing 19-20, we create two unused variables, but when we compile this code, we should only get a warning about one of them. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-20" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Starting a variable name with an underscore to avoid getting unused variable warnings"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-20/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-20/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-20: Starting a variable name with an -underscore to avoid getting unused variable warnings</span> +</Listing> Here we get a warning about not using the variable `y`, but we don’t get a warning about not using `_x`. @@ -357,26 +359,28 @@ warning about not using `_x`. Note that there is a subtle difference between using only `_` and using a name that starts with an underscore. The syntax `_x` still binds the value to the variable, whereas `_` doesn’t bind at all. To show a case where this -distinction matters, Listing 18-21 will provide us with an error. +distinction matters, Listing 19-21 will provide us with an error. + +<Listing number="19-21" caption="An unused variable starting with an underscore still binds the value, which might take ownership of the value"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-21/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-21/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-21: An unused variable starting with an -underscore still binds the value, which might take ownership of the value</span> +</Listing> We’ll receive an error because the `s` value will still be moved into `_s`, which prevents us from using `s` again. However, using the underscore by itself -doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 18-22 will compile without any errors +doesn’t ever bind to the value. Listing 19-22 will compile without any errors because `s` doesn’t get moved into `_`. +<Listing number="19-22" caption="Using an underscore does not bind the value"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-22/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-22/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-22: Using an underscore does not bind the -value</span> +</Listing> This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t moved. @@ -385,56 +389,55 @@ This code works just fine because we never bind `s` to anything; it isn’t move With values that have many parts, we can use the `..` syntax to use specific parts and ignore the rest, avoiding the need to list underscores for each ignored value. The `..` pattern ignores any parts of a value that we haven’t -explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 18-23, we have a +explicitly matched in the rest of the pattern. In Listing 19-23, we have a `Point` struct that holds a coordinate in three-dimensional space. In the `match` expression, we want to operate only on the `x` coordinate and ignore the values in the `y` and `z` fields. +<Listing number="19-23" caption="Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except for `x` by using `..`"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-23/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-23/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-23: Ignoring all fields of a `Point` except -for `x` by using `..`</span> +</Listing> We list the `x` value and then just include the `..` pattern. This is quicker than having to list `y: _` and `z: _`, particularly when we’re working with structs that have lots of fields in situations where only one or two fields are relevant. -The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 18-24 +The syntax `..` will expand to as many values as it needs to be. Listing 19-24 shows how to use `..` with a tuple. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-24" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Matching only the first and last values in a tuple and ignoring all other values"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-24/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-24/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-24: Matching only the first and last values in -a tuple and ignoring all other values</span> +</Listing> In this code, the first and last value are matched with `first` and `last`. The `..` will match and ignore everything in the middle. However, using `..` must be unambiguous. If it is unclear which values are intended for matching and which should be ignored, Rust will give us an error. -Listing 18-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not +Listing 19-25 shows an example of using `..` ambiguously, so it will not compile. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-25" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous way"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-25: An attempt to use `..` in an ambiguous -way</span> +</Listing> When we compile this example, we get this error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-25/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-25/output.txt}} ``` It’s impossible for Rust to determine how many values in the tuple to ignore @@ -447,19 +450,21 @@ compiler error because using `..` in two places like this is ambiguous. ### Extra Conditionals with Match Guards -A *match guard* is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in +A _match guard_ is an additional `if` condition, specified after the pattern in a `match` arm, that must also match for that arm to be chosen. Match guards are useful for expressing more complex ideas than a pattern alone allows. -The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 18-26 shows a +The condition can use variables created in the pattern. Listing 19-26 shows a `match` where the first arm has the pattern `Some(x)` and also has a match guard of `if x % 2 == 0` (which will be true if the number is even). +<Listing number="19-26" caption="Adding a match guard to a pattern"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-26/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-26/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-26: Adding a match guard to a pattern</span> +</Listing> This example will print `The number 4 is even`. When `num` is compared to the pattern in the first arm, it matches, because `Some(4)` matches `Some(x)`. Then @@ -476,21 +481,20 @@ the match guard gives us the ability to express this logic. The downside of this additional expressiveness is that the compiler doesn't try to check for exhaustiveness when match guard expressions are involved. -In Listing 18-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our +In Listing 19-11, we mentioned that we could use match guards to solve our pattern-shadowing problem. Recall that we created a new variable inside the pattern in the `match` expression instead of using the variable outside the `match`. That new variable meant we couldn’t test against the value of the -outer variable. Listing 18-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this +outer variable. Listing 19-27 shows how we can use a match guard to fix this problem. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="19-27" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using a match guard to test for equality with an outer variable"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-27/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-27/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-27: Using a match guard to test for equality -with an outer variable</span> +</Listing> This code will now print `Default case, x = Some(5)`. The pattern in the second match arm doesn’t introduce a new variable `y` that would shadow the outer `y`, @@ -499,27 +503,28 @@ pattern as `Some(y)`, which would have shadowed the outer `y`, we specify `Some(n)`. This creates a new variable `n` that doesn’t shadow anything because there is no `n` variable outside the `match`. -The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce -new variables. This `y` *is* the outer `y` rather than a new shadowed `y`, and +The match guard `if n == y` is not a pattern and therefore doesn’t introduce new +variables. This `y` _is_ the outer `y` rather than a new `y` shadowing it, and we can look for a value that has the same value as the outer `y` by comparing `n` to `y`. -You can also use the *or* operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple +You can also use the _or_ operator `|` in a match guard to specify multiple patterns; the match guard condition will apply to all the patterns. Listing -18-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match +19-28 shows the precedence when combining a pattern that uses `|` with a match guard. The important part of this example is that the `if y` match guard -applies to `4`, `5`, *and* `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only +applies to `4`, `5`, _and_ `6`, even though it might look like `if y` only applies to `6`. +<Listing number="19-28" caption="Combining multiple patterns with a match guard"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-28/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-28/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-28: Combining multiple patterns with a match -guard</span> +</Listing> The match condition states that the arm only matches if the value of `x` is -equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` *and* if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the +equal to `4`, `5`, or `6` _and_ if `y` is `true`. When this code runs, the pattern of the first arm matches because `x` is `4`, but the match guard `if y` is false, so the first arm is not chosen. The code moves on to the second arm, which does match, and this program prints `no`. The reason is that the `if` @@ -544,19 +549,20 @@ were applied only to the final value in the list of values specified using the ### `@` Bindings -The *at* operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same -time as we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 18-29, we want +The _at_ operator `@` lets us create a variable that holds a value at the same +time as we’re testing that value for a pattern match. In Listing 19-29, we want to test that a `Message::Hello` `id` field is within the range `3..=7`. We also want to bind the value to the variable `id_variable` so we can use it in the code associated with the arm. We could name this variable `id`, the same as the field, but for this example we’ll use a different name. +<Listing number="19-29" caption="Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern while also testing it"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch18-patterns-and-matching/listing-18-29/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-patterns-and-matching/listing-19-29/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 18-29: Using `@` to bind to a value in a pattern -while also testing it</span> +</Listing> This example will print `Found an id in range: 5`. By specifying `id_variable @` before the range `3..=7`, we’re capturing whatever value matched the range diff --git a/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md similarity index 67% rename from src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md rename to src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md index a0db41fde4..049681b5da 100644 --- a/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md +++ b/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ # Advanced Features By now, you’ve learned the most commonly used parts of the Rust programming -language. Before we do one more project in Chapter 20, we’ll look at a few +language. Before we do one more project in Chapter 21, we’ll look at a few aspects of the language you might run into every once in a while, but may not use every day. You can use this chapter as a reference for when you encounter any unknowns. The features covered here are useful in very specific situations. @@ -10,13 +10,13 @@ grasp of all the features Rust has to offer. In this chapter, we’ll cover: -* Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take +- Unsafe Rust: how to opt out of some of Rust’s guarantees and take responsibility for manually upholding those guarantees -* Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified +- Advanced traits: associated types, default type parameters, fully qualified syntax, supertraits, and the newtype pattern in relation to traits -* Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, +- Advanced types: more about the newtype pattern, type aliases, the never type, and dynamically sized types -* Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures -* Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time +- Advanced functions and closures: function pointers and returning closures +- Macros: ways to define code that defines more code at compile time It’s a panoply of Rust features with something for everyone! Let’s dive in! diff --git a/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md deleted file mode 100644 index d260041e15..0000000000 --- a/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,34 +0,0 @@ -# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server - -It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this -chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the -concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier -lessons. - -For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like -Figure 20-1 in a web browser. - -![hello from rust](img/trpl20-01.png) - -<span class="caption">Figure 20-1: Our final shared project</span> - -Here is the plan to build the web server: - -1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. -2. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. -3. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. -4. Create a proper HTTP response. -5. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. - -But before we get started, we should mention one detail: the method we’ll use -won’t be the best way to build a web server with Rust. A number of -production-ready crates are available on [crates.io](https://crates.io/) that -provide more complete web server and thread pool implementations than we’ll -build. - -However, our intention in this chapter is to help you learn, not to take the -easy route. Because Rust is a systems programming language, we can choose the -level of abstraction we want to work with and can go to a lower level than is -possible or practical in other languages. We’ll write the basic HTTP server and -thread pool manually so you can learn the general ideas and techniques behind -the crates you might use in the future. diff --git a/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md similarity index 62% rename from src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md rename to src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md index 24e33fb918..8796483a4b 100644 --- a/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md +++ b/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md @@ -2,13 +2,13 @@ All the code we’ve discussed so far has had Rust’s memory safety guarantees enforced at compile time. However, Rust has a second language hidden inside it -that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called *unsafe Rust* +that doesn’t enforce these memory safety guarantees: it’s called _unsafe Rust_ and works just like regular Rust, but gives us extra superpowers. Unsafe Rust exists because, by nature, static analysis is conservative. When the compiler tries to determine whether or not code upholds the guarantees, it’s better for it to reject some valid programs than to accept some invalid -programs. Although the code *might* be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have +programs. Although the code _might_ be okay, if the Rust compiler doesn’t have enough information to be confident, it will reject the code. In these cases, you can use unsafe code to tell the compiler, “Trust me, I know what I’m doing.” Be warned, however, that you use unsafe Rust at your own risk: if you @@ -27,14 +27,14 @@ Rust and how to do it. To switch to unsafe Rust, use the `unsafe` keyword and then start a new block that holds the unsafe code. You can take five actions in unsafe Rust that you -can’t in safe Rust, which we call *unsafe superpowers*. Those superpowers +can’t in safe Rust, which we call _unsafe superpowers_. Those superpowers include the ability to: -* Dereference a raw pointer -* Call an unsafe function or method -* Access or modify a mutable static variable -* Implement an unsafe trait -* Access fields of `union`s +- Dereference a raw pointer +- Call an unsafe function or method +- Access or modify a mutable static variable +- Implement an unsafe trait +- Access fields of a `union` It’s important to understand that `unsafe` doesn’t turn off the borrow checker or disable any other of Rust’s safety checks: if you use a reference in unsafe @@ -69,74 +69,78 @@ some abstractions that provide a safe interface to unsafe code. In Chapter 4, in the [“Dangling References”][dangling-references]<!-- ignore --> section, we mentioned that the compiler ensures references are always -valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types called *raw pointers* that are similar to +valid. Unsafe Rust has two new types called _raw pointers_ that are similar to references. As with references, raw pointers can be immutable or mutable and are written as `*const T` and `*mut T`, respectively. The asterisk isn’t the dereference operator; it’s part of the type name. In the context of raw -pointers, *immutable* means that the pointer can’t be directly assigned to +pointers, _immutable_ means that the pointer can’t be directly assigned to after being dereferenced. Different from references and smart pointers, raw pointers: -* Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and +- Are allowed to ignore the borrowing rules by having both immutable and mutable pointers or multiple mutable pointers to the same location -* Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory -* Are allowed to be null -* Don’t implement any automatic cleanup +- Aren’t guaranteed to point to valid memory +- Are allowed to be null +- Don’t implement any automatic cleanup By opting out of having Rust enforce these guarantees, you can give up guaranteed safety in exchange for greater performance or the ability to interface with another language or hardware where Rust’s guarantees don’t apply. -Listing 19-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer from -references. +Listing 20-1 shows how to create an immutable and a mutable raw pointer. + +<Listing number="20-1" caption="Creating raw pointers with the raw borrow operators"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-01/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-01/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-1: Creating raw pointers from references</span> +</Listing> Notice that we don’t include the `unsafe` keyword in this code. We can create raw pointers in safe code; we just can’t dereference raw pointers outside an unsafe block, as you’ll see in a bit. -We’ve created raw pointers by using `as` to cast an immutable and a mutable -reference into their corresponding raw pointer types. Because we created them -directly from references guaranteed to be valid, we know these particular raw -pointers are valid, but we can’t make that assumption about just any raw -pointer. +We’ve created raw pointers by using the raw borrow operators: `&raw const num` +creates a `*const i32` immutable raw pointer, and `&raw mut num` creates a `*mut +i32` mutable raw pointer. Because we created them directly from a local +variable, we know these particular raw pointers are valid, but we can’t make +that assumption about just any raw pointer. To demonstrate this, next we’ll create a raw pointer whose validity we can’t be -so certain of. Listing 19-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary +so certain of, using `as` to cast a value instead of using the raw reference +operators. Listing 20-2 shows how to create a raw pointer to an arbitrary location in memory. Trying to use arbitrary memory is undefined: there might be -data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code -so there is no memory access, or the program might error with a segmentation -fault. Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, but it is -possible. +data at that address or there might not, the compiler might optimize the code so +there is no memory access, or the program might error with a segmentation fault. +Usually, there is no good reason to write code like this, especially in cases +where you can use a raw borrow operator instead, but it is possible. + +<Listing number="20-2" caption="Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary memory address"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-02/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-02/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-2: Creating a raw pointer to an arbitrary -memory address</span> +</Listing> -Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t *dereference* -raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 19-3, we use the +Recall that we can create raw pointers in safe code, but we can’t _dereference_ +raw pointers and read the data being pointed to. In Listing 20-3, we use the dereference operator `*` on a raw pointer that requires an `unsafe` block. +<Listing number="20-3" caption="Dereferencing raw pointers within an `unsafe` block"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-03/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-3: Dereferencing raw pointers within an -`unsafe` block</span> +</Listing> Creating a pointer does no harm; it’s only when we try to access the value that it points at that we might end up dealing with an invalid value. -Note also that in Listing 19-1 and 19-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut i32` +Note also that in Listing 20-1 and 20-3, we created `*const i32` and `*mut i32` raw pointers that both pointed to the same memory location, where `num` is stored. If we instead tried to create an immutable and a mutable reference to `num`, the code would not have compiled because Rust’s ownership rules don’t @@ -168,23 +172,28 @@ Here is an unsafe function named `dangerous` that doesn’t do anything in its body: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-01-unsafe-fn/src/main.rs:here}} ``` We must call the `dangerous` function within a separate `unsafe` block. If we try to call `dangerous` without the `unsafe` block, we’ll get an error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/output-only-01-missing-unsafe/output.txt}} ``` With the `unsafe` block, we’re asserting to Rust that we’ve read the function’s documentation, we understand how to use it properly, and we’ve verified that we’re fulfilling the contract of the function. -Bodies of unsafe functions are effectively `unsafe` blocks, so to perform other -unsafe operations within an unsafe function, we don’t need to add another -`unsafe` block. +> Note: In earlier versions of Rust, the body of an unsafe function was treated +> as an `unsafe` block, so you could perform any unsafe operation within the +> body of an `unsafe` function. In later versions of Rust, the compiler will +> warn you that you need to use an `unsafe` block to perform unsafe operations +> in the body of an unsafe function. This is because Rust now distinguishes +> between `unsafe fn`, which defines what you need to do to call the function +> safely, and an `unsafe` block, where you actually uphold that “contract” the +> function establishes. #### Creating a Safe Abstraction over Unsafe Code @@ -194,26 +203,28 @@ a common abstraction. As an example, let’s study the `split_at_mut` function from the standard library, which requires some unsafe code. We’ll explore how we might implement it. This safe method is defined on mutable slices: it takes one slice and makes it two by splitting the slice at the index given as an -argument. Listing 19-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. +argument. Listing 20-4 shows how to use `split_at_mut`. + +<Listing number="20-4" caption="Using the safe `split_at_mut` function"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-04/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-04/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-4: Using the safe `split_at_mut` -function</span> +</Listing> We can’t implement this function using only safe Rust. An attempt might look -something like Listing 19-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll +something like Listing 20-5, which won’t compile. For simplicity, we’ll implement `split_at_mut` as a function rather than a method and only for slices of `i32` values rather than for a generic type `T`. +<Listing number="20-5" caption="An attempted implementation of `split_at_mut` using only safe Rust"> + ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-5: An attempted implementation of -`split_at_mut` using only safe Rust</span> +</Listing> This function first gets the total length of the slice. Then it asserts that the index given as a parameter is within the slice by checking whether it’s @@ -225,10 +236,10 @@ Then we return two mutable slices in a tuple: one from the start of the original slice to the `mid` index and another from `mid` to the end of the slice. -When we try to compile the code in Listing 19-5, we’ll get an error. +When we try to compile the code in Listing 20-5, we’ll get an error. ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-05/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-05/output.txt}} ``` Rust’s borrow checker can’t understand that we’re borrowing different parts of @@ -237,15 +248,16 @@ Borrowing different parts of a slice is fundamentally okay because the two slices aren’t overlapping, but Rust isn’t smart enough to know this. When we know code is okay, but Rust doesn’t, it’s time to reach for unsafe code. -Listing 19-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls +Listing 20-6 shows how to use an `unsafe` block, a raw pointer, and some calls to unsafe functions to make the implementation of `split_at_mut` work. +<Listing number="20-6" caption="Using unsafe code in the implementation of the `split_at_mut` function"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-06/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-6: Using unsafe code in the implementation of -the `split_at_mut` function</span> +</Listing> Recall from [“The Slice Type”][the-slice-type]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 4 that slices are a pointer to some data and the length of the slice. @@ -278,16 +290,17 @@ abstraction to the unsafe code with an implementation of the function that uses `unsafe` code in a safe way, because it creates only valid pointers from the data this function has access to. -In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 19-7 would +In contrast, the use of `slice::from_raw_parts_mut` in Listing 20-7 would likely crash when the slice is used. This code takes an arbitrary memory location and creates a slice 10,000 items long. +<Listing number="20-7" caption="Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory location"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-07/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-7: Creating a slice from an arbitrary memory -location</span> +</Listing> We don’t own the memory at this arbitrary location, and there is no guarantee that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use @@ -297,49 +310,70 @@ that the slice this code creates contains valid `i32` values. Attempting to use Sometimes, your Rust code might need to interact with code written in another language. For this, Rust has the keyword `extern` that facilitates the creation -and use of a *Foreign Function Interface (FFI)*. An FFI is a way for a +and use of a _Foreign Function Interface (FFI)_. An FFI is a way for a programming language to define functions and enable a different (foreign) programming language to call those functions. -Listing 19-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function +Listing 20-8 demonstrates how to set up an integration with the `abs` function from the C standard library. Functions declared within `extern` blocks are -always unsafe to call from Rust code. The reason is that other languages don’t -enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and Rust can’t check them, so -responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure safety. +usually unsafe to call from Rust code, so they must also be marked `unsafe`. The +reason is that other languages don’t enforce Rust’s rules and guarantees, and +Rust can’t check them, so responsibility falls on the programmer to ensure +safety. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-8" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Declaring and calling an `extern` function defined in another language"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-08/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-08/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-8: Declaring and calling an `extern` function -defined in another language</span> +</Listing> -Within the `extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of external -functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines which -*application binary interface (ABI)* the external function uses: the ABI +Within the `unsafe extern "C"` block, we list the names and signatures of +external functions from another language we want to call. The `"C"` part defines +which _application binary interface (ABI)_ the external function uses: the ABI defines how to call the function at the assembly level. The `"C"` ABI is the most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. +This particular function does not have any memory safety considerations, though. +In fact, we know that any call to `abs` will always be safe for any `i32`, so we +can use the `safe` keyword to say that this specific function is safe to call +even though it is in an `unsafe extern` block. Once we make that change, calling +it no longer requires an `unsafe` block, as shown in Listing 20-9. + +<Listing number="20-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Explicitly marking a function as `safe` within an `unsafe extern` block and calling it safely"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-09/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Marking a function as `safe` does not inherently make it safe! Instead, it is +like a promise you are making to Rust that it _is_ safe. It is still your +responsibility to make sure that promise is kept! + > #### Calling Rust Functions from Other Languages > -> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages -> to call Rust functions. Instead of an creating a whole `extern` block, we add -> the `extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword -> for the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[no_mangle]` annotation to -> tell the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. *Mangling* is -> when a compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name +> We can also use `extern` to create an interface that allows other languages to +> call Rust functions. Instead of creating a whole `extern` block, we add the +> `extern` keyword and specify the ABI to use just before the `fn` keyword for +> the relevant function. We also need to add a `#[unsafe(no_mangle)]` annotation +> to tell the Rust compiler not to mangle the name of this function. _Mangling_ +> is when a compiler changes the name we’ve given a function to a different name > that contains more information for other parts of the compilation process to > consume but is less human readable. Every programming language compiler > mangles names slightly differently, so for a Rust function to be nameable by -> other languages, we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. +> other languages, we must disable the Rust compiler’s name mangling. This is +> unsafe because there might be name collisions across libraries without the +> built-in mangling, so it is our responsibility to make sure the name we have +> exported is safe to export without mangling. > > In the following example, we make the `call_from_c` function accessible from > C code, after it’s compiled to a shared library and linked from C: > > ```rust -> #[no_mangle] +> #[unsafe(no_mangle)] > pub extern "C" fn call_from_c() { > println!("Just called a Rust function from C!"); > } @@ -349,22 +383,21 @@ most common and follows the C programming language’s ABI. ### Accessing or Modifying a Mutable Static Variable -In this book, we’ve not yet talked about *global variables*, which Rust does +In this book, we’ve not yet talked about _global variables_, which Rust does support but can be problematic with Rust’s ownership rules. If two threads are accessing the same mutable global variable, it can cause a data race. -In Rust, global variables are called *static* variables. Listing 19-9 shows an +In Rust, global variables are called _static_ variables. Listing 20-10 shows an example declaration and use of a static variable with a string slice as a value. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Defining and using an immutable static variable"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-09/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-10/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-9: Defining and using an immutable static -variable</span> +</Listing> Static variables are similar to constants, which we discussed in the [“Differences Between Variables and @@ -380,23 +413,30 @@ values in a static variable have a fixed address in memory. Using the value will always access the same data. Constants, on the other hand, are allowed to duplicate their data whenever they’re used. Another difference is that static variables can be mutable. Accessing and modifying mutable static variables is -*unsafe*. Listing 19-10 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable +_unsafe_. Listing 20-11 shows how to declare, access, and modify a mutable static variable named `COUNTER`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Reading from or writing to a mutable static variable is unsafe"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-10/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-10: Reading from or writing to a mutable -static variable is unsafe</span> +</Listing> As with regular variables, we specify mutability using the `mut` keyword. Any code that reads or writes from `COUNTER` must be within an `unsafe` block. This code compiles and prints `COUNTER: 3` as we would expect because it’s single threaded. Having multiple threads access `COUNTER` would likely result in data -races. +races, so it is undefined behavior. Therefore, we need to mark the entire +function as `unsafe`, and document the safety limitation, so anyone calling the +function knows what they are and are not allowed to do safely. + +Whenever we write an unsafe function, it is idiomatic to write a comment +starting with `SAFETY` and explaining what the caller needs to do to call the +function safely. Likewise, whenever we perform an unsafe operation, it is +idiomatic to write a comment starting with `SAFETY` to explain how the safety +rules are upheld. With mutable data that is globally accessible, it’s difficult to ensure there are no data races, which is why Rust considers mutable static variables to be @@ -410,14 +450,15 @@ We can use `unsafe` to implement an unsafe trait. A trait is unsafe when at least one of its methods has some invariant that the compiler can’t verify. We declare that a trait is `unsafe` by adding the `unsafe` keyword before `trait` and marking the implementation of the trait as `unsafe` too, as shown in -Listing 19-11. +Listing 20-12. + +<Listing number="20-12" caption="Defining and implementing an unsafe trait"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-11/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-12/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-11: Defining and implementing an unsafe -trait</span> +</Listing> By using `unsafe impl`, we’re promising that we’ll uphold the invariants that the compiler can’t verify. @@ -436,12 +477,53 @@ those checks manually and indicate as such with `unsafe`. ### Accessing Fields of a Union The final action that works only with `unsafe` is accessing fields of a -*union*. A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is +_union_. A `union` is similar to a `struct`, but only one declared field is used in a particular instance at one time. Unions are primarily used to interface with unions in C code. Accessing union fields is unsafe because Rust can’t guarantee the type of the data currently being stored in the union instance. You can learn more about unions in [the Rust Reference][reference]. +### Using Miri to check unsafe code + +When writing unsafe code, you might want to check that what you have written +actually is safe and correct. One of the best ways to do that is to use +[Miri][miri], an official Rust tool for detecting undefined behavior. Whereas +the borrow checker is a _static_ tool which works at compile time, Miri is a +_dynamic_ tool which works at runtime. It checks your code by running your +program, or its test suite, and detecting when you violate the rules it +understands about how Rust should work. + +Using Miri requires a nightly build of Rust (which we talk about more in +[Appendix G: How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”][nightly]). You can install +both a nightly version of Rust and the Miri tool by typing `rustup +nightly +component add miri`. This does not change what version of Rust your project +uses; it only adds the tool to your system so you can use it when you want to. +You can run Miri on a project by typing `cargo +nightly miri run` or `cargo ++nightly miri test`. + +For an example of how helpful this can be, consider what happens when we run it +against Listing 20-11: + +```console +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-11/output.txt}} +``` + +It helpfully and correctly notices that we have shared references to mutable +data, and warns about it. In this case, it does not tell us how to fix the +problem, but it means that we know there is a possible issue and can think about +how to make sure it is safe. In other cases, it can actually tell us that some +code is _sure_ to be wrong and make recommendations about how to fix it. + +Miri doesn’t catch _everything_ you might get wrong when writing unsafe code. +For one thing, since it is a dynamic check, it only catches problems with code +that actually gets run. That means you will need to use it in conjunction with +good testing techniques to increase your confidence about the unsafe code you +have written. For another thing, it does not cover every possible way your code +can be unsound. If Miri _does_ catch a problem, you know there’s a bug, but just +because Miri _doesn’t_ catch a bug doesn’t mean there isn’t a problem. Miri can +catch a lot, though. Try running it on the other examples of unsafe code in this +chapter and see what it says! + ### When to Use Unsafe Code Using `unsafe` to take one of the five actions (superpowers) just discussed @@ -449,12 +531,13 @@ isn’t wrong or even frowned upon. But it is trickier to get `unsafe` code correct because the compiler can’t help uphold memory safety. When you have a reason to use `unsafe` code, you can do so, and having the explicit `unsafe` annotation makes it easier to track down the source of problems when they occur. +Whenever you write unsafe code, you can use Miri to help you be more confident +that the code you have written upholds Rust’s rules. -[dangling-references]: -ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html#dangling-references -[differences-between-variables-and-constants]: -ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#constants -[extensible-concurrency-with-the-sync-and-send-traits]: -ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html#extensible-concurrency-with-the-sync-and-send-traits +[dangling-references]: ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html#dangling-references +[differences-between-variables-and-constants]: ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#constants +[extensible-concurrency-with-the-sync-and-send-traits]: ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html#extensible-concurrency-with-the-sync-and-send-traits [the-slice-type]: ch04-03-slices.html#the-slice-type [reference]: ../reference/items/unions.html +[miri]: https://github.com/rust-lang/miri +[nightly]: appendix-07-nightly-rust.html diff --git a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md similarity index 73% rename from src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md rename to src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md index ead64e3568..3b5b80728b 100644 --- a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ about Rust, we can get into the nitty-gritty. ### Specifying Placeholder Types in Trait Definitions with Associated Types -*Associated types* connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait +_Associated types_ connect a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The implementor of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used instead of the placeholder type for the particular implementation. That way, we can define a @@ -23,14 +23,15 @@ One example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait that the standard library provides. The associated type is named `Item` and stands in for the type of the values the type implementing the `Iterator` trait is iterating over. The definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing -19-12. +20-13. + +<Listing number="20-13" caption="The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated type `Item`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-12/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-12: The definition of the `Iterator` trait -that has an associated type `Item`</span> +</Listing> The type `Item` is a placeholder, and the `next` method’s definition shows that it will return values of type `Option<Self::Item>`. Implementors of the @@ -43,23 +44,26 @@ handle. To examine the difference between the two concepts, we’ll look at an implementation of the `Iterator` trait on a type named `Counter` that specifies the `Item` type is `u32`: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs:ch19}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-22-iterator-on-counter/src/lib.rs:ch19}} ``` +</Listing> + This syntax seems comparable to that of generics. So why not just define the -`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 19-13? +`Iterator` trait with generics, as shown in Listing 20-14? + +<Listing number="20-14" number="A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-13/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-13: A hypothetical definition of the -`Iterator` trait using generics</span> +</Listing> -The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 19-13, we must +The difference is that when using generics, as in Listing 20-14, we must annotate the types in each implementation; because we can also implement `Iterator<String> for Counter` or any other type, we could have multiple implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a @@ -69,12 +73,17 @@ the concrete types of the generic type parameters each time. When we use the indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we want to use. With associated types, we don’t need to annotate types because we can’t -implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 19-12 with the +implement a trait on a type multiple times. In Listing 20-13 with the definition that uses associated types, we can only choose what the type of `Item` will be once, because there can only be one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We don’t have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere that we call `next` on `Counter`. +Associated types also become part of the trait’s contract: implementors of the +trait must provide a type to stand in for the associated type placeholder. +Associated types often have a name that describes how the type will be used, +and documenting the associated type in the API documentation is good practice. + ### Default Generic Type Parameters and Operator Overloading When we use generic type parameters, we can specify a default concrete type for @@ -82,25 +91,24 @@ the generic type. This eliminates the need for implementors of the trait to specify a concrete type if the default type works. You specify a default type when declaring a generic type with the `<PlaceholderType=ConcreteType>` syntax. -A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with *operator -overloading*, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) +A great example of a situation where this technique is useful is with _operator +overloading_, in which you customize the behavior of an operator (such as `+`) in particular situations. Rust doesn’t allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary operators. But you can overload the operations and corresponding traits listed in `std::ops` by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For -example, in Listing 19-14 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` +example, in Listing 20-15 we overload the `+` operator to add two `Point` instances together. We do this by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` struct: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-15" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for `Point` instances"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-14/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-15/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-14: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload -the `+` operator for `Point` instances</span> +</Listing> The `add` method adds the `x` values of two `Point` instances and the `y` values of two `Point` instances to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an @@ -119,8 +127,8 @@ trait Add<Rhs=Self> { ``` This code should look generally familiar: a trait with one method and an -associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called *default -type parameters*. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right hand +associated type. The new part is `Rhs=Self`: this syntax is called _default +type parameters_. The `Rhs` generic type parameter (short for “right hand side”) defines the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don’t specify a concrete type for `Rhs` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type of `Rhs` will default to `Self`, which will be the type we’re implementing @@ -133,28 +141,27 @@ default. We have two structs, `Millimeters` and `Meters`, holding values in different units. This thin wrapping of an existing type in another struct is known as the -*newtype pattern*, which we describe in more detail in the [“Using the Newtype +_newtype pattern_, which we describe in more detail in the [“Using the Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types”][newtype]<!-- ignore --> section. We want to add values in millimeters to values in meters and have the implementation of `Add` do the conversion correctly. We can implement `Add` -for `Millimeters` with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 19-15. +for `Millimeters` with `Meters` as the `Rhs`, as shown in Listing 20-16. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to add `Millimeters` to `Meters`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-15/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-15: Implementing the `Add` trait on -`Millimeters` to add `Millimeters` to `Meters`</span> +</Listing> To add `Millimeters` and `Meters`, we specify `impl Add<Meters>` to set the value of the `Rhs` type parameter instead of using the default of `Self`. You’ll use default type parameters in two main ways: -* To extend a type without breaking existing code -* To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need +- To extend a type without breaking existing code +- To allow customization in specific cases most users won’t need The standard library’s `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: usually, you’ll add two like types, but the `Add` trait provides the ability to @@ -176,83 +183,77 @@ on one type. It’s also possible to implement a method directly on the type wit the same name as methods from traits. When calling methods with the same name, you’ll need to tell Rust which one you -want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-16 where we’ve defined two traits, +want to use. Consider the code in Listing 20-17 where we’ve defined two traits, `Pilot` and `Wizard`, that both have a method called `fly`. We then implement both traits on a type `Human` that already has a method named `fly` implemented on it. Each `fly` method does something different. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-17" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Two traits are defined to have a ` method and are implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is implemented on `Human` directly"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-16/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-17/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-16: Two traits are defined to have a `fly` -method and are implemented on the `Human` type, and a `fly` method is -implemented on `Human` directly</span> +</Listing> When we call `fly` on an instance of `Human`, the compiler defaults to calling -the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 19-17. +the method that is directly implemented on the type, as shown in Listing 20-18. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-18" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Calling `fly` on an instance of `Human`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-17/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-18/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-17: Calling `fly` on an instance of -`Human`</span> +</Listing> Running this code will print `*waving arms furiously*`, showing that Rust called the `fly` method implemented on `Human` directly. To call the `fly` methods from either the `Pilot` trait or the `Wizard` trait, we need to use more explicit syntax to specify which `fly` method we mean. -Listing 19-18 demonstrates this syntax. +Listing 20-19 demonstrates this syntax. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-19" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we want to call"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-18: Specifying which trait’s `fly` method we -want to call</span> +</Listing> Specifying the trait name before the method name clarifies to Rust which implementation of `fly` we want to call. We could also write `Human::fly(&person)`, which is equivalent to the `person.fly()` that we used -in Listing 19-18, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to +in Listing 20-19, but this is a bit longer to write if we don’t need to disambiguate. Running this code prints the following: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-18/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-19/output.txt}} ``` -Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two *types* that -both implement one *trait*, Rust could figure out which implementation of a +Because the `fly` method takes a `self` parameter, if we had two _types_ that +both implement one _trait_, Rust could figure out which implementation of a trait to use based on the type of `self`. However, associated functions that are not methods don’t have a `self` parameter. When there are multiple types or traits that define non-method functions with the same function name, Rust doesn't always know which type you -mean unless you use *fully qualified syntax*. For example, in Listing 19-19 we -create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs *Spot*. +mean unless you use _fully qualified syntax_. For example, in Listing 20-20 we +create a trait for an animal shelter that wants to name all baby dogs _Spot_. We make an `Animal` trait with an associated non-method function `baby_name`. The `Animal` trait is implemented for the struct `Dog`, on which we also provide an associated non-method function `baby_name` directly. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-20" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="A trait with an associated function and a type with an associated function of the same name that also implements the trait"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-19: A trait with an associated function and a -type with an associated function of the same name that also implements the -trait</span> +</Listing> We implement the code for naming all puppies Spot in the `baby_name` associated function that is defined on `Dog`. The `Dog` type also implements the trait @@ -264,47 +265,43 @@ In `main`, we call the `Dog::baby_name` function, which calls the associated function defined on `Dog` directly. This code prints the following: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-19/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-20/output.txt}} ``` This output isn’t what we wanted. We want to call the `baby_name` function that is part of the `Animal` trait that we implemented on `Dog` so the code prints `A baby dog is called a puppy`. The technique of specifying the trait name that -we used in Listing 19-18 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in -Listing 19-20, we’ll get a compilation error. +we used in Listing 20-19 doesn’t help here; if we change `main` to the code in +Listing 20-21, we’ll get a compilation error. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-21" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Attempting to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to use"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-20: Attempting to call the `baby_name` -function from the `Animal` trait, but Rust doesn’t know which implementation to -use</span> +</Listing> Because `Animal::baby_name` doesn’t have a `self` parameter, and there could be other types that implement the `Animal` trait, Rust can’t figure out which implementation of `Animal::baby_name` we want. We’ll get this compiler error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-20/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-21/output.txt}} ``` To disambiguate and tell Rust that we want to use the implementation of `Animal` for `Dog` as opposed to the implementation of `Animal` for some other -type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 19-21 demonstrates how to +type, we need to use fully qualified syntax. Listing 20-22 demonstrates how to use fully qualified syntax. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-22" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using fully qualified syntax to specify that we want to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as implemented on `Dog`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-21: Using fully qualified syntax to specify -that we want to call the `baby_name` function from the `Animal` trait as -implemented on `Dog`</span> +</Listing> We’re providing Rust with a type annotation within the angle brackets, which indicates we want to call the `baby_name` method from the `Animal` trait as @@ -312,7 +309,7 @@ implemented on `Dog` by saying that we want to treat the `Dog` type as an `Animal` for this function call. This code will now print what we want: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-21/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-22/output.txt}} ``` In general, fully qualified syntax is defined as follows: @@ -335,13 +332,14 @@ Sometimes, you might write a trait definition that depends on another trait: for a type to implement the first trait, you want to require that type to also implement the second trait. You would do this so that your trait definition can make use of the associated items of the second trait. The trait your trait -definition is relying on is called a *supertrait* of your trait. +definition is relying on is called a _supertrait_ of your trait. For example, let’s say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an `outline_print` method that will print a given value formatted so that it's -framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements `Display` -to result in `(x, y)`, when we call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance that -has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it should print the following: +framed in asterisks. That is, given a `Point` struct that implements the +standard library trait `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, when we call +`outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has `1` for `x` and `3` for `y`, it +should print the following: ```text ********** @@ -356,17 +354,16 @@ In the implementation of the `outline_print` method, we want to use the `OutlinePrint` trait will work only for types that also implement `Display` and provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. This technique is -similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-22 shows an +similar to adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 20-23 shows an implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-23" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the functionality from `Display`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-22/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-23/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-22: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that -requires the functionality from `Display`</span> +</Listing> Because we’ve specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we can use the `to_string` function that is automatically implemented for any type @@ -378,27 +375,31 @@ the current scope. Let’s see what happens when we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that doesn’t implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + We get an error saying that `Display` is required but not implemented: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-02-impl-outlineprint-for-point/output.txt}} ``` To fix this, we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that `OutlinePrint` requires, like so: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-03-impl-display-for-point/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + Then implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile successfully, and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display it within an outline of asterisks. @@ -409,13 +410,13 @@ In Chapter 10 in the [“Implementing a Trait on a Type”][implementing-a-trait-on-a-type]<!-- ignore --> section, we mentioned the orphan rule that states we’re only allowed to implement a trait on a type if either the trait or the type are local to our crate. It’s possible to get -around this restriction using the *newtype pattern*, which involves creating a +around this restriction using the _newtype pattern_, which involves creating a new type in a tuple struct. (We covered tuple structs in the [“Using Tuple Structs without Named Fields to Create Different Types”][tuple-structs]<!-- ignore --> section of Chapter 5.) The tuple struct will have one field and be a thin wrapper around the type we want to implement a trait for. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can implement the trait on the wrapper. -*Newtype* is a term that originates from the Haskell programming language. +_Newtype_ is a term that originates from the Haskell programming language. There is no runtime performance penalty for using this pattern, and the wrapper type is elided at compile time. @@ -423,20 +424,19 @@ As an example, let’s say we want to implement `Display` on `Vec<T>`, which the orphan rule prevents us from doing directly because the `Display` trait and the `Vec<T>` type are defined outside our crate. We can make a `Wrapper` struct that holds an instance of `Vec<T>`; then we can implement `Display` on -`Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 19-23. +`Wrapper` and use the `Vec<T>` value, as shown in Listing 20-24. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-24" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec<String>` to implement `Display`"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-23/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-24/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-23: Creating a `Wrapper` type around -`Vec<String>` to implement `Display`</span> +</Listing> The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec<T>`, because `Wrapper` is a tuple struct and `Vec<T>` is the item at index 0 in the -tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`. +tuple. Then we can use the functionality of the `Display` trait on `Wrapper`. The downside of using this technique is that `Wrapper` is a new type, so it doesn’t have the methods of the value it’s holding. We would have to implement @@ -453,10 +453,8 @@ behavior—we would have to implement just the methods we do want manually. This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. -[newtype]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types -[implementing-a-trait-on-a-type]: -ch10-02-traits.html#implementing-a-trait-on-a-type -[traits-defining-shared-behavior]: -ch10-02-traits.html#traits-defining-shared-behavior +[newtype]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +[implementing-a-trait-on-a-type]: ch10-02-traits.html#implementing-a-trait-on-a-type +[traits-defining-shared-behavior]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-defining-shared-behavior [smart-pointer-deref]: ch15-02-deref.html#treating-smart-pointers-like-regular-references-with-the-deref-trait [tuple-structs]: ch05-01-defining-structs.html#using-tuple-structs-without-named-fields-to-create-different-types diff --git a/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md deleted file mode 100644 index 5562018c9c..0000000000 --- a/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,244 +0,0 @@ -## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup - -The code in Listing 20-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the -use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, -`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us -we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant <span -class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span> method to halt the main thread, all other -threads are stopped immediately as well, even if they’re in the middle of -serving a request. - -Now we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the threads in -the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before closing. -Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop accepting new -requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify our server to -accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its thread pool. - -### Implementing the `Drop` Trait on `ThreadPool` - -Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is -dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. -Listing 20-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t -quite work yet. - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/src/lib.rs:here}} -``` - -<span class="caption">Listing 20-22: Joining each thread when the thread pool -goes out of scope</span> - -First, we loop through each of the thread pool `workers`. We use `&mut` for -this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to -mutate `worker`. For each worker, we print a message saying that this -particular worker is shutting down, and then we call `join` on that worker’s -thread. If the call to `join` fails, we use `unwrap` to make Rust panic and go -into an ungraceful shutdown. - -Here is the error we get when we compile this code: - -```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-22/output.txt}} -``` - -The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow -of each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this -issue, we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns -`thread` so `join` can consume the thread. We did this in Listing 17-15: if -`Worker` holds an `Option<thread::JoinHandle<()>>` instead, we can call the -`take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the `Some` variant and -leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a `Worker` that is running -will have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we want to clean up a -`Worker`, we’ll replace `Some` with `None` so the `Worker` doesn’t have a -thread to run. - -So we know we want to update the definition of `Worker` like this: - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} -``` - -Now let’s lean on the compiler to find the other places that need to change. -Checking this code, we get two errors: - -```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-04-update-worker-definition/output.txt}} -``` - -Let’s address the second error, which points to the code at the end of -`Worker::new`; we need to wrap the `thread` value in `Some` when we create a -new `Worker`. Make the following changes to fix this error: - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> - -```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-05-fix-worker-new/src/lib.rs:here}} -``` - -The first error is in our `Drop` implementation. We mentioned earlier that we -intended to call `take` on the `Option` value to move `thread` out of `worker`. -The following changes will do so: - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> - -```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-06-fix-threadpool-drop/src/lib.rs:here}} -``` - -As discussed in Chapter 17, the `take` method on `Option` takes the `Some` -variant out and leaves `None` in its place. We’re using `if let` to destructure -the `Some` and get the thread; then we call `join` on the thread. If a worker’s -thread is already `None`, we know that worker has already had its thread -cleaned up, so nothing happens in that case. - -### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs - -With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. But -the bad news is this code doesn’t function the way we want it to yet. The key -is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` instances: at -the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads because they -`loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our `ThreadPool` with our -current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will block forever waiting -for the first thread to finish. - -To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the the `ThreadPool` `drop` -implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. - -First, we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop -the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 20-23 shows the -changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. We use the same `Option` -and `take` technique as we did with the thread to be able to move `sender` out -of `ThreadPool`: - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> - -```rust,noplayground,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-23/src/lib.rs:here}} -``` - -<span class="caption">Listing 20-23: Explicitly drop `sender` before joining -the worker threads</span> - -Dropping `sender` closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will be -sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the workers do in the -infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 20-24, we change the `Worker` -loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads will -finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> - -```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-24/src/lib.rs:here}} -``` - -<span class="caption">Listing 20-24: Explicitly break out of the loop when -`recv` returns an error</span> - -To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests -before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 20-25. - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> - -```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25/src/main.rs:here}} -``` - -<span class="caption">Listing 20-25: Shut down the server after serving two -requests by exiting the loop</span> - -You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two -requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is -in working order. - -The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration -to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the -end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. - -Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request -should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: - -<!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-25 -cargo run -curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 -curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 -curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 -third request will error because server will have shut down -copy output below -Can't automate because the output depends on making requests ---> - -```console -$ cargo run - Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.0s - Running `target/debug/hello` -Worker 0 got a job; executing. -Shutting down. -Shutting down worker 0 -Worker 3 got a job; executing. -Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. -Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. -Shutting down worker 1 -Shutting down worker 2 -Shutting down worker 3 -``` - -You might see a different ordering of workers and messages printed. We can see -how this code works from the messages: workers 0 and 3 got the first two -requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second connection, -and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing before worker 3 -even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all the workers and -tells them to shut down. The workers each print a message when they disconnect, -and then the thread pool calls `join` to wait for each worker thread to finish. - -Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` -dropped the `sender`, and before any worker received an error, we tried to join -worker 0. Worker 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the main thread -blocked waiting for worker 0 to finish. In the meantime, worker 3 received a -job and then all threads received an error. When worker 0 finished, the main -thread waited for the rest of the workers to finish. At that point, they had -all exited their loops and stopped. - -Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses -a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful -shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. - -Here’s the full code for reference: - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> - -```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs}} -``` - -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> - -```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs}} -``` - -We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are -some ideas: - -* Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. -* Add tests of the library’s functionality. -* Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. -* Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. -* Find a thread pool crate on [crates.io](https://crates.io/) and implement a - similar web server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and - robustness to the thread pool we implemented. - -## Summary - -Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for -joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust -projects and help with other peoples’ projects. Keep in mind that there is a -welcoming community of other Rustaceans who would love to help you with any -challenges you encounter on your Rust journey. diff --git a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md similarity index 79% rename from src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md rename to src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md index 3c09422b91..498a3c36b6 100644 --- a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ the `!` type and dynamically sized types. The newtype pattern is also useful for tasks beyond those we’ve discussed so far, including statically enforcing that values are never confused and indicating the units of a value. You saw an example of using newtypes to -indicate units in Listing 19-15: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` +indicate units in Listing 20-16: recall that the `Millimeters` and `Meters` structs wrapped `u32` values in a newtype. If we wrote a function with a parameter of type `Millimeters`, we couldn’t compile a program that accidentally tried to call that function with a value of type `Meters` or a @@ -34,31 +34,33 @@ internally. The newtype pattern is a lightweight way to achieve encapsulation to hide implementation details, which we discussed in the [“Encapsulation that Hides Implementation Details”][encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details]<!-- ignore --> -section of Chapter 17. +section of Chapter 18. ### Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases -Rust provides the ability to declare a *type alias* to give an existing type +Rust provides the ability to declare a _type alias_ to give an existing type another name. For this we use the `type` keyword. For example, we can create the alias `Kilometers` to `i32` like so: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -Now, the alias `Kilometers` is a *synonym* for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` -and `Meters` types we created in Listing 19-15, `Kilometers` is not a separate, +Now, the alias `Kilometers` is a _synonym_ for `i32`; unlike the `Millimeters` +and `Meters` types we created in Listing 20-16, `Kilometers` is not a separate, new type. Values that have the type `Kilometers` will be treated the same as values of type `i32`: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:there}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-04-kilometers-alias/src/main.rs:there}} ``` Because `Kilometers` and `i32` are the same type, we can add values of both types and we can pass `Kilometers` values to functions that take `i32` parameters. However, using this method, we don’t get the type checking benefits -that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. +that we get from the newtype pattern discussed earlier. In other words, if we +mix up `Kilometers` and `i32` values somewhere, the compiler will not give us +an error. The main use case for type synonyms is to reduce repetition. For example, we might have a lengthy type like this: @@ -69,27 +71,30 @@ Box<dyn Fn() + Send + 'static> Writing this lengthy type in function signatures and as type annotations all over the code can be tiresome and error prone. Imagine having a project full of -code like that in Listing 19-24. +code like that in Listing 20-25. + +<Listing number="20-25" caption="Using a long type in many places"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-24/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-25/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-24: Using a long type in many places</span> +</Listing> A type alias makes this code more manageable by reducing the repetition. In -Listing 19-25, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and +Listing 20-26, we’ve introduced an alias named `Thunk` for the verbose type and can replace all uses of the type with the shorter alias `Thunk`. +<Listing number="20-26" caption="Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce repetition"> + ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-25/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-26/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-25: Introducing a type alias `Thunk` to reduce -repetition</span> +</Listing> This code is much easier to read and write! Choosing a meaningful name for a -type alias can help communicate your intent as well (*thunk* is a word for code +type alias can help communicate your intent as well (_thunk_ is a word for code to be evaluated at a later time, so it’s an appropriate name for a closure that gets stored). @@ -102,14 +107,14 @@ possible I/O errors. Many of the functions in `std::io` will be returning the `Write` trait: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-05-write-trait/src/lib.rs}} ``` The `Result<..., Error>` is repeated a lot. As such, `std::io` has this type alias declaration: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` Because this declaration is in the `std::io` module, we can use the fully @@ -118,10 +123,10 @@ filled in as `std::io::Error`. The `Write` trait function signatures end up looking like this: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:there}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-06-result-alias/src/lib.rs:there}} ``` -The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write *and* it gives +The type alias helps in two ways: it makes code easier to write _and_ it gives us a consistent interface across all of `std::io`. Because it’s an alias, it’s just another `Result<T, E>`, which means we can use any methods that work on `Result<T, E>` with it, as well as special syntax like the `?` operator. @@ -129,28 +134,29 @@ just another `Result<T, E>`, which means we can use any methods that work on ### The Never Type that Never Returns Rust has a special type named `!` that’s known in type theory lingo as the -*empty type* because it has no values. We prefer to call it the *never type* +_empty type_ because it has no values. We prefer to call it the _never type_ because it stands in the place of the return type when a function will never return. Here is an example: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-07-never-type/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` This code is read as “the function `bar` returns never.” Functions that return -never are called *diverging functions*. We can’t create values of the type `!` +never are called _diverging functions_. We can’t create values of the type `!` so `bar` can never possibly return. But what use is a type you can never create values for? Recall the code from Listing 2-5, part of the number guessing game; we’ve reproduced a bit of it -here in Listing 19-26. +here in Listing 20-27. + +<Listing number="20-27" caption="A `match` with an arm that ends in `continue`"> ```rust,ignore {{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch02-guessing-game-tutorial/listing-02-05/src/main.rs:ch19}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-26: A `match` with an arm that ends in -`continue`</span> +</Listing> At the time, we skipped over some details in this code. In Chapter 6 in [“The `match` Control Flow Operator”][the-match-control-flow-operator]<!-- ignore --> @@ -158,13 +164,13 @@ section, we discussed that `match` arms must all return the same type. So, for example, the following code doesn’t work: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-08-match-arms-different-types/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer *and* a string, +The type of `guess` in this code would have to be an integer _and_ a string, and Rust requires that `guess` have only one type. So what does `continue` return? How were we allowed to return a `u32` from one arm and have another arm -that ends with `continue` in Listing 19-26? +that ends with `continue` in Listing 20-27? As you might have guessed, `continue` has a `!` value. That is, when Rust computes the type of `guess`, it looks at both match arms, the former with a @@ -182,10 +188,10 @@ function that we call on `Option<T>` values to produce a value or panic with this definition: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-09-unwrap-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 19-26: Rust +In this code, the same thing happens as in the `match` in Listing 20-27: Rust sees that `val` has the type `T` and `panic!` has the type `!`, so the result of the overall `match` expression is `T`. This code works because `panic!` doesn’t produce a value; it ends the program. In the `None` case, we won’t be @@ -194,7 +200,7 @@ returning a value from `unwrap`, so this code is valid. One final expression that has the type `!` is a `loop`: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-10-loop-returns-never/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Here, the loop never ends, so `!` is the value of the expression. However, this @@ -205,8 +211,8 @@ when it got to the `break`. Rust needs to know certain details about its types, such as how much space to allocate for a value of a particular type. This leaves one corner of its type -system a little confusing at first: the concept of *dynamically sized types*. -Sometimes referred to as *DSTs* or *unsized types*, these types let us write +system a little confusing at first: the concept of _dynamically sized types_. +Sometimes referred to as _DSTs_ or _unsized types_, these types let us write code using values whose size we can know only at runtime. Let’s dig into the details of a dynamically sized type called `str`, which @@ -216,7 +222,7 @@ we can’t create a variable of type `str`, nor can we take an argument of type `str`. Consider the following code, which does not work: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-11-cant-create-str/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Rust needs to know how much memory to allocate for any value of a particular @@ -231,7 +237,7 @@ of `s1` and `s2` a `&str` rather than a `str`. Recall from the [“String Slices”][string-slices]<!-- ignore --> section of Chapter 4 that the slice data structure just stores the starting position and the length of the slice. So although a `&T` is a single value that stores the memory address of where the -`T` is located, a `&str` is *two* values: the address of the `str` and its +`T` is located, a `&str` is _two_ values: the address of the `str` and its length. As such, we can know the size of a `&str` value at compile time: it’s twice the length of a `usize`. That is, we always know the size of a `&str`, no matter how long the string it refers to is. In general, this is the way in @@ -243,7 +249,7 @@ types behind a pointer of some kind. We can combine `str` with all kinds of pointers: for example, `Box<str>` or `Rc<str>`. In fact, you’ve seen this before but with a different dynamically sized type: traits. Every trait is a dynamically sized type we can refer to by -using the name of the trait. In Chapter 17 in the [“Using Trait Objects That +using the name of the trait. In Chapter 18 in the [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]<!-- ignore --> section, we mentioned that to use traits as trait objects, we must @@ -257,13 +263,13 @@ implicitly adds a bound on `Sized` to every generic function. That is, a generic function definition like this: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-12-generic-fn-definition/src/lib.rs}} ``` is actually treated as though we had written this: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-13-generic-implicit-sized-bound/src/lib.rs}} ``` By default, generic functions will work only on types that have a known size at @@ -271,7 +277,7 @@ compile time. However, you can use the following special syntax to relax this restriction: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-14-generic-maybe-sized/src/lib.rs}} ``` A trait bound on `?Sized` means “`T` may or may not be `Sized`” and this @@ -285,11 +291,8 @@ pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! -[encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details]: -ch17-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details +[encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details]: ch18-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details [string-slices]: ch04-03-slices.html#string-slices -[the-match-control-flow-operator]: -ch06-02-match.html#the-match-control-flow-operator -[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types -[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +[the-match-control-flow-operator]: ch06-02-match.html#the-match-control-flow-operator +[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types diff --git a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md similarity index 70% rename from src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md rename to src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 69624f056e..323e57bc96 100644 --- a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -9,27 +9,26 @@ We’ve talked about how to pass closures to functions; you can also pass regula functions to functions! This technique is useful when you want to pass a function you’ve already defined rather than defining a new closure. Functions coerce to the type `fn` (with a lowercase f), not to be confused with the `Fn` -closure trait. The `fn` type is called a *function pointer*. Passing functions +closure trait. The `fn` type is called a _function pointer_. Passing functions with function pointers will allow you to use functions as arguments to other functions. The syntax for specifying that a parameter is a function pointer is similar to -that of closures, as shown in Listing 19-27, where we’ve defined a function +that of closures, as shown in Listing 20-28, where we’ve defined a function `add_one` that adds one to its parameter. The function `do_twice` takes two parameters: a function pointer to any function that takes an `i32` parameter -and returns an `i32`, and one `i32 value`. The `do_twice` function calls the +and returns an `i32`, and one `i32` value. The `do_twice` function calls the function `f` twice, passing it the `arg` value, then adds the two function call results together. The `main` function calls `do_twice` with the arguments `add_one` and `5`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-28" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Using the `fn` type to accept a function pointer as an argument"> ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-27/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-28/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-27: Using the `fn` type to accept a function -pointer as an argument</span> +</Listing> This code prints `The answer is: 12`. We specify that the parameter `f` in `do_twice` is an `fn` that takes one parameter of type `i32` and returns an @@ -56,14 +55,14 @@ trait in the standard library. To use the `map` function to turn a vector of numbers into a vector of strings, we could use a closure, like this: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-15-map-closure/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Or we could name a function as the argument to `map` instead of the closure, like this: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-16-map-function/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Note that we must use the fully qualified syntax that we talked about earlier @@ -79,7 +78,7 @@ implement the closure traits, which means we can specify the initializer functions as arguments for methods that take closures, like so: ```rust -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-17-map-initializer/src/main.rs:here}} ``` Here we create `Status::Value` instances using each `u32` value in the range @@ -96,35 +95,33 @@ function. However, you can’t do that with closures because they don’t have a concrete type that is returnable; you’re not allowed to use the function pointer `fn` as a return type, for example. -The following code tries to return a closure directly, but it won’t compile: +Instead, you will normally use the `impl Trait` syntax we learned about in +Chapter 10. You can return any function type, using `Fn`, `FnOnce` and `FnMut`. +For example, this code will work just fine: ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/src/lib.rs}} ``` -The compiler error is as follows: - -```console -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-18-returns-closure/output.txt}} -``` - -The error references the `Sized` trait again! Rust doesn’t know how much space -it will need to store the closure. We saw a solution to this problem earlier. -We can use a trait object: +However, as we noted in the [“Closure Type Inference and +Annotation”][closure-types]<!-- ignore --> section in Chapter 13, each closure +is also its own distinct type. If you need to work with multiple functions that +have the same signature but different implementations, you will need to use a +trait object for them: ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-19-returns-closure-trait-object/src/main.rs}} ``` -This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to the -section [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different -Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]<!-- -ignore --> in Chapter 17. +This code will compile just fine—but it wouldn’t if we had tried to stick with +`impl Fn(i32) -> i32`. For more about trait objects, refer to the section +[“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different +Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]<!-- ignore +--> in Chapter 19. Next, let’s look at macros! -[advanced-traits]: -ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits +[advanced-traits]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits [enum-values]: ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html#enum-values -[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[closure-types]: ch13-01-closures.html#closure-type-inference-and-annotation +[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types diff --git a/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/src/ch20-06-macros.md similarity index 82% rename from src/ch19-06-macros.md rename to src/ch20-06-macros.md index 4b2fd7617a..c687c8b614 100644 --- a/src/ch19-06-macros.md +++ b/src/ch20-06-macros.md @@ -1,14 +1,14 @@ ## Macros We’ve used macros like `println!` throughout this book, but we haven’t fully -explored what a macro is and how it works. The term *macro* refers to a family -of features in Rust: *declarative* macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds -of *procedural* macros: +explored what a macro is and how it works. The term _macro_ refers to a family +of features in Rust: _declarative_ macros with `macro_rules!` and three kinds +of _procedural_ macros: -* Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute +- Custom `#[derive]` macros that specify code added with the `derive` attribute used on structs and enums -* Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item -* Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens +- Attribute-like macros that define custom attributes usable on any item +- Function-like macros that look like function calls but operate on the tokens specified as their argument We’ll talk about each of these in turn, but first, let’s look at why we even @@ -17,10 +17,10 @@ need macros when we already have functions. ### The Difference Between Macros and Functions Fundamentally, macros are a way of writing code that writes other code, which -is known as *metaprogramming*. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` +is known as _metaprogramming_. In Appendix C, we discuss the `derive` attribute, which generates an implementation of various traits for you. We’ve also used the `println!` and `vec!` macros throughout the book. All of these -macros *expand* to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. +macros _expand_ to produce more code than the code you’ve written manually. Metaprogramming is useful for reducing the amount of code you have to write and maintain, which is also one of the roles of functions. However, macros have @@ -41,12 +41,12 @@ generally more difficult to read, understand, and maintain than function definitions. Another important difference between macros and functions is that you must -define macros or bring them into scope *before* you call them in a file, as +define macros or bring them into scope _before_ you call them in a file, as opposed to functions you can define anywhere and call anywhere. ### Declarative Macros with `macro_rules!` for General Metaprogramming -The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the *declarative macro*. These +The most widely used form of macros in Rust is the _declarative macro_. These are also sometimes referred to as “macros by example,” “`macro_rules!` macros,” or just plain “macros.” At their core, declarative macros allow you to write something similar to a Rust `match` expression. As discussed in Chapter 6, @@ -73,16 +73,15 @@ We could also use the `vec!` macro to make a vector of two integers or a vector of five string slices. We wouldn’t be able to use a function to do the same because we wouldn’t know the number or type of values up front. -Listing 19-28 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. +Listing 20-29 shows a slightly simplified definition of the `vec!` macro. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-29" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="A simplified version of the `vec!` macro definition"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-28/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-29/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-28: A simplified version of the `vec!` macro -definition</span> +</Listing> > Note: The actual definition of the `vec!` macro in the standard library > includes code to preallocate the correct amount of memory up front. That code @@ -93,7 +92,7 @@ available whenever the crate in which the macro is defined is brought into scope. Without this annotation, the macro can’t be brought into scope. We then start the macro definition with `macro_rules!` and the name of the -macro we’re defining *without* the exclamation mark. The name, in this case +macro we’re defining _without_ the exclamation mark. The name, in this case `vec`, is followed by curly brackets denoting the body of the macro definition. The structure in the `vec!` body is similar to the structure of a `match` @@ -105,13 +104,11 @@ other pattern will result in an error. More complex macros will have more than one arm. Valid pattern syntax in macro definitions is different than the pattern syntax -covered in Chapter 18 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code +covered in Chapter 19 because macro patterns are matched against Rust code structure rather than values. Let’s walk through what the pattern pieces in -Listing 19-28 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the [Rust +Listing 20-29 mean; for the full macro pattern syntax, see the [Rust Reference][ref]. -[ref]: ../reference/macros-by-example.html - First, we use a set of parentheses to encompass the whole pattern. We use a dollar sign (`$`) to declare a variable in the macro system that will contain the Rust code matching the pattern. The dollar sign makes it clear this is a @@ -147,20 +144,13 @@ will be the following: We’ve defined a macro that can take any number of arguments of any type and can generate code to create a vector containing the specified elements. -There are some strange edge cases with `macro_rules!`. In the future, Rust will -have a second kind of declarative macro that will work in a similar fashion but -fix some of these edge cases. After that update, `macro_rules!` will be -effectively deprecated. With this in mind, as well as the fact that most Rust -programmers will *use* macros more than *write* macros, we won’t discuss -`macro_rules!` any further. To learn more about how to write macros, consult -the online documentation or other resources, such as [“The Little Book of Rust -Macros”][tlborm] started by Daniel Keep and continued by Lukas Wirth. - -[tlborm]: https://veykril.github.io/tlborm/ +To learn more about how to write macros, consult the online documentation or +other resources, such as [“The Little Book of Rust Macros”][tlborm] started by +Daniel Keep and continued by Lukas Wirth. ### Procedural Macros for Generating Code from Attributes -The second form of macros is the *procedural macro*, which acts more like a +The second form of macros is the _procedural macro_, which acts more like a function (and is a type of procedure). Procedural macros accept some code as an input, operate on that code, and produce some code as an output rather than matching against patterns and replacing the code with other code as declarative @@ -169,11 +159,11 @@ attribute-like, and function-like, and all work in a similar fashion. When creating procedural macros, the definitions must reside in their own crate with a special crate type. This is for complex technical reasons that we hope -to eliminate in the future. In Listing 19-29, we show how to define a +to eliminate in the future. In Listing 20-30, we show how to define a procedural macro, where `some_attribute` is a placeholder for using a specific macro variety. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-30" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An example of defining a procedural macro"> ```rust,ignore use proc_macro; @@ -183,8 +173,7 @@ pub fn some_name(input: TokenStream) -> TokenStream { } ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-29: An example of defining a procedural -macro</span> +</Listing> The function that defines a procedural macro takes a `TokenStream` as an input and produces a `TokenStream` as an output. The `TokenStream` type is defined by @@ -209,16 +198,15 @@ we’ll provide a procedural macro so users can annotate their type with function. The default implementation will print `Hello, Macro! My name is TypeName!` where `TypeName` is the name of the type on which this trait has been defined. In other words, we’ll write a crate that enables another -programmer to write code like Listing 19-30 using our crate. +programmer to write code like Listing 20-31 using our crate. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-31" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="The code a user of our crate will be able to write when using our procedural macro"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-30/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-31/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-30: The code a user of our crate will be able -to write when using our procedural macro</span> +</Listing> This code will print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` when we’re done. The first step is to make a new library crate, like this: @@ -229,17 +217,19 @@ $ cargo new hello_macro --lib Next, we’ll define the `HelloMacro` trait and its associated function: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/hello_macro/src/lib.rs}} ``` +</Listing> + We have a trait and its function. At this point, our crate user could implement the trait to achieve the desired functionality, like so: ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-20-impl-hellomacro-for-pancakes/pancakes/src/main.rs}} ``` However, they would need to write the implementation block for each type they @@ -276,26 +266,27 @@ possible for programmers to use `hello_macro` even if they don’t want the We need to declare the `hello_macro_derive` crate as a procedural macro crate. We’ll also need functionality from the `syn` and `quote` crates, as you’ll see in a moment, so we need to add them as dependencies. Add the following to the -*Cargo.toml* file for `hello_macro_derive`: +_Cargo.toml_ file for `hello_macro_derive`: -<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml</span> +<Listing file-name="hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml"> ```toml -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml:6:12}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/Cargo.toml:6:12}} ``` -To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 19-31 into -your *src/lib.rs* file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code +</Listing> + +To start defining the procedural macro, place the code in Listing 20-32 into +your _src/lib.rs_ file for the `hello_macro_derive` crate. Note that this code won’t compile until we add a definition for the `impl_hello_macro` function. -<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-32" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Code that most procedural macro crates will require in order to process Rust code"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-31/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-32/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-31: Code that most procedural macro crates -will require in order to process Rust code</span> +</Listing> Notice that we’ve split the code into the `hello_macro_derive` function, which is responsible for parsing the `TokenStream`, and the `impl_hello_macro` @@ -308,12 +299,9 @@ depending on your procedural macro’s purpose. We’ve introduced three new crates: `proc_macro`, [`syn`], and [`quote`]. The `proc_macro` crate comes with Rust, so we didn’t need to add that to the -dependencies in *Cargo.toml*. The `proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that +dependencies in _Cargo.toml_. The `proc_macro` crate is the compiler’s API that allows us to read and manipulate Rust code from our code. -[`syn`]: https://crates.io/crates/syn -[`quote`]: https://crates.io/crates/quote - The `syn` crate parses Rust code from a string into a data structure that we can perform operations on. The `quote` crate turns `syn` data structures back into Rust code. These crates make it much simpler to parse any sort of Rust @@ -330,9 +318,11 @@ The `hello_macro_derive` function first converts the `input` from a `TokenStream` to a data structure that we can then interpret and perform operations on. This is where `syn` comes into play. The `parse` function in `syn` takes a `TokenStream` and returns a `DeriveInput` struct representing the -parsed Rust code. Listing 19-32 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` +parsed Rust code. Listing 20-33 shows the relevant parts of the `DeriveInput` struct we get from parsing the `struct Pancakes;` string: +<Listing number="20-33" caption="The `DeriveInput` instance we get when parsing the code that has the macro’s attribute in Listing 20-31"> + ```rust,ignore DeriveInput { // --snip-- @@ -353,16 +343,13 @@ DeriveInput { } ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-32: The `DeriveInput` instance we get when -parsing the code that has the macro’s attribute in Listing 19-30</span> +</Listing> The fields of this struct show that the Rust code we’ve parsed is a unit struct with the `ident` (identifier, meaning the name) of `Pancakes`. There are more fields on this struct for describing all sorts of Rust code; check the [`syn` documentation for `DeriveInput`][syn-docs] for more information. -[syn-docs]: https://docs.rs/syn/1.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html - Soon we’ll define the `impl_hello_macro` function, which is where we’ll build the new Rust code we want to include. But before we do, note that the output for our derive macro is also a `TokenStream`. The returned `TokenStream` is @@ -380,24 +367,23 @@ about what went wrong by using `panic!` or `expect`. Now that we have the code to turn the annotated Rust code from a `TokenStream` into a `DeriveInput` instance, let’s generate the code that implements the -`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 19-33. +`HelloMacro` trait on the annotated type, as shown in Listing 20-34. -<span class="filename">Filename: hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="20-34" file-name="hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using the parsed Rust code"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/listing-19-33/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/listing-20-34/hello_macro/hello_macro_derive/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 19-33: Implementing the `HelloMacro` trait using -the parsed Rust code</span> +</Listing> We get an `Ident` struct instance containing the name (identifier) of the -annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 19-32 shows that when -we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 19-30, the +annotated type using `ast.ident`. The struct in Listing 20-33 shows that when +we run the `impl_hello_macro` function on the code in Listing 20-31, the `ident` we get will have the `ident` field with a value of `"Pancakes"`. Thus, -the `name` variable in Listing 19-33 will contain an `Ident` struct instance +the `name` variable in Listing 20-34 will contain an `Ident` struct instance that, when printed, will be the string `"Pancakes"`, the name of the struct in -Listing 19-30. +Listing 20-31. The `quote!` macro lets us define the Rust code that we want to return. The compiler expects something different to the direct result of the `quote!` @@ -410,8 +396,6 @@ enter `#name`, and `quote!` will replace it with the value in the variable `name`. You can even do some repetition similar to the way regular macros work. Check out [the `quote` crate’s docs][quote-docs] for a thorough introduction. -[quote-docs]: https://docs.rs/quote - We want our procedural macro to generate an implementation of our `HelloMacro` trait for the type the user annotated, which we can get by using `#name`. The trait implementation has the one function `hello_macro`, whose body contains the @@ -428,18 +412,18 @@ saves an allocation by converting `#name` to a string literal at compile time. At this point, `cargo build` should complete successfully in both `hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive`. Let’s hook up these crates to the code in Listing -19-30 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in -your *projects* directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add +20-31 to see the procedural macro in action! Create a new binary project in +your _projects_ directory using `cargo new pancakes`. We need to add `hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` as dependencies in the `pancakes` -crate’s *Cargo.toml*. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and +crate’s _Cargo.toml_. If you’re publishing your versions of `hello_macro` and `hello_macro_derive` to [crates.io](https://crates.io/), they would be regular dependencies; if not, you can specify them as `path` dependencies as follows: ```toml -{{#include ../listings/ch19-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml:7:9}} +{{#include ../listings/ch20-advanced-features/no-listing-21-pancakes/pancakes/Cargo.toml:7:9}} ``` -Put the code in Listing 19-30 into *src/main.rs*, and run `cargo run`: it +Put the code in Listing 20-31 into _src/main.rs_, and run `cargo run`: it should print `Hello, Macro! My name is Pancakes!` The implementation of the `HelloMacro` trait from the procedural macro was included without the `pancakes` crate needing to implement it; the `#[derive(HelloMacro)]` added the @@ -491,8 +475,6 @@ Metaprogramming”][decl]<!-- ignore --> earlier. Function-like macros take a using Rust code as the other two types of procedural macros do. An example of a function-like macro is an `sql!` macro that might be called like so: -[decl]: #declarative-macros-with-macro_rules-for-general-metaprogramming - ```rust,ignore let sql = sql!(SELECT * FROM posts WHERE id=1); ``` @@ -521,3 +503,11 @@ you to solutions. Next, we’ll put everything we’ve discussed throughout the book into practice and do one more project! + +[ref]: ../reference/macros-by-example.html +[tlborm]: https://veykril.github.io/tlborm/ +[`syn`]: https://crates.io/crates/syn +[`quote`]: https://crates.io/crates/quote +[syn-docs]: https://docs.rs/syn/2.0/syn/struct.DeriveInput.html +[quote-docs]: https://docs.rs/quote +[decl]: #declarative-macros-with-macro_rules-for-general-metaprogramming diff --git a/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..23c149a393 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +# Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server + +It’s been a long journey, but we’ve reached the end of the book. In this +chapter, we’ll build one more project together to demonstrate some of the +concepts we covered in the final chapters, as well as recap some earlier +lessons. + +For our final project, we’ll make a web server that says “hello” and looks like +Figure 20-1 in a web browser. + +![hello from rust](img/trpl20-01.png) + +<span class="caption">Figure 20-1: Our final shared project</span> + +Here is our plan for building the web server: + +1. Learn a bit about TCP and HTTP. +2. Listen for TCP connections on a socket. +3. Parse a small number of HTTP requests. +4. Create a proper HTTP response. +5. Improve the throughput of our server with a thread pool. + +Before we get started, we should mention two details: First, the method we’ll +use won’t be the best way to build a web server with Rust. Community members +have published a number of production-ready crates available on +[crates.io](https://crates.io/) that provide more complete web server and thread +pool implementations than we’ll build. However, our intention in this chapter is +to help you learn, not to take the easy route. Because Rust is a systems +programming language, we can choose the level of abstraction we want to work +with and can go to a lower level than is possible or practical in other +languages. + +Second, we will not be using async and await here. Building a thread pool is a +big enough challenge on its own, without adding in building an async runtime! +However, we will note how async and await might be applicable to some of the +same problems we will see in this chapter. Ultimately, as we noted back in +Chapter 17, many async runtimes use thread pools for managing their work. + +We’ll therefore write the basic HTTP server and thread pool manually so you can +learn the general ideas and techniques behind the crates you might use in the +future. diff --git a/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md similarity index 67% rename from src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md rename to src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md index b7839621ef..2c35b25b59 100644 --- a/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md +++ b/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md @@ -5,12 +5,11 @@ let’s look at a quick overview of the protocols involved in building web servers. The details of these protocols are beyond the scope of this book, but a brief overview will give you the information you need. -The two main protocols involved in web servers are the *Hypertext Transfer -Protocol* *(HTTP)* and the *Transmission Control Protocol* *(TCP)*. Both -protocols are *request-response* protocols, meaning a *client* initiates -requests and a *server* listens to the requests and provides a response to the -client. The contents of those requests and responses are defined by the -protocols. +The two main protocols involved in web servers are _Hypertext Transfer +Protocol_ _(HTTP)_ and _Transmission Control Protocol_ _(TCP)_. Both protocols +are _request-response_ protocols, meaning a _client_ initiates requests and a +_server_ listens to the requests and provides a response to the client. The +contents of those requests and responses are defined by the protocols. TCP is the lower-level protocol that describes the details of how information gets from one server to another but doesn’t specify what that information is. @@ -31,45 +30,45 @@ $ cargo new hello $ cd hello ``` -Now enter the code in Listing 20-1 in *src/main.rs* to start. This code will -listen at the address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it gets -an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. +Now enter the code in Listing 21-1 in _src/main.rs_ to start. This code will +listen at the local address `127.0.0.1:7878` for incoming TCP streams. When it +gets an incoming stream, it will print `Connection established!`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Listening for incoming streams and printing a message when we receive a stream"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-01/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-01/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-1: Listening for incoming streams and printing -a message when we receive a stream</span> +</Listing> Using `TcpListener`, we can listen for TCP connections at the address `127.0.0.1:7878`. In the address, the section before the colon is an IP address representing your computer (this is the same on every computer and doesn’t represent the authors’ computer specifically), and `7878` is the port. We’ve -chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this port, and -7878 is *rust* typed on a telephone. +chosen this port for two reasons: HTTP isn’t normally accepted on this port so +our server is unlikely to conflict with any other web server you might have +running on your machine, and 7878 is _rust_ typed on a telephone. The `bind` function in this scenario works like the `new` function in that it -will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The reason the function is called -`bind` is that in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as -“binding to a port.” - -The `bind` function returns a `Result<T, E>`, which indicates that binding -might fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires administrator -privileges (nonadministrators can listen only on ports higher than 1023), so if -we tried to connect to port 80 without being an administrator, binding wouldn’t -work. As another example, binding wouldn’t work if we ran two instances of our -program and so had two programs listening to the same port. Because we’re -writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we won’t worry about -handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to stop the program if -errors happen. +will return a new `TcpListener` instance. The function is called `bind` +because, in networking, connecting to a port to listen to is known as “binding +to a port.” + +The `bind` function returns a `Result<T, E>`, which indicates that it’s +possible for binding to fail. For example, connecting to port 80 requires +administrator privileges (nonadministrators can listen only on ports higher +than 1023), so if we tried to connect to port 80 without being an +administrator, binding wouldn’t work. Binding also wouldn’t work, for example, +if we ran two instances of our program and so had two programs listening to the +same port. Because we’re writing a basic server just for learning purposes, we +won’t worry about handling these kinds of errors; instead, we use `unwrap` to +stop the program if errors happen. The `incoming` method on `TcpListener` returns an iterator that gives us a sequence of streams (more specifically, streams of type `TcpStream`). A single -*stream* represents an open connection between the client and the server. A -*connection* is the name for the full request and response process in which a +_stream_ represents an open connection between the client and the server. A +_connection_ is the name for the full request and response process in which a client connects to the server, the server generates a response, and the server closes the connection. As such, we will read from the `TcpStream` to see what the client sent and then write our response to the stream to send data back to @@ -81,7 +80,7 @@ our program if the stream has any errors; if there aren’t any errors, the program prints a message. We’ll add more functionality for the success case in the next listing. The reason we might receive errors from the `incoming` method when a client connects to the server is that we’re not actually iterating over -connections. Instead, we’re iterating over *connection attempts*. The +connections. Instead, we’re iterating over _connection attempts_. The connection might not be successful for a number of reasons, many of them operating system specific. For example, many operating systems have a limit to the number of simultaneous open connections they can support; new connection @@ -89,7 +88,7 @@ attempts beyond that number will produce an error until some of the open connections are closed. Let’s try running this code! Invoke `cargo run` in the terminal and then load -*127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser. The browser should show an error message +_127.0.0.1:7878_ in a web browser. The browser should show an error message like “Connection reset,” because the server isn’t currently sending back any data. But when you look at your terminal, you should see several messages that were printed when the browser connected to the server! @@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ Connection established! Sometimes, you’ll see multiple messages printed for one browser request; the reason might be that the browser is making a request for the page as well as a -request for other resources, like the *favicon.ico* icon that appears in the +request for other resources, like the _favicon.ico_ icon that appears in the browser tab. It could also be that the browser is trying to connect to the server multiple @@ -113,10 +112,10 @@ part of the `drop` implementation. Browsers sometimes deal with closed connections by retrying, because the problem might be temporary. The important factor is that we’ve successfully gotten a handle to a TCP connection! -Remember to stop the program by pressing <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span> -when you’re done running a particular version of the code. Then restart the -program by invoking the `cargo run` command after you’ve made each set of code -changes to make sure you’re running the newest code. +Remember to stop the program by pressing <kbd>ctrl</kbd>-<kbd>c</kbd> when +you’re done running a particular version of the code. Then restart the program +by invoking the `cargo run` command after you’ve made each set of code changes +to make sure you’re running the newest code. ### Reading the Request @@ -125,16 +124,15 @@ separate the concerns of first getting a connection and then taking some action with the connection, we’ll start a new function for processing connections. In this new `handle_connection` function, we’ll read data from the TCP stream and print it so we can see the data being sent from the browser. Change the code to -look like Listing 20-2. +look like Listing 21-2. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing the data"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-02/src/main.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-02/src/main.rs}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-2: Reading from the `TcpStream` and printing -the data</span> +</Listing> We bring `std::io::prelude` and `std::io::BufReader` into scope to get access to traits and types that let us read from and write to the stream. In the `for` @@ -143,8 +141,8 @@ connection, we now call the new `handle_connection` function and pass the `stream` to it. In the `handle_connection` function, we create a new `BufReader` instance that -wraps a mutable reference to the `stream`. `BufReader` adds buffering by -managing calls to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. +wraps a reference to the `stream`. The `BufReader` adds buffering by managing calls +to the `std::io::Read` trait methods for us. We create a variable named `http_request` to collect the lines of the request the browser sends to our server. We indicate that we want to collect these @@ -160,10 +158,10 @@ more gracefully, but we’re choosing to stop the program in the error case for simplicity. The browser signals the end of an HTTP request by sending two newline -characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines while -they’re not the empty string. Once we’ve collected the lines into the vector, -we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting so we can take a look at -the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. +characters in a row, so to get one request from the stream, we take lines until +we get a line that is the empty string. Once we’ve collected the lines into the +vector, we’re printing them out using pretty debug formatting so we can take a +look at the instructions the web browser is sending to our server. Let’s try this code! Start the program and make a request in a web browser again. Note that we’ll still get an error page in the browser, but our @@ -195,8 +193,8 @@ Request: [ Depending on your browser, you might get slightly different output. Now that we’re printing the request data, we can see why we get multiple connections from one browser request by looking at the path after `GET` in the first line -of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting */*, we know the -browser is trying to fetch */* repeatedly because it’s not getting a response +of the request. If the repeated connections are all requesting _/_, we know the +browser is trying to fetch _/_ repeatedly because it’s not getting a response from our program. Let’s break down this request data to understand what the browser is asking of @@ -212,33 +210,34 @@ headers CRLF message-body ``` -The first line is the *request line* that holds information about what the -client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the *method* +The first line is the _request line_ that holds information about what the +client is requesting. The first part of the request line indicates the _method_ being used, such as `GET` or `POST`, which describes how the client is making -this request. Our client used a `GET` request. +this request. Our client used a `GET` request, which means it is asking for +information. -The next part of the request line is */*, which indicates the *Uniform Resource -Identifier* *(URI)* the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, -the same as a *Uniform Resource Locator* *(URL)*. The difference between URIs +The next part of the request line is _/_, which indicates the _Uniform Resource +Identifier_ _(URI)_ the client is requesting: a URI is almost, but not quite, +the same as a _Uniform Resource Locator_ _(URL)_. The difference between URIs and URLs isn’t important for our purposes in this chapter, but the HTTP spec uses the term URI, so we can just mentally substitute URL for URI here. The last part is the HTTP version the client uses, and then the request line -ends in a *CRLF sequence*. (CRLF stands for *carriage return* and *line feed*, +ends in a _CRLF sequence_. (CRLF stands for _carriage return_ and _line feed_, which are terms from the typewriter days!) The CRLF sequence can also be written as `\r\n`, where `\r` is a carriage return and `\n` is a line feed. The CRLF sequence separates the request line from the rest of the request data. Note that when the CRLF is printed, we see a new line start rather than `\r\n`. Looking at the request line data we received from running our program so far, -we see that `GET` is the method, */* is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the +we see that `GET` is the method, _/_ is the request URI, and `HTTP/1.1` is the version. After the request line, the remaining lines starting from `Host:` onward are headers. `GET` requests have no body. Try making a request from a different browser or asking for a different -address, such as *127.0.0.1:7878/test*, to see how the request data changes. +address, such as _127.0.0.1:7878/test_, to see how the request data changes. Now that we know what the browser is asking for, let’s send back some data! @@ -253,7 +252,7 @@ headers CRLF message-body ``` -The first line is a *status line* that contains the HTTP version used in the +The first line is a _status line_ that contains the HTTP version used in the response, a numeric status code that summarizes the result of the request, and a reason phrase that provides a text description of the status code. After the CRLF sequence are any headers, another CRLF sequence, and the body of the @@ -270,16 +269,15 @@ The status code 200 is the standard success response. The text is a tiny successful HTTP response. Let’s write this to the stream as our response to a successful request! From the `handle_connection` function, remove the `println!` that was printing the request data and replace it with the code in -Listing 20-3. +Listing 21-3. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to the stream"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-03/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-03/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-3: Writing a tiny successful HTTP response to -the stream</span> +</Listing> The first new line defines the `response` variable that holds the success message’s data. Then we call `as_bytes` on our `response` to convert the string @@ -290,39 +288,37 @@ application you would add error handling here. With these changes, let’s run our code and make a request. We’re no longer printing any data to the terminal, so we won’t see any output other than the -output from Cargo. When you load *127.0.0.1:7878* in a web browser, you should +output from Cargo. When you load _127.0.0.1:7878_ in a web browser, you should get a blank page instead of an error. You’ve just hand-coded receiving an HTTP request and sending a response! ### Returning Real HTML Let’s implement the functionality for returning more than a blank page. Create -a new file, *hello.html*, in the root of your project directory, not in the -*src* directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 20-4 shows one +the new file _hello.html_ in the root of your project directory, not in the +_src_ directory. You can input any HTML you want; Listing 21-4 shows one possibility. -<span class="filename">Filename: hello.html</span> +<Listing number="21-4" file-name="hello.html" caption="A sample HTML file to return in a response"> ```html -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/hello.html}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/hello.html}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-4: A sample HTML file to return in a -response</span> +</Listing> This is a minimal HTML5 document with a heading and some text. To return this from the server when a request is received, we’ll modify `handle_connection` as -shown in Listing 20-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, +shown in Listing 21-5 to read the HTML file, add it to the response as a body, and send it. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-5" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the body of the response"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-05/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-05/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-5: Sending the contents of *hello.html* as the -body of the response</span> +</Listing> We’ve added `fs` to the `use` statement to bring the standard library’s filesystem module into scope. The code for reading the contents of a file to a @@ -334,87 +330,85 @@ response. To ensure a valid HTTP response, we add the `Content-Length` header which is set to the size of our response body, in this case the size of `hello.html`. -Run this code with `cargo run` and load *127.0.0.1:7878* in your browser; you +Run this code with `cargo run` and load _127.0.0.1:7878_ in your browser; you should see your HTML rendered! Currently, we’re ignoring the request data in `http_request` and just sending back the contents of the HTML file unconditionally. That means if you try -requesting *127.0.0.1:7878/something-else* in your browser, you’ll still get -back this same HTML response. Our server is very limited and is not what most -web servers do. We want to customize our responses depending on the request and -only send back the HTML file for a well-formed request to */*. +requesting _127.0.0.1:7878/something-else_ in your browser, you’ll still get +back this same HTML response. At the moment, our server is very limited and +does not do what most web servers do. We want to customize our responses +depending on the request and only send back the HTML file for a well-formed +request to _/_. ### Validating the Request and Selectively Responding Right now, our web server will return the HTML in the file no matter what the client requested. Let’s add functionality to check that the browser is -requesting */* before returning the HTML file and return an error if the +requesting _/_ before returning the HTML file and return an error if the browser requests anything else. For this we need to modify `handle_connection`, -as shown in Listing 20-6. This new code checks the content of the request -received against what we know a request for */* looks like and adds `if` and +as shown in Listing 21-6. This new code checks the content of the request +received against what we know a request for _/_ looks like and adds `if` and `else` blocks to treat requests differently. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-6" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Handling requests to */* differently from other requests"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-06/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-06/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-6: Looking at the request line and handling -requests to */* differently from other requests</span> +</Listing> We’re only going to be looking at the first line of the HTTP request, so rather than reading the entire request into a vector, we’re calling `next` to get the first item from the iterator. The first `unwrap` takes care of the `Option` and stops the program if the iterator has no items. The second `unwrap` handles the `Result` and has the same effect as the `unwrap` that was in the `map` added in -Listing 20-2. +Listing 21-2. Next, we check the `request_line` to see if it equals the request line of a GET -request to the */* path. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of our +request to the _/_ path. If it does, the `if` block returns the contents of our HTML file. -If the `request_line` does *not* equal the GET request to the */* path, it +If the `request_line` does _not_ equal the GET request to the _/_ path, it means we’ve received some other request. We’ll add code to the `else` block in a moment to respond to all other requests. -Run this code now and request *127.0.0.1:7878*; you should get the HTML in -*hello.html*. If you make any other request, such as -*127.0.0.1:7878/something-else*, you’ll get a connection error like those you -saw when running the code in Listing 20-1 and Listing 20-2. +Run this code now and request _127.0.0.1:7878_; you should get the HTML in +_hello.html_. If you make any other request, such as +_127.0.0.1:7878/something-else_, you’ll get a connection error like those you +saw when running the code in Listing 21-1 and Listing 21-2. -Now let’s add the code in Listing 20-7 to the `else` block to return a response +Now let’s add the code in Listing 21-7 to the `else` block to return a response with the status code 404, which signals that the content for the request was not found. We’ll also return some HTML for a page to render in the browser indicating the response to the end user. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-7" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Responding with status code 404 and an error page if anything other than */* was requested"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-7: Responding with status code 404 and an -error page if anything other than */* was requested</span> +</Listing> Here, our response has a status line with status code 404 and the reason phrase -`NOT FOUND`. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file *404.html*. -You’ll need to create a *404.html* file next to *hello.html* for the error +`NOT FOUND`. The body of the response will be the HTML in the file _404.html_. +You’ll need to create a _404.html_ file next to _hello.html_ for the error page; again feel free to use any HTML you want or use the example HTML in -Listing 20-8. +Listing 21-8. -<span class="filename">Filename: 404.html</span> +<Listing number="21-8" file-name="404.html" caption="Sample content for the page to send back with any 404 response"> ```html -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-07/404.html}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-07/404.html}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-8: Sample content for the page to send back -with any 404 response</span> +</Listing> -With these changes, run your server again. Requesting *127.0.0.1:7878* should -return the contents of *hello.html*, and any other request, like -*127.0.0.1:7878/foo*, should return the error HTML from *404.html*. +With these changes, run your server again. Requesting _127.0.0.1:7878_ should +return the contents of _hello.html_, and any other request, like +_127.0.0.1:7878/foo_, should return the error HTML from _404.html_. ### A Touch of Refactoring @@ -424,29 +418,28 @@ differences are the status line and the filename. Let’s make the code more concise by pulling out those differences into separate `if` and `else` lines that will assign the values of the status line and the filename to variables; we can then use those variables unconditionally in the code to read the file -and write the response. Listing 20-9 shows the resulting code after replacing +and write the response. Listing 21-9 shows the resulting code after replacing the large `if` and `else` blocks. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-9" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to contain only the code that differs between the two cases"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-09/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-09/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-9: Refactoring the `if` and `else` blocks to -contain only the code that differs between the two cases</span> +</Listing> Now the `if` and `else` blocks only return the appropriate values for the status line and filename in a tuple; we then use destructuring to assign these two values to `status_line` and `filename` using a pattern in the `let` -statement, as discussed in Chapter 18. +statement, as discussed in Chapter 19. The previously duplicated code is now outside the `if` and `else` blocks and uses the `status_line` and `filename` variables. This makes it easier to see the difference between the two cases, and it means we have only one place to update the code if we want to change how the file reading and response writing -work. The behavior of the code in Listing 20-9 will be the same as that in -Listing 20-8. +work. The behavior of the code in Listing 21-9 will be the same as that in +Listing 21-7. Awesome! We now have a simple web server in approximately 40 lines of Rust code that responds to one request with a page of content and responds to all other diff --git a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md similarity index 64% rename from src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md rename to src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md index a348df12bd..c2e7865ab5 100644 --- a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md @@ -11,45 +11,44 @@ this, but first, we’ll look at the problem in action. ### Simulating a Slow Request in the Current Server Implementation We’ll look at how a slow-processing request can affect other requests made to -our current server implementation. Listing 20-10 implements handling a request -to */sleep* with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep +our current server implementation. Listing 21-10 implements handling a request +to _/sleep_ with a simulated slow response that will cause the server to sleep for 5 seconds before responding. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-10" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Simulating a slow request by sleeping for 5 seconds"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-10/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-10/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-10: Simulating a slow request by recognizing -*/sleep* and sleeping for 5 seconds</span> +</Listing> We switched from `if` to `match` now that we have three cases. We need to explicitly match on a slice of `request_line` to pattern match against the string literal values; `match` doesn’t do automatic referencing and dereferencing like the equality method does. -The first arm is the same as the `if` block from Listing 20-9. The second arm -matches a request to */sleep*. When that request is received, the server will +The first arm is the same as the `if` block from Listing 21-9. The second arm +matches a request to _/sleep_. When that request is received, the server will sleep for 5 seconds before rendering the successful HTML page. The third arm is -the same as the `else` block from Listing 20-9. +the same as the `else` block from Listing 21-9. You can see how primitive our server is: real libraries would handle the recognition of multiple requests in a much less verbose way! Start the server using `cargo run`. Then open two browser windows: one for -*http://127.0.0.1:7878/* and the other for *http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep*. If -you enter the */* URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. -But if you enter */sleep* and then load */*, you’ll see that */* waits until +_http://127.0.0.1:7878/_ and the other for _http://127.0.0.1:7878/sleep_. If +you enter the _/_ URI a few times, as before, you’ll see it respond quickly. +But if you enter _/sleep_ and then load _/_, you’ll see that _/_ waits until `sleep` has slept for its full 5 seconds before loading. -There are multiple ways we could change how our web server works to avoid -having more requests back up behind a slow request; the one we’ll implement is -a thread pool. +There are multiple techniques we could use to avoid requests backing up behind +a slow request, including using async as we did Chapter 17; the one we’ll +implement is a thread pool. ### Improving Throughput with a Thread Pool -A *thread pool* is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to +A _thread pool_ is a group of spawned threads that are waiting and ready to handle a task. When the program receives a new task, it assigns one of the threads in the pool to the task, and that thread will process the task. The remaining threads in the pool are available to handle any other tasks that come @@ -64,21 +63,22 @@ for each request as it came in, someone making 10 million requests to our server could create havoc by using up all our server’s resources and grinding the processing of requests to a halt. -Rather than spawning unlimited threads, we’ll have a fixed number of threads -waiting in the pool. As requests come in, they’ll be sent to the pool for +Rather than spawning unlimited threads, then, we’ll have a fixed number of +threads waiting in the pool. Requests that come in are sent to the pool for processing. The pool will maintain a queue of incoming requests. Each of the threads in the pool will pop off a request from this queue, handle the request, -and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process -`N` requests concurrently, where `N` is the number of threads. If each thread -is responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still back up -in the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests we can -handle before reaching that point. +and then ask the queue for another request. With this design, we can process up +to `N` requests concurrently, where `N` is the number of threads. If each +thread is responding to a long-running request, subsequent requests can still +back up in the queue, but we’ve increased the number of long-running requests +we can handle before reaching that point. This technique is just one of many ways to improve the throughput of a web -server. Other options you might explore are the fork/join model and the -single-threaded async I/O model. If you’re interested in this topic, you can -read more about other solutions and try to implement them; with a low-level -language like Rust, all of these options are possible. +server. Other options you might explore are the _fork/join model_, the +_single-threaded async I/O model_, or the _multi-threaded async I/O model_. If +you’re interested in this topic, you can read more about other solutions and +try to implement them; with a low-level language like Rust, all of these +options are possible. Before we begin implementing a thread pool, let’s talk about what using the pool should look like. When you’re trying to design code, writing the client @@ -90,46 +90,60 @@ designing the public API. Similar to how we used test-driven development in the project in Chapter 12, we’ll use compiler-driven development here. We’ll write the code that calls the functions we want, and then we’ll look at errors from the compiler to determine -what we should change next to get the code to work. +what we should change next to get the code to work. Before we do that, however, +we’ll explore the technique we’re not going to use as a starting point. -#### Code Structure If We Could Spawn a Thread for Each Request +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> + +<a id="code-structure-if-we-could-spawn-a-thread-for-each-request"></a> + +#### Spawning a Thread for Each Request First, let’s explore how our code might look if it did create a new thread for every connection. As mentioned earlier, this isn’t our final plan due to the problems with potentially spawning an unlimited number of threads, but it is a -starting point. Listing 20-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a -new thread to handle each stream within the `for` loop. +starting point to get a working multithreaded server first. Then we’ll add the +thread pool as an improvement, and contrasting the two solutions will be +easier. Listing 21-11 shows the changes to make to `main` to spawn a new thread +to handle each stream within the `for` loop. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-11" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Spawning a new thread for each stream"> ```rust,no_run -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-11/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-11/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-11: Spawning a new thread for each -stream</span> +</Listing> As you learned in Chapter 16, `thread::spawn` will create a new thread and then run the code in the closure in the new thread. If you run this code and load -*/sleep* in your browser, then */* in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see -that the requests to */* don’t have to wait for */sleep* to finish. But as we -mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making +_/sleep_ in your browser, then _/_ in two more browser tabs, you’ll indeed see +that the requests to _/_ don’t have to wait for _/sleep_ to finish. However, as +we mentioned, this will eventually overwhelm the system because you’d be making new threads without any limit. -#### Creating a Similar Interface for a Finite Number of Threads +You may also recall from Chapter 17 that this is exactly the kind of situation +where async and await really shine! Keep that in mind as we build the thread +pool and think about how things would look different or the same with async. + +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> + +<a id="creating-a-similar-interface-for-a-finite-number-of-threads"></a> + +#### Creating a Finite Number of Threads We want our thread pool to work in a similar, familiar way so switching from threads to a thread pool doesn’t require large changes to the code that uses -our API. Listing 20-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` +our API. Listing 21-12 shows the hypothetical interface for a `ThreadPool` struct we want to use instead of `thread::spawn`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-12" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/src/main.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-12: Our ideal `ThreadPool` interface</span> +</Listing> We use `ThreadPool::new` to create a new thread pool with a configurable number of threads, in this case four. Then, in the `for` loop, `pool.execute` has a @@ -138,14 +152,18 @@ run for each stream. We need to implement `pool.execute` so it takes the closure and gives it to a thread in the pool to run. This code won’t yet compile, but we’ll try so the compiler can guide us in how to fix it. -#### Building the `ThreadPool` Struct Using Compiler Driven Development +<!-- Old headings. Do not remove or links may break. --> + +<a id="building-the-threadpool-struct-using-compiler-driven-development"></a> -Make the changes in Listing 20-12 to *src/main.rs*, and then let’s use the +#### Building `ThreadPool` Using Compiler Driven Development + +Make the changes in Listing 21-12 to _src/main.rs_, and then let’s use the compiler errors from `cargo check` to drive our development. Here is the first error we get: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-12/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-12/output.txt}} ``` Great! This error tells us we need a `ThreadPool` type or module, so we’ll @@ -156,29 +174,33 @@ we change to a library crate, we could also use the separate thread pool library for any work we want to do using a thread pool, not just for serving web requests. -Create a *src/lib.rs* that contains the following, which is the simplest +Create a _src/lib.rs_ that contains the following, which is the simplest definition of a `ThreadPool` struct that we can have for now: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/lib.rs}} ``` -Then edit *main.rs* file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library -crate by adding the following code to the top of *src/main.rs*: +</Listing> + +Then edit _main.rs_ file to bring `ThreadPool` into scope from the library +crate by adding the following code to the top of _src/main.rs_: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> ```rust,ignore -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/src/main.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + This code still won’t work, but let’s check it again to get the next error that we need to address: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-01-define-threadpool-struct/output.txt}} ``` This error indicates that next we need to create an associated function named @@ -187,12 +209,14 @@ that can accept `4` as an argument and should return a `ThreadPool` instance. Let’s implement the simplest `new` function that will have those characteristics: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/src/lib.rs}} ``` +</Listing> + We chose `usize` as the type of the `size` parameter, because we know that a negative number of threads doesn’t make any sense. We also know we’ll use this 4 as the number of elements in a collection of threads, which is what the @@ -202,16 +226,15 @@ ignore --> section of Chapter 3. Let’s check the code again: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-02-impl-threadpool-new/output.txt}} ``` Now the error occurs because we don’t have an `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. -Recall from the [“Creating a Similar Interface for a Finite Number of -Threads”](#creating-a-similar-interface-for-a-finite-number-of-threads)<!-- -ignore --> section that we decided our thread pool should have an interface -similar to `thread::spawn`. In addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function -so it takes the closure it’s given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool -to run. +Recall from the [“Creating a Finite Number of +Threads”](#creating-a-finite-number-of-threads)<!-- ignore --> section that we +decided our thread pool should have an interface similar to `thread::spawn`. In +addition, we’ll implement the `execute` function so it takes the closure it’s +given and gives it to an idle thread in the pool to run. We’ll define the `execute` method on `ThreadPool` to take a closure as a parameter. Recall from the [“Moving Captured Values Out of the Closure and the @@ -244,12 +267,14 @@ closure from one thread to another and `'static` because we don’t know how lon the thread will take to execute. Let’s create an `execute` method on `ThreadPool` that will take a generic parameter of type `F` with these bounds: -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` +</Listing> + We still use the `()` after `FnOnce` because this `FnOnce` represents a closure that takes no parameters and returns the unit type `()`. Just like function definitions, the return type can be omitted from the signature, but even if we @@ -259,7 +284,7 @@ Again, this is the simplest implementation of the `execute` method: it does nothing, but we’re trying only to make our code compile. Let’s check it again: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-03-define-execute/output.txt}} ``` It compiles! But note that if you try `cargo run` and make a request in the @@ -271,9 +296,12 @@ yet! > Haskell and Rust, is “if the code compiles, it works.” But this saying is not > universally true. Our project compiles, but it does absolutely nothing! If we > were building a real, complete project, this would be a good time to start -> writing unit tests to check that the code compiles *and* has the behavior we +> writing unit tests to check that the code compiles _and_ has the behavior we > want. +Consider: what would be different here if we were going to execute a _future_ +instead of a closure? + #### Validating the Number of Threads in `new` We aren’t doing anything with the parameters to `new` and `execute`. Let’s @@ -283,16 +311,15 @@ parameter, because a pool with a negative number of threads makes no sense. However, a pool with zero threads also makes no sense, yet zero is a perfectly valid `usize`. We’ll add code to check that `size` is greater than zero before we return a `ThreadPool` instance and have the program panic if it receives a -zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 20-13. +zero by using the `assert!` macro, as shown in Listing 21-13. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-13" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if `size` is zero"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-13/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-13/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-13: Implementing `ThreadPool::new` to panic if -`size` is zero</span> +</Listing> We’ve also added some documentation for our `ThreadPool` with doc comments. Note that we followed good documentation practices by adding a section that @@ -300,23 +327,23 @@ calls out the situations in which our function can panic, as discussed in Chapter 14. Try running `cargo doc --open` and clicking the `ThreadPool` struct to see what the generated docs for `new` look like! -Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here, we could make `new` -return a `Result` like we did with `Config::new` in the I/O project in Listing -12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to create a thread pool -without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If you’re feeling -ambitious, try to write a version of `new` with the following signature to -compare both versions: +Instead of adding the `assert!` macro as we’ve done here, we could change `new` +into `build` and return a `Result` like we did with `Config::build` in the I/O +project in Listing 12-9. But we’ve decided in this case that trying to create a +thread pool without any threads should be an unrecoverable error. If you’re +feeling ambitious, try to write a function named `build` with the following +signature to compare with the `new` function: ```rust,ignore -pub fn new(size: usize) -> Result<ThreadPool, PoolCreationError> { +pub fn build(size: usize) -> Result<ThreadPool, PoolCreationError> { ``` #### Creating Space to Store the Threads Now that we have a way to know we have a valid number of threads to store in the pool, we can create those threads and store them in the `ThreadPool` struct -before returning it. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another look at -the `thread::spawn` signature: +before returning the struct. But how do we “store” a thread? Let’s take another +look at the `thread::spawn` signature: ```rust,ignore pub fn spawn<F, T>(f: F) -> JoinHandle<T> @@ -331,52 +358,51 @@ closure returns. Let’s try using `JoinHandle` too and see what happens. In our case, the closures we’re passing to the thread pool will handle the connection and not return anything, so `T` will be the unit type `()`. -The code in Listing 20-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. +The code in Listing 21-14 will compile but doesn’t create any threads yet. We’ve changed the definition of `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `thread::JoinHandle<()>` instances, initialized the vector with a capacity of `size`, set up a `for` loop that will run some code to create the threads, and returned a `ThreadPool` instance containing them. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-14" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold the threads"> ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-14/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-14/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-14: Creating a vector for `ThreadPool` to hold -the threads</span> +</Listing> We’ve brought `std::thread` into scope in the library crate, because we’re using `thread::JoinHandle` as the type of the items in the vector in `ThreadPool`. Once a valid size is received, our `ThreadPool` creates a new vector that can -hold `size` items. We haven’t used the `with_capacity` function in this book -yet, which performs the same task as `Vec::new` but with an important -difference: it preallocates space in the vector. Because we know we need to -store `size` elements in the vector, doing this allocation up front is slightly -more efficient than using `Vec::new`, which resizes itself as elements are -inserted. +hold `size` items. The `with_capacity` function performs the same task as +`Vec::new` but with an important difference: it preallocates space in the +vector. Because we know we need to store `size` elements in the vector, doing +this allocation up front is slightly more efficient than using `Vec::new`, +which resizes itself as elements are inserted. When you run `cargo check` again, it should succeed. #### A `Worker` Struct Responsible for Sending Code from the `ThreadPool` to a Thread -We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 20-14 regarding the creation of +We left a comment in the `for` loop in Listing 21-14 regarding the creation of threads. Here, we’ll look at how we actually create threads. The standard library provides `thread::spawn` as a way to create threads, and `thread::spawn` expects to get some code the thread should run as soon as the thread is created. However, in our case, we want to create the threads and have -them *wait* for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s +them _wait_ for code that we’ll send later. The standard library’s implementation of threads doesn’t include any way to do that; we have to implement it manually. We’ll implement this behavior by introducing a new data structure between the `ThreadPool` and the threads that will manage this new behavior. We’ll call -this data structure `Worker`, which is a common term in pooling -implementations. Think of people working in the kitchen at a restaurant: the -workers wait until orders come in from customers, and then they’re responsible -for taking those orders and filling them. +this data structure _Worker_, which is a common term in pooling +implementations. The Worker picks up code that needs to be run and runs the +code in the Worker’s thread. Think of people working in the kitchen at a +restaurant: the workers wait until orders come in from customers, and then +they’re responsible for taking those orders and fulfilling them. Instead of storing a vector of `JoinHandle<()>` instances in the thread pool, we’ll store instances of the `Worker` struct. Each `Worker` will store a single @@ -385,9 +411,9 @@ take a closure of code to run and send it to the already running thread for execution. We’ll also give each worker an `id` so we can distinguish between the different workers in the pool when logging or debugging. -Let’s make the following changes to what happens when we create a `ThreadPool`. -We’ll implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have -`Worker` set up in this way: +Here is the new process that will happen when we create a `ThreadPool`. We’ll +implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have `Worker` +set up in this way: 1. Define a `Worker` struct that holds an `id` and a `JoinHandle<()>`. 2. Change `ThreadPool` to hold a vector of `Worker` instances. @@ -398,49 +424,55 @@ We’ll implement the code that sends the closure to the thread after we have a new `Worker` with that `id`, and store the worker in the vector. If you’re up for a challenge, try implementing these changes on your own before -looking at the code in Listing 20-15. +looking at the code in Listing 21-15. -Ready? Here is Listing 20-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. +Ready? Here is Listing 21-15 with one way to make the preceding modifications. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-15" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` instances instead of holding threads directly"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-15/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-15/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-15: Modifying `ThreadPool` to hold `Worker` -instances instead of holding threads directly</span> +</Listing> We’ve changed the name of the field on `ThreadPool` from `threads` to `workers` because it’s now holding `Worker` instances instead of `JoinHandle<()>` instances. We use the counter in the `for` loop as an argument to `Worker::new`, and we store each new `Worker` in the vector named `workers`. -External code (like our server in *src/main.rs*) doesn’t need to know the +External code (like our server in _src/main.rs_) doesn’t need to know the implementation details regarding using a `Worker` struct within `ThreadPool`, so we make the `Worker` struct and its `new` function private. The `Worker::new` function uses the `id` we give it and stores a `JoinHandle<()>` instance that is created by spawning a new thread using an empty closure. +> Note: If the operating system can’t create a thread because there aren’t +> enough system resources, `thread::spawn` will panic. That will cause our +> whole server to panic, even though the creation of some threads might +> succeed. For simplicity’s sake, this behavior is fine, but in a production +> thread pool implementation, you’d likely want to use +> [`std::thread::Builder`][builder]<!-- ignore --> and its +> [`spawn`][builder-spawn]<!-- ignore --> method that returns `Result` instead. + This code will compile and will store the number of `Worker` instances we -specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re *still* not processing +specified as an argument to `ThreadPool::new`. But we’re _still_ not processing the closure that we get in `execute`. Let’s look at how to do that next. #### Sending Requests to Threads via Channels -Now we’ll tackle the problem that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do +The next problem we’ll tackle is that the closures given to `thread::spawn` do absolutely nothing. Currently, we get the closure we want to execute in the `execute` method. But we need to give `thread::spawn` a closure to run when we create each `Worker` during the creation of the `ThreadPool`. -We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch code to run from a -queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. +We want the `Worker` structs that we just created to fetch the code to run from +a queue held in the `ThreadPool` and send that code to its thread to run. -In Chapter 16, you learned about *channels*—a simple way to communicate between -two threads—that would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to -function as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the -`ThreadPool` to the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. -Here is the plan: +The channels we learned about in Chapter 16—a simple way to communicate between +two threads—would be perfect for this use case. We’ll use a channel to function +as the queue of jobs, and `execute` will send a job from the `ThreadPool` to +the `Worker` instances, which will send the job to its thread. Here is the plan: 1. The `ThreadPool` will create a channel and hold on to the sender. 2. Each `Worker` will hold on to the receiver. @@ -452,18 +484,17 @@ Here is the plan: closures of any jobs it receives. Let’s start by creating a channel in `ThreadPool::new` and holding the sender -in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 20-16. The `Job` struct +in the `ThreadPool` instance, as shown in Listing 21-16. The `Job` struct doesn’t hold anything for now but will be the type of item we’re sending down the channel. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-16" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the sender of a channel that transmits `Job` instances"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-16/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-16/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-16: Modifying `ThreadPool` to store the -sender of a channel that transmits `Job` instances</span> +</Listing> In `ThreadPool::new`, we create our new channel and have the pool hold the sender. This will successfully compile. @@ -471,15 +502,15 @@ sender. This will successfully compile. Let’s try passing a receiver of the channel into each worker as the thread pool creates the channel. We know we want to use the receiver in the thread that the workers spawn, so we’ll reference the `receiver` parameter in the closure. The -code in Listing 20-17 won’t quite compile yet. +code in Listing 21-17 won’t quite compile yet. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-17" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Passing the receiver to the workers"> ```rust,ignore,does_not_compile -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-17: Passing the receiver to the workers</span> +</Listing> We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into `Worker::new`, and then we use it inside the closure. @@ -487,12 +518,12 @@ We’ve made some small and straightforward changes: we pass the receiver into When we try to check this code, we get this error: ```console -{{#include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-17/output.txt}} +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-17/output.txt}} ``` The code is trying to pass `receiver` to multiple `Worker` instances. This won’t work, as you’ll recall from Chapter 16: the channel implementation that -Rust provides is multiple *producer*, single *consumer*. This means we can’t +Rust provides is multiple _producer_, single _consumer_. This means we can’t just clone the consuming end of the channel to fix this code. We also don’t want to send a message multiple times to multiple consumers; we want one list of messages with multiple workers such that each message gets processed once. @@ -505,16 +536,15 @@ Recall the thread-safe smart pointers discussed in Chapter 16: to share ownership across multiple threads and allow the threads to mutate the value, we need to use `Arc<Mutex<T>>`. The `Arc` type will let multiple workers own the receiver, and `Mutex` will ensure that only one worker gets a job from the -receiver at a time. Listing 20-18 shows the changes we need to make. +receiver at a time. Listing 21-18 shows the changes we need to make. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-18" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Sharing the receiver among the workers using `Arc` and `Mutex`"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-18/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-18/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-18: Sharing the receiver among the workers -using `Arc` and `Mutex`</span> +</Listing> In `ThreadPool::new`, we put the receiver in an `Arc` and a `Mutex`. For each new worker, we clone the `Arc` to bump the reference count so the workers can @@ -528,17 +558,16 @@ Let’s finally implement the `execute` method on `ThreadPool`. We’ll also cha `Job` from a struct to a type alias for a trait object that holds the type of closure that `execute` receives. As discussed in the [“Creating Type Synonyms with Type Aliases”][creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]<!-- ignore --> -section of Chapter 19, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter. Look -at Listing 20-19. +section of Chapter 20, type aliases allow us to make long types shorter for +ease of use. Look at Listing 21-19. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-19" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` that holds each closure and then sending the job down the channel"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-19/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-19/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-19: Creating a `Job` type alias for a `Box` -that holds each closure and then sending the job down the channel</span> +</Listing> After creating a new `Job` instance using the closure we get in `execute`, we send that job down the sending end of the channel. We’re calling `unwrap` on @@ -550,23 +579,22 @@ reason we use `unwrap` is that we know the failure case won’t happen, but the compiler doesn’t know that. But we’re not quite done yet! In the worker, our closure being passed to -`thread::spawn` still only *references* the receiving end of the channel. +`thread::spawn` still only _references_ the receiving end of the channel. Instead, we need the closure to loop forever, asking the receiving end of the channel for a job and running the job when it gets one. Let’s make the change -shown in Listing 20-20 to `Worker::new`. +shown in Listing 21-20 to `Worker::new`. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-20" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Receiving and executing the jobs in the worker’s thread"> ```rust,noplayground -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-20: Receiving and executing the jobs in the -worker’s thread</span> +</Listing> Here, we first call `lock` on the `receiver` to acquire the mutex, and then we call `unwrap` to panic on any errors. Acquiring a lock might fail if the mutex -is in a *poisoned* state, which can happen if some other thread panicked while +is in a _poisoned_ state, which can happen if some other thread panicked while holding the lock rather than releasing the lock. In this situation, calling `unwrap` to have this thread panic is the correct action to take. Feel free to change this `unwrap` to an `expect` with an error message that is meaningful to @@ -585,7 +613,7 @@ Our thread pool is now in a working state! Give it a `cargo run` and make some requests: <!-- manual-regeneration -cd listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-20 +cd listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-20 cargo run make some requests to 127.0.0.1:7878 Can't automate because the output depends on making requests @@ -594,28 +622,28 @@ Can't automate because the output depends on making requests ```console $ cargo run Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) -warning: field is never read: `workers` +warning: field `workers` is never read --> src/lib.rs:7:5 | +6 | pub struct ThreadPool { + | ---------- field in this struct 7 | workers: Vec<Worker>, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^^ | = note: `#[warn(dead_code)]` on by default -warning: field is never read: `id` +warning: fields `id` and `thread` are never read --> src/lib.rs:48:5 | +47 | struct Worker { + | ------ fields in this struct 48 | id: usize, - | ^^^^^^^^^ - -warning: field is never read: `thread` - --> src/lib.rs:49:5 - | + | ^^ 49 | thread: thread::JoinHandle<()>, - | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + | ^^^^^^ -warning: `hello` (lib) generated 3 warnings - Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.40s +warning: `hello` (lib) generated 2 warnings + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 4.91s Running `target/debug/hello` Worker 0 got a job; executing. Worker 2 got a job; executing. @@ -632,25 +660,29 @@ Worker 2 got a job; executing. Success! We now have a thread pool that executes connections asynchronously. There are never more than four threads created, so our system won’t get overloaded if the server receives a lot of requests. If we make a request to -*/sleep*, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another +_/sleep_, the server will be able to serve other requests by having another thread run them. -> Note: if you open */sleep* in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they +> Note: If you open _/sleep_ in multiple browser windows simultaneously, they > might load one at a time in 5 second intervals. Some web browsers execute > multiple instances of the same request sequentially for caching reasons. This > limitation is not caused by our web server. -After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapter 18, you might be wondering -why we didn’t write the worker thread code as shown in Listing 20-21. +This is a good time to pause and consider how the code in Listings 21-18, 21-19, +and 21-20 would be different if we were using futures instead of a closure for +the work to be done. What types would change? How would the method signatures be +different, if at all? What parts of the code would stay the same? + +After learning about the `while let` loop in Chapters 17 and 18, you might be +wondering why we didn’t write the worker thread code as shown in Listing 21-21. -<span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span> +<Listing number="21-21" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="An alternative implementation of `Worker::new` using `while let`"> ```rust,ignore,not_desired_behavior -{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch20-web-server/listing-20-21/src/lib.rs:here}} +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-21/src/lib.rs:here}} ``` -<span class="caption">Listing 20-21: An alternative implementation of -`Worker::new` using `while let`</span> +</Listing> This code compiles and runs but doesn’t result in the desired threading behavior: a slow request will still cause other requests to wait to be @@ -659,20 +691,20 @@ processed. The reason is somewhat subtle: the `Mutex` struct has no public the `MutexGuard<T>` within the `LockResult<MutexGuard<T>>` that the `lock` method returns. At compile time, the borrow checker can then enforce the rule that a resource guarded by a `Mutex` cannot be accessed unless we hold the -lock. But this implementation can also result in the lock being held longer -than intended if we don’t think carefully about the lifetime of the +lock. However, this implementation can also result in the lock being held +longer than intended if we aren’t mindful of the lifetime of the `MutexGuard<T>`. -The code in Listing 20-20 that uses `let job = +The code in Listing 21-20 that uses `let job = receiver.lock().unwrap().recv().unwrap();` works because with `let`, any temporary values used in the expression on the right hand side of the equals sign are immediately dropped when the `let` statement ends. However, `while let` (and `if let` and `match`) does not drop temporary values until the end of -the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration +the associated block. In Listing 21-21, the lock remains held for the duration of the call to `job()`, meaning other workers cannot receive jobs. -[creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]: -ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases +[creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]: ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases [integer-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#integer-types -[fn-traits]: -ch13-01-closures.html#moving-captured-values-out-of-the-closure-and-the-fn-traits +[fn-traits]: ch13-01-closures.html#moving-captured-values-out-of-the-closure-and-the-fn-traits +[builder]: ../std/thread/struct.Builder.html +[builder-spawn]: ../std/thread/struct.Builder.html#method.spawn diff --git a/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..fc4fbada88 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md @@ -0,0 +1,233 @@ +## Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup + +The code in Listing 21-20 is responding to requests asynchronously through the +use of a thread pool, as we intended. We get some warnings about the `workers`, +`id`, and `thread` fields that we’re not using in a direct way that reminds us +we’re not cleaning up anything. When we use the less elegant +<kbd>ctrl</kbd>-<kbd>c</kbd> method to halt the main thread, all other threads +are stopped immediately as well, even if they’re in the middle of serving a +request. + +Next, then, we’ll implement the `Drop` trait to call `join` on each of the +threads in the pool so they can finish the requests they’re working on before +closing. Then we’ll implement a way to tell the threads they should stop +accepting new requests and shut down. To see this code in action, we’ll modify +our server to accept only two requests before gracefully shutting down its +thread pool. + +One thing to notice as we go: none of this affects the parts of the code that +handle executing the closures, so everything here would be just the same if we +were using a thread pool for an async runtime. + +### Implementing the `Drop` Trait on `ThreadPool` + +Let’s start with implementing `Drop` on our thread pool. When the pool is +dropped, our threads should all join to make sure they finish their work. +Listing 21-22 shows a first attempt at a `Drop` implementation; this code won’t +quite work yet. + +<Listing number="21-22" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Joining each thread when the thread pool goes out of scope"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +First, we loop through each of the thread pool `workers`. We use `&mut` for +this because `self` is a mutable reference, and we also need to be able to +mutate `worker`. For each worker, we print a message saying that this +particular worker is shutting down, and then we call `join` on that worker’s +thread. If the call to `join` fails, we use `unwrap` to make Rust panic and go +into an ungraceful shutdown. + +Here is the error we get when we compile this code: + +```console +{{#include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-22/output.txt}} +``` + +The error tells us we can’t call `join` because we only have a mutable borrow of +each `worker` and `join` takes ownership of its argument. To solve this issue, +we need to move the thread out of the `Worker` instance that owns `thread` so +`join` can consume the thread. One way to do this is by taking the same approach +we did in Listing 18-15. If `Worker` held an `Option<thread::JoinHandle<()>>`, +we could call the `take` method on the `Option` to move the value out of the +`Some` variant and leave a `None` variant in its place. In other words, a +`Worker` that is running would have a `Some` variant in `thread`, and when we +wanted to clean up a `Worker`, we would replace `Some` with `None` so the +`Worker` doesn’t have a thread to run. + +However, the _only_ time this would come up would be when dropping the `Worker`. +In exchange, we would have to deal with an `Option<thread::JoinHandle<()>>` +everywhere we access `worker.thread`. Idiomatic Rust uses `Option` quite a bit, +but when you find yourself wrapping something in `Option` as a workaround even +though you know the item will always be present, it is a good idea to look for +alternative approaches. They can make your code cleaner and less error-prone. + +In this case, there is a better alternative: the `Vec::drain` method. It accepts +a range parameter to specify which items to remove from the `Vec`, and returns +an iterator of those items. Passing the `..` range syntax will remove *every* +value from the `Vec`. + +So we need to update the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation like this: + +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-04-update-drop-definition/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This resolves the compiler error and does not require any other changes to our +code. + +### Signaling to the Threads to Stop Listening for Jobs + +With all the changes we’ve made, our code compiles without any warnings. +However, the bad news is this code doesn’t function the way we want it to yet. +The key is the logic in the closures run by the threads of the `Worker` +instances: at the moment, we call `join`, but that won’t shut down the threads +because they `loop` forever looking for jobs. If we try to drop our +`ThreadPool` with our current implementation of `drop`, the main thread will +block forever waiting for the first thread to finish. + +To fix this problem, we’ll need a change in the `ThreadPool` `drop` +implementation and then a change in the `Worker` loop. + +First, we’ll change the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation to explicitly drop +the `sender` before waiting for the threads to finish. Listing 21-23 shows the +changes to `ThreadPool` to explicitly drop `sender`. Unlike with the `workers`, +here we *do* need to use an `Option` to be able to move `sender` out of +`ThreadPool` with `Option::take`. + +<Listing number="21-23" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Explicitly drop `sender` before joining the worker threads"> + +```rust,noplayground,not_desired_behavior +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-23/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Dropping `sender` closes the channel, which indicates no more messages will be +sent. When that happens, all the calls to `recv` that the workers do in the +infinite loop will return an error. In Listing 21-24, we change the `Worker` +loop to gracefully exit the loop in that case, which means the threads will +finish when the `ThreadPool` `drop` implementation calls `join` on them. + +<Listing number="21-24" file-name="src/lib.rs" caption="Explicitly break out of the loop when `recv` returns an error"> + +```rust,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-24/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +To see this code in action, let’s modify `main` to accept only two requests +before gracefully shutting down the server, as shown in Listing 21-25. + +<Listing number="21-25" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Shut down the server after serving two requests by exiting the loop"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +You wouldn’t want a real-world web server to shut down after serving only two +requests. This code just demonstrates that the graceful shutdown and cleanup is +in working order. + +The `take` method is defined in the `Iterator` trait and limits the iteration +to the first two items at most. The `ThreadPool` will go out of scope at the +end of `main`, and the `drop` implementation will run. + +Start the server with `cargo run`, and make three requests. The third request +should error, and in your terminal you should see output similar to this: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch21-web-server/listing-21-25 +cargo run +curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 +curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 +curl http://127.0.0.1:7878 +third request will error because server will have shut down +copy output below +Can't automate because the output depends on making requests +--> + +```console +$ cargo run + Compiling hello v0.1.0 (file:///projects/hello) + Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.41s + Running `target/debug/hello` +Worker 0 got a job; executing. +Shutting down. +Shutting down worker 0 +Worker 3 got a job; executing. +Worker 1 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 2 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 3 disconnected; shutting down. +Worker 0 disconnected; shutting down. +Shutting down worker 1 +Shutting down worker 2 +Shutting down worker 3 +``` + +You might see a different ordering of workers and messages printed. We can see +how this code works from the messages: workers 0 and 3 got the first two +requests. The server stopped accepting connections after the second connection, +and the `Drop` implementation on `ThreadPool` starts executing before worker 3 +even starts its job. Dropping the `sender` disconnects all the workers and +tells them to shut down. The workers each print a message when they disconnect, +and then the thread pool calls `join` to wait for each worker thread to finish. + +Notice one interesting aspect of this particular execution: the `ThreadPool` +dropped the `sender`, and before any worker received an error, we tried to join +worker 0. Worker 0 had not yet gotten an error from `recv`, so the main thread +blocked waiting for worker 0 to finish. In the meantime, worker 3 received a +job and then all threads received an error. When worker 0 finished, the main +thread waited for the rest of the workers to finish. At that point, they had +all exited their loops and stopped. + +Congrats! We’ve now completed our project; we have a basic web server that uses +a thread pool to respond asynchronously. We’re able to perform a graceful +shutdown of the server, which cleans up all the threads in the pool. + +Here’s the full code for reference: + +<Listing file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +<Listing file-name="src/lib.rs"> + +```rust,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch21-web-server/no-listing-07-final-code/src/lib.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We could do more here! If you want to continue enhancing this project, here are +some ideas: + +- Add more documentation to `ThreadPool` and its public methods. +- Add tests of the library’s functionality. +- Change calls to `unwrap` to more robust error handling. +- Use `ThreadPool` to perform some task other than serving web requests. +- Find a thread pool crate on [crates.io](https://crates.io/) and implement a + similar web server using the crate instead. Then compare its API and + robustness to the thread pool we implemented. + +## Summary + +Well done! You’ve made it to the end of the book! We want to thank you for +joining us on this tour of Rust. You’re now ready to implement your own Rust +projects and help with other peoples’ projects. Keep in mind that there is a +welcoming community of other Rustaceans who would love to help you with any +challenges you encounter on your Rust journey. diff --git a/src/foreword.md b/src/foreword.md index 2265e27142..f108b65a67 100644 --- a/src/foreword.md +++ b/src/foreword.md @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ # Foreword It wasn’t always so clear, but the Rust programming language is fundamentally -about *empowerment*: no matter what kind of code you are writing now, Rust +about _empowerment_: no matter what kind of code you are writing now, Rust empowers you to reach farther, to program with confidence in a wider variety of domains than you did before. diff --git a/src/img/trpl04-05.svg b/src/img/trpl04-05.svg index b4bf2ebee8..f3c6e8a82b 100644 --- a/src/img/trpl04-05.svg +++ b/src/img/trpl04-05.svg @@ -1,87 +1,95 @@ <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> <!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> -<!-- Generated by graphviz version 2.40.1 (20161225.0304) +<!-- Generated by graphviz version 12.1.2 (20240928.0832) --> -<!-- Title: %3 Pages: 1 --> +<!-- Pages: 1 --> <svg - viewBox="0.00 0.00 1500.00 650.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> -<g id="graph0" class="graph" transform="scale(4.1667 4.1667) rotate(0) translate(4 152)"> -<title>%3 - - - -table0 - -s - -name - -value - -ptr - - - - -table1 - -s1 - -name - -value - -ptr - - -len - -5 - -capacity - -5 + viewBox="0.00 0.00 1038.00 1342.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> + + + +cluster_heap - - -table0:c->table1:borrowee - - + + +s + +s + +name + +value + +ptr + + +len + +4 + +capacity + +4 - + -table2 - -index - -value - -0 - -h - -1 - -e - -2 - -l - -3 - -l - -4 - -o +ahoy + +index + +value + +0 + +a + +1 + +h + +2 + +o + +3 + +y - + -table1:c->table2:pointee - - +s:c->ahoy:pointee + + + + + +hello + + +index + +value + +0 + +h + +1 + +e + +2 + +l + +3 + +l + +4 + +o diff --git a/src/img/trpl04-06.svg b/src/img/trpl04-06.svg index e64415fe43..b4bf2ebee8 100644 --- a/src/img/trpl04-06.svg +++ b/src/img/trpl04-06.svg @@ -5,111 +5,83 @@ --> - + viewBox="0.00 0.00 1500.00 650.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> + %3 - + table0 - -world - -name - -value - -ptr - - -len - -5 + +s + +name + +value + +ptr + - - -table4 - -index - -value - -0 - -h - -1 - -e - -2 - -l - -3 - -l - -4 - -o - -5 - - - -6 - -w - -7 - -o - -8 - -r - -9 - -l - -10 - -d - - - -table0:c->table4:pointee2 - - - - + -table3 - -s - -name - -value - -ptr - - -len - -11 - -capacity - -11 +table1 + +s1 + +name + +value + +ptr + + +len + +5 + +capacity + +5 - + -table3:c->table4:pointee - - +table0:c->table1:borrowee + + + + + +table2 + +index + +value + +0 + +h + +1 + +e + +2 + +l + +3 + +l + +4 + +o + + + +table1:c->table2:pointee + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl04-07.svg b/src/img/trpl04-07.svg new file mode 100644 index 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b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5c32a1a262 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_ColleagueB + +Task B + + +cluster_ColleagueA + +Task A + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +B1->B2 + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +B2->B3 + + + + + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + +A1->A2 + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + +A2->A3 + + + + + +A4 + +A4 + + + +A3->A4 + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-03.svg b/src/img/trpl17-03.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..ad105a5830 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-03.svg @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_ColleagueB + +Task A + + +cluster_ColleagueA + +Task B + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + +A1->A2 + + + + + + +A2->A0_1:c + + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + +A0_1->A3 + + + + + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +B1->B2 + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +B2->B3 + + + + + +B3->A3 + + + + + +B4 + +B4 + + + +B3->B4 + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-04.svg b/src/img/trpl17-04.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..fed6c36040 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-04.svg @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ + + + + + + + + + +fut1 + +fut1 + +0 + +1 + +   + + + +fut1:c->fut1:target + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-05.svg b/src/img/trpl17-05.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e3472baa7c --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-05.svg @@ -0,0 +1,46 @@ + + + + + + + + +%3 + + + +fut1 + + +fut1 + +? + +? + +? + + + +fut2 + +fut2 + +0 + +1 + + + + + +fut2:c->fut1:c + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-06.svg b/src/img/trpl17-06.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..443bb568dc --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-06.svg @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_box + + +cluster_box_internal + +b1 + + +cluster_deref + +pinned + + + +pinned_box + +Pin + + + + + +pin + + + + +pinned_box:c->pin + + + + +box + +fut + +0 + + + +... + +1 + + + +pin->box:target + + + + + +box:c->box:internal + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-07.svg b/src/img/trpl17-07.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..712e3006f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-07.svg @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_not_fut + + +cluster_boxes + + +cluster_box_1 + + +cluster_box_2_internal + +b1 + + +cluster_box_2 + + +cluster_box_2_internal + +b2 + + +cluster_target + +pinned + + + +pin + +Pin + + + + + + + +box2 + + + + +pin:c->box2 + + + + + +fut + +fut + +0 + + + +... + +1 + + + +box2->fut:target + + + + + +fut:c->fut:internal + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-08.svg b/src/img/trpl17-08.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b2275ac19f --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-08.svg @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_deref + +String + + + +pinned_box + +Pin + + + + + +pin + + + + +pinned_box:c->pin + + + + +fut + +5usize + +h + +e + +l + +l + +o + + + +pin->fut:target + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-09.svg b/src/img/trpl17-09.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..997d9b82e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-09.svg @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_both + + +cluster_deref + +String + + + +pinned_box + +Pin + + + + + +pin + + + + +pinned_box:c->pin + + + + +string1 + + +s1 + +5usize + +h + +e + +l + +l + +o + + + +string2 + +s2 + +7usize + +g + +o + +o + +d + +b + +y + +e + + + +pin->string2:target + + + + + diff --git a/src/title-page.md b/src/title-page.md index fdbb52711b..7301493201 100644 --- a/src/title-page.md +++ b/src/title-page.md @@ -1,14 +1,15 @@ # The Rust Programming Language -*by Steve Klabnik and Carol Nichols, with contributions from the Rust Community* +_by Steve Klabnik, Carol Nichols, and Chris Krycho, with contributions from the +Rust Community_ -This version of the text assumes you’re using Rust 1.59 (released 2022-02-24) +This version of the text assumes you’re using Rust 1.82.0 (released 2024-10-17) or later. See the [“Installation” section of Chapter 1][install] to install or update Rust. The HTML format is available online at [https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/) -and offline with installations of Rust made with `rustup`; run `rustup docs +and offline with installations of Rust made with `rustup`; run `rustup doc --book` to open. Several community [translations] are also available. @@ -18,5 +19,9 @@ Press][nsprust]. [install]: ch01-01-installation.html [editions]: appendix-05-editions.html -[nsprust]: https://nostarch.com/rust +[nsprust]: https://nostarch.com/rust-programming-language-2nd-edition [translations]: appendix-06-translation.html + +> **🚨 Want a more interactive learning experience? Try out a different version +> of the Rust Book, featuring: quizzes, highlighting, visualizations, and +> more**: diff --git a/style-guide.md b/style-guide.md index 56677811f4..04dc805ca5 100644 --- a/style-guide.md +++ b/style-guide.md @@ -2,33 +2,33 @@ ## Prose -* Prefer title case for chapter/section headings, ex: `## Generating a Secret +- Prefer title case for chapter/section headings, ex: `## Generating a Secret Number` rather than `## Generating a secret number`. -* Prefer italics over single quotes when calling out a term, ex: `is an +- Prefer italics over single quotes when calling out a term, ex: `is an *associated function* of` rather than `is an ‘associated function’ of`. -* When talking about a method in prose, DO NOT include the parentheses, ex: +- When talking about a method in prose, DO NOT include the parentheses, ex: `read_line` rather than `read_line()`. -* Hard wrap at 80 chars -* Prefer not mixing code and not-code in one word, ex: ``Remember when we wrote +- Hard wrap at 80 chars +- Prefer not mixing code and not-code in one word, ex: ``Remember when we wrote `use std::io`?`` rather than ``Remember when we `use`d `std::io`?`` ## Code -* Add the file name before markdown blocks to make it clear which file we're +- Add the file name before markdown blocks to make it clear which file we're talking about, when applicable. -* When making changes to code, make it clear which parts of the code changed +- When making changes to code, make it clear which parts of the code changed and which stayed the same... not sure how to do this yet -* Split up long lines as appropriate to keep them under 80 chars if possible -* Use `bash` syntax highlighting for command line output code blocks +- Split up long lines as appropriate to keep them under 80 chars if possible +- Use `bash` syntax highlighting for command line output code blocks ## Links Once all the scripts are done: -* If a link shouldn't be printed, mark it to be ignored - * This includes all "Chapter XX" intra-book links, which *should* be links +- If a link shouldn't be printed, mark it to be ignored + - This includes all "Chapter XX" intra-book links, which _should_ be links for the HTML version -* Make intra-book links and stdlib API doc links relative so they work whether +- Make intra-book links and stdlib API doc links relative so they work whether the book is read offline or on docs.rust-lang.org -* Use markdown links and keep in mind that they will be changed into `text at +- Use markdown links and keep in mind that they will be changed into `text at *url*` in print, so word them in a way that it reads well in that format diff --git a/theme/2018-edition.css b/theme/2018-edition.css index b1dcf93641..2276ccbe3e 100644 --- a/theme/2018-edition.css +++ b/theme/2018-edition.css @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ span.caption { - font-size: .8em; - font-weight: 600; + font-size: 0.8em; + font-weight: 600; } span.caption code { - font-size: 0.875em; - font-weight: 400; + font-size: 0.875em; + font-weight: 400; } diff --git a/theme/listing.css b/theme/listing.css new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..40ae35a5fb --- /dev/null +++ b/theme/listing.css @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +figure.listing { + margin: 0; +} + +.listing figcaption { + font-size: 0.8em; + font-weight: 600; +} diff --git a/theme/semantic-notes.css b/theme/semantic-notes.css new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b6852a0994 --- /dev/null +++ b/theme/semantic-notes.css @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +/* + This is copied directly from the styles for blockquotes, because notes were + historically rendered *as* blockquotes. This keeps the presentation of them + identical while updating the presentation. +*/ +.note { + margin: 20px 0; + padding: 0 20px; + color: var(--fg); + background-color: var(--quote-bg); + border-block-start: 0.1em solid var(--quote-border); + border-block-end: 0.1em solid var(--quote-border); +} diff --git a/tools/doc-to-md.sh b/tools/doc-to-md.sh index cffe4c04b4..2649460065 100755 --- a/tools/doc-to-md.sh +++ b/tools/doc-to-md.sh @@ -7,14 +7,23 @@ find tmp -name '*.docx' -print0 | \ # Extract just the filename so we can reuse it easily. xargs -0 basename -s .docx | \ while IFS= read -r filename; do + # Truncate the `nostarch` dir file and put the "no editing" warning back. + # Tell shellcheck to ignore this because I want the `/src/` printed + # literally, not expanded. + # shellcheck disable=SC2016 + echo '' > "nostarch/$filename.md" # Make a directory to put the XML in. mkdir -p "tmp/$filename" # Unzip the docx to get at the XML. unzip -o "tmp/$filename.docx" -d "tmp/$filename" # Convert to markdown with XSL. xsltproc tools/docx-to-md.xsl "tmp/$filename/word/document.xml" | \ - # Hard wrap at 80 chars at word bourdaries. + # Hard wrap at 80 chars at word boundaries. fold -w 80 -s | \ - # Remove trailing whitespace and save in the `nostarch` dir for comparison. - sed -e "s/ *$//" > "nostarch/$filename.md" + # Remove trailing whitespace and append to the file in the `nostarch` dir for comparison. + sed -e "s/ *$//" >> "nostarch/$filename.md" done diff --git a/tools/docx-to-md.xsl b/tools/docx-to-md.xsl index 637c7a59c8..8deec85c92 100644 --- a/tools/docx-to-md.xsl +++ b/tools/docx-to-md.xsl @@ -12,14 +12,41 @@ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + [TOC] + ## Appendix + + : + + + + + + + [TOC] # @@ -27,11 +54,13 @@ - + + ## + ### @@ -51,10 +80,13 @@ - + 1. + + + @@ -63,10 +95,27 @@ - + * + + + + + + + > * + + + + + > + + + + + @@ -81,7 +130,13 @@ - + + Filename: + + + + + @@ -113,39 +168,172 @@ ``` + + + ``` + + + + + + + + + + + ``` + + + + + + + > ``` > + + + > + + + + + + + + + + + > ``` > + + + > ``` + + + + ``` ``` - + + Table + + + - + + : - + + Listing + + + - + + : - + > - - + + > ### + + > + + + > - + + + > + + + + + - > + > Note: + + + + * ** + + **: + + + + + + + + + + + + > * ** + + **: + + + + + + + > + + + + + Figure + + + - + + : + + + + + + + + + + + + | + + |--- + + | + + + + + | + + + + | + + + + + Unmatched: @@ -163,9 +351,13 @@ Unmatched: - ` + + ` + - ` + + ` + @@ -176,7 +368,7 @@ Unmatched: - + @@ -195,15 +387,41 @@ Unmatched: - + + + + + + + + * + + + + + + * + + + + + + + + + + + + + - * + [ - * + ] @@ -214,6 +432,16 @@ Unmatched: + + + <sup> + + + + </sup> + + + diff --git a/tools/generate-preview.sh b/tools/generate-preview.sh new file mode 100755 index 0000000000..a5d9022b9e --- /dev/null +++ b/tools/generate-preview.sh @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +#!/usr/bin/env bash + +mdbook build +cp ./tools/preview-robots.txt ./book/robots.txt +ghp-import -m "rebuild GitHub Pages from generated-book" book +git push origin gh-pages diff --git a/tools/nostarch.sh b/tools/nostarch.sh index eec0ac5ea1..f209b306dd 100755 --- a/tools/nostarch.sh +++ b/tools/nostarch.sh @@ -4,15 +4,19 @@ set -eu cargo build --release +cargo install --locked --path ./packages/mdbook-trpl --offline + mkdir -p tmp rm -rf tmp/*.md rm -rf tmp/markdown # Render the book as Markdown to include all the code listings -MDBOOK_OUTPUT__MARKDOWN=1 mdbook build -d tmp +MDBOOK_OUTPUT__MARKDOWN=1 mdbook build nostarch # Get all the Markdown files -find tmp/markdown -name "${1:-\"\"}*.md" -print0 | \ +# TODO: what was this doing and why?!? +# find tmp/markdown -name "${1:-\"\"}*.md" -print0 | \ +find tmp/markdown -name "*.md" -print0 | \ # Extract just the filename so we can reuse it easily. xargs -0 basename | \ # Remove all links followed by ```, then @@ -21,7 +25,8 @@ while IFS= read -r filename; do < "tmp/markdown/$filename" ./target/release/remove_links \ | ./target/release/link2print \ | ./target/release/remove_markup \ - | ./target/release/remove_hidden_lines > "tmp/$filename" + | ./target/release/remove_hidden_lines \ + | ./target/release/cleanup_blockquotes > "tmp/$filename" done # Concatenate the files into the `nostarch` dir. ./target/release/concat_chapters tmp nostarch diff --git a/tools/preview-robots.txt b/tools/preview-robots.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1f53798bb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/tools/preview-robots.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +User-agent: * +Disallow: / diff --git a/tools/update-rustc.sh b/tools/update-rustc.sh index 5c9f178b1c..8e674e0569 100755 --- a/tools/update-rustc.sh +++ b/tools/update-rustc.sh @@ -2,6 +2,17 @@ set -eu +# Build book `trpl` crate dependency in the location where the listings will go +# looking for it so they can compile correctly. +echo 'Building book dependencies in tmp/packages...' +mkdir -p tmp/packages +cp -r packages/trpl tmp/packages/trpl +cd tmp/packages/trpl + # hide the output; if it fails, debug then. +cargo clean > /dev/null 2>&1 +cargo build > /dev/null 2>&1 +cd - > /dev/null + # Build the book before making any changes for comparison of the output. echo 'Building book into tmp/book-before before updating...' mdbook build -d tmp/book-before @@ -39,14 +50,14 @@ find -s listings -name output.txt -print0 | while IFS= read -r -d '' f; do # Save the previous compile time; we're going to keep it to minimize diff # churn - compile_time=$(sed -E -ne 's/.*Finished (dev|test) \[unoptimized \+ debuginfo] target\(s\) in ([0-9.]*).*/\2/p' "${full_output_path}") + compile_time=$(sed -E -ne "s/.*Finished \`(dev|test)\` profile \[unoptimized \+ debuginfo] target\(s\) in ([0-9.]*).*/\2/p" "${full_output_path}") # Save the hash from the first test binary; we're going to keep it to # minimize diff churn - test_binary_hash=$(sed -E -ne 's@.*Running [^[:space:]]+ \(target/debug/deps/[^-]*-([^\s]*)\)@\1@p' "${full_output_path}" | head -n 1) + test_binary_hash=$(sed -E -ne 's@.*Running [^[:space:]]+( [^[:space:]\(\)]+)? \(target/debug/deps/[^-]*-([^\s]*)\)@\2@p' "${full_output_path}" | head -n 1) # Act like this is the first time this listing has been built - cargo clean + cargo clean > /dev/null 2>&1 # Run the command in the existing output file cargo_command=$(sed -ne 's/$ \(.*\)/\1/p' "${full_output_path}") @@ -63,21 +74,31 @@ find -s listings -name output.txt -print0 | while IFS= read -r -d '' f; do # instead of a path to the computer of whoever is running this sed -i '' -E -e 's@(Compiling|Checking) ([^\)]*) v0.1.0 (.*)@\1 \2 v0.1.0 (file:///projects/\2)@' "${full_output_path}" + # Likewise, use a "default" installation directory for rustup's install + # location so the version of the source is not a path on the computer of + # whoever is doing the update. This does two substitutions: + # + # - Replaces the path up to `.rustup/toolchains` with `file:///home`, while + # preserving leading spaces and the `-->`. + # - Replaces the version-and-architecture-tripl with just the version, so + # e.g. `1.82-aarch64-apple-darwin` becomes `1.82`. + sed -i '' -E -e 's@^([[:space:]]*-->[[:space:]]+).*(\.rustup/toolchains/[[:digit:]]+\.[[:digit:]]+)([^/]*)@\1file:///home/\2@' "${full_output_path}" + # Restore the previous compile time, if there is one if [ -n "${compile_time}" ]; then - sed -i '' -E -e "s/Finished (dev|test) \[unoptimized \+ debuginfo] target\(s\) in [0-9.]*/Finished \1 [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in ${compile_time}/" "${full_output_path}" + sed -i '' -E -e "s/Finished \`(dev|test)\` profile \[unoptimized \+ debuginfo] target\(s\) in [0-9.]*/Finished \`\1\` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in ${compile_time}/" "${full_output_path}" fi # Restore the previous test binary hash, if there is one if [ -n "${test_binary_hash}" ]; then - replacement='s@Running ([^[:space:]]+) \(target/debug/deps/([^-]*)-([^\s]*)\)@Running \1 (target/debug/deps/\2-' + replacement='s@Running ([^[:space:]]+)( [^[:space:]\(\)]+)? \(target/debug/deps/([^-]*)-([^\s]*)\)@Running \1\2 (target/debug/deps/\3-' replacement+="${test_binary_hash}" replacement+=')@g' sed -i '' -E -e "${replacement}" "${full_output_path}" fi # Clean again - cargo clean + cargo clean > /dev/null 2>&1 cd - > /dev/null done