Lecture11.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "In this notebook, we will learn about:\n",
    "\n",
    "* [Tibbles](#Tibbles), a modern take on R data frames\n",
    "* [Data import](#data-import)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 1,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Loading tidyverse: ggplot2\n",
      "Loading tidyverse: tibble\n",
      "Loading tidyverse: tidyr\n",
      "Loading tidyverse: readr\n",
      "Loading tidyverse: purrr\n",
      "Loading tidyverse: dplyr\n",
      "Conflicts with tidy packages ---------------------------------------------------\n",
      "filter(): dplyr, stats\n",
      "lag():    dplyr, stats\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "library(tidyverse)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Tibbles"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 2,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>Sepal.Length</th><th scope=col>Sepal.Width</th><th scope=col>Petal.Length</th><th scope=col>Petal.Width</th><th scope=col>Species</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.5   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.9   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.7   </td><td>3.2   </td><td>1.3   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.6   </td><td>3.1   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.6   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.9   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.6   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.4   </td><td>2.9   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.9   </td><td>3.1   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.1   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.7   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.8   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.8   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.1   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.3   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.1   </td><td>0.1   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.8   </td><td>4.0   </td><td>1.2   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.7   </td><td>4.4   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.9   </td><td>1.3   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.5   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.7   </td><td>3.8   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.8   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.7   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.6   </td><td>3.6   </td><td>1.0   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.3   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.5   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.8   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.9   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.2   </td><td>3.5   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.2   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.7   </td><td>3.2   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.9      </td><td>3.2      </td><td>5.7      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.6      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>4.9      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.7      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>6.7      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>2.7      </td><td>4.9      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.3      </td><td>5.7      </td><td>2.1      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.2      </td><td>3.2      </td><td>6.0      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.2      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>4.8      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.1      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>4.9      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.4      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.1      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.2      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.8      </td><td>1.6      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.4      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>6.1      </td><td>1.9      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.9      </td><td>3.8      </td><td>6.4      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.4      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.2      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>1.5      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.1      </td><td>2.6      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>1.4      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.7      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>6.1      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>3.4      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.4      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.4      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.5      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.0      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>4.8      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.9      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.4      </td><td>2.1      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.4      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.9      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.8      </td><td>2.7      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>1.9      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.8      </td><td>3.2      </td><td>5.9      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.3      </td><td>5.7      </td><td>2.5      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.2      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>2.5      </td><td>5.0      </td><td>1.9      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.5      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.2      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.2      </td><td>3.4      </td><td>5.4      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.9      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lllll}\n",
       " Sepal.Length & Sepal.Width & Petal.Length & Petal.Width & Species\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.5    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.9    & 3.0    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.7    & 3.2    & 1.3    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.6    & 3.1    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.6    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.9    & 1.7    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.6    & 3.4    & 1.4    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.4    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.4    & 2.9    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.9    & 3.1    & 1.5    & 0.1    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.7    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.8    & 3.4    & 1.6    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.8    & 3.0    & 1.4    & 0.1    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.3    & 3.0    & 1.1    & 0.1    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.8    & 4.0    & 1.2    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.7    & 4.4    & 1.5    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.9    & 1.3    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.5    & 1.4    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.7    & 3.8    & 1.7    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.8    & 1.5    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.4    & 1.7    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.7    & 1.5    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.6    & 3.6    & 1.0    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.3    & 1.7    & 0.5    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.8    & 3.4    & 1.9    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.0    & 1.6    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.4    & 1.6    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.2    & 3.5    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.2    & 3.4    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.7    & 3.2    & 1.6    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t ⋮ & ⋮ & ⋮ & ⋮ & ⋮\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.9       & 3.2       & 5.7       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.6       & 2.8       & 4.9       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.7       & 2.8       & 6.7       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 2.7       & 4.9       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.3       & 5.7       & 2.1       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.2       & 3.2       & 6.0       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.2       & 2.8       & 4.8       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.1       & 3.0       & 4.9       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.4       & 2.8       & 5.6       & 2.1       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.2       & 3.0       & 5.8       & 1.6       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.4       & 2.8       & 6.1       & 1.9       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.9       & 3.8       & 6.4       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.4       & 2.8       & 5.6       & 2.2       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 2.8       & 5.1       & 1.5       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.1       & 2.6       & 5.6       & 1.4       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.7       & 3.0       & 6.1       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 3.4       & 5.6       & 2.4       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.4       & 3.1       & 5.5       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.0       & 3.0       & 4.8       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.9       & 3.1       & 5.4       & 2.1       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.1       & 5.6       & 2.4       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.9       & 3.1       & 5.1       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.8       & 2.7       & 5.1       & 1.9       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.8       & 3.2       & 5.9       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.3       & 5.7       & 2.5       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.0       & 5.2       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 2.5       & 5.0       & 1.9       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.5       & 3.0       & 5.2       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.2       & 3.4       & 5.4       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.9       & 3.0       & 5.1       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "Sepal.Length | Sepal.Width | Petal.Length | Petal.Width | Species | \n",
       "|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.5    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.9    | 3.0    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.7    | 3.2    | 1.3    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.6    | 3.1    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.6    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.9    | 1.7    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.6    | 3.4    | 1.4    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.4    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.4    | 2.9    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.9    | 3.1    | 1.5    | 0.1    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.7    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.8    | 3.4    | 1.6    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.8    | 3.0    | 1.4    | 0.1    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.3    | 3.0    | 1.1    | 0.1    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.8    | 4.0    | 1.2    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.7    | 4.4    | 1.5    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.9    | 1.3    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.5    | 1.4    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.7    | 3.8    | 1.7    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.8    | 1.5    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.4    | 1.7    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.7    | 1.5    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.6    | 3.6    | 1.0    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.3    | 1.7    | 0.5    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.8    | 3.4    | 1.9    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.0    | 1.6    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.4    | 1.6    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.2    | 3.5    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.2    | 3.4    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.7    | 3.2    | 1.6    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| ⋮ | ⋮ | ⋮ | ⋮ | ⋮ | \n",
       "| 6.9       | 3.2       | 5.7       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 5.6       | 2.8       | 4.9       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.7       | 2.8       | 6.7       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 2.7       | 4.9       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.3       | 5.7       | 2.1       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.2       | 3.2       | 6.0       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.2       | 2.8       | 4.8       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.1       | 3.0       | 4.9       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.4       | 2.8       | 5.6       | 2.1       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.2       | 3.0       | 5.8       | 1.6       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.4       | 2.8       | 6.1       | 1.9       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.9       | 3.8       | 6.4       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.4       | 2.8       | 5.6       | 2.2       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 2.8       | 5.1       | 1.5       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.1       | 2.6       | 5.6       | 1.4       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.7       | 3.0       | 6.1       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 3.4       | 5.6       | 2.4       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.4       | 3.1       | 5.5       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.0       | 3.0       | 4.8       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.9       | 3.1       | 5.4       | 2.1       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.1       | 5.6       | 2.4       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.9       | 3.1       | 5.1       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 5.8       | 2.7       | 5.1       | 1.9       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.8       | 3.2       | 5.9       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.3       | 5.7       | 2.5       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.0       | 5.2       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 2.5       | 5.0       | 1.9       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.5       | 3.0       | 5.2       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.2       | 3.4       | 5.4       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 5.9       | 3.0       | 5.1       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "    Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width Species  \n",
       "1   5.1          3.5         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "2   4.9          3.0         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "3   4.7          3.2         1.3          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "4   4.6          3.1         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "5   5.0          3.6         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "6   5.4          3.9         1.7          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "7   4.6          3.4         1.4          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "8   5.0          3.4         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "9   4.4          2.9         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "10  4.9          3.1         1.5          0.1         setosa   \n",
       "11  5.4          3.7         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "12  4.8          3.4         1.6          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "13  4.8          3.0         1.4          0.1         setosa   \n",
       "14  4.3          3.0         1.1          0.1         setosa   \n",
       "15  5.8          4.0         1.2          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "16  5.7          4.4         1.5          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "17  5.4          3.9         1.3          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "18  5.1          3.5         1.4          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "19  5.7          3.8         1.7          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "20  5.1          3.8         1.5          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "21  5.4          3.4         1.7          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "22  5.1          3.7         1.5          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "23  4.6          3.6         1.0          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "24  5.1          3.3         1.7          0.5         setosa   \n",
       "25  4.8          3.4         1.9          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "26  5.0          3.0         1.6          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "27  5.0          3.4         1.6          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "28  5.2          3.5         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "29  5.2          3.4         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "30  4.7          3.2         1.6          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "⋮   ⋮            ⋮           ⋮            ⋮           ⋮        \n",
       "121 6.9          3.2         5.7          2.3         virginica\n",
       "122 5.6          2.8         4.9          2.0         virginica\n",
       "123 7.7          2.8         6.7          2.0         virginica\n",
       "124 6.3          2.7         4.9          1.8         virginica\n",
       "125 6.7          3.3         5.7          2.1         virginica\n",
       "126 7.2          3.2         6.0          1.8         virginica\n",
       "127 6.2          2.8         4.8          1.8         virginica\n",
       "128 6.1          3.0         4.9          1.8         virginica\n",
       "129 6.4          2.8         5.6          2.1         virginica\n",
       "130 7.2          3.0         5.8          1.6         virginica\n",
       "131 7.4          2.8         6.1          1.9         virginica\n",
       "132 7.9          3.8         6.4          2.0         virginica\n",
       "133 6.4          2.8         5.6          2.2         virginica\n",
       "134 6.3          2.8         5.1          1.5         virginica\n",
       "135 6.1          2.6         5.6          1.4         virginica\n",
       "136 7.7          3.0         6.1          2.3         virginica\n",
       "137 6.3          3.4         5.6          2.4         virginica\n",
       "138 6.4          3.1         5.5          1.8         virginica\n",
       "139 6.0          3.0         4.8          1.8         virginica\n",
       "140 6.9          3.1         5.4          2.1         virginica\n",
       "141 6.7          3.1         5.6          2.4         virginica\n",
       "142 6.9          3.1         5.1          2.3         virginica\n",
       "143 5.8          2.7         5.1          1.9         virginica\n",
       "144 6.8          3.2         5.9          2.3         virginica\n",
       "145 6.7          3.3         5.7          2.5         virginica\n",
       "146 6.7          3.0         5.2          2.3         virginica\n",
       "147 6.3          2.5         5.0          1.9         virginica\n",
       "148 6.5          3.0         5.2          2.0         virginica\n",
       "149 6.2          3.4         5.4          2.3         virginica\n",
       "150 5.9          3.0         5.1          1.8         virginica"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "iris # the famous iris data set used by Sir Ronald Fisher"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 3,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>Sepal.Length</th><th scope=col>Sepal.Width</th><th scope=col>Petal.Length</th><th scope=col>Petal.Width</th><th scope=col>Species</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.5   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.9   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.7   </td><td>3.2   </td><td>1.3   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.6   </td><td>3.1   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.6   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.9   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.6   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.4   </td><td>2.9   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.9   </td><td>3.1   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.1   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.7   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.8   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.8   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.1   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.3   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.1   </td><td>0.1   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.8   </td><td>4.0   </td><td>1.2   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.7   </td><td>4.4   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.9   </td><td>1.3   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.5   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.7   </td><td>3.8   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.8   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.3   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.4   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.7   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.6   </td><td>3.6   </td><td>1.0   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.1   </td><td>3.3   </td><td>1.7   </td><td>0.5   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.8   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.9   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.0   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.0   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.4   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.2   </td><td>3.5   </td><td>1.5   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.2   </td><td>3.4   </td><td>1.4   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4.7   </td><td>3.2   </td><td>1.6   </td><td>0.2   </td><td>setosa</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td><td>⋮</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.9      </td><td>3.2      </td><td>5.7      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.6      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>4.9      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.7      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>6.7      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>2.7      </td><td>4.9      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.3      </td><td>5.7      </td><td>2.1      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.2      </td><td>3.2      </td><td>6.0      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.2      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>4.8      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.1      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>4.9      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.4      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.1      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.2      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.8      </td><td>1.6      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.4      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>6.1      </td><td>1.9      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.9      </td><td>3.8      </td><td>6.4      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.4      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.2      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>2.8      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>1.5      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.1      </td><td>2.6      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>1.4      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>7.7      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>6.1      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>3.4      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.4      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.4      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.5      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.0      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>4.8      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.9      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.4      </td><td>2.1      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.6      </td><td>2.4      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.9      </td><td>3.1      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.8      </td><td>2.7      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>1.9      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.8      </td><td>3.2      </td><td>5.9      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.3      </td><td>5.7      </td><td>2.5      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.7      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.2      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.3      </td><td>2.5      </td><td>5.0      </td><td>1.9      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.5      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.2      </td><td>2.0      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>6.2      </td><td>3.4      </td><td>5.4      </td><td>2.3      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>5.9      </td><td>3.0      </td><td>5.1      </td><td>1.8      </td><td>virginica</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lllll}\n",
       " Sepal.Length & Sepal.Width & Petal.Length & Petal.Width & Species\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.5    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.9    & 3.0    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.7    & 3.2    & 1.3    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.6    & 3.1    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.6    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.9    & 1.7    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.6    & 3.4    & 1.4    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.4    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.4    & 2.9    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.9    & 3.1    & 1.5    & 0.1    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.7    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.8    & 3.4    & 1.6    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.8    & 3.0    & 1.4    & 0.1    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.3    & 3.0    & 1.1    & 0.1    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.8    & 4.0    & 1.2    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.7    & 4.4    & 1.5    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.9    & 1.3    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.5    & 1.4    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.7    & 3.8    & 1.7    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.8    & 1.5    & 0.3    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.4    & 3.4    & 1.7    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.7    & 1.5    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.6    & 3.6    & 1.0    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.1    & 3.3    & 1.7    & 0.5    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.8    & 3.4    & 1.9    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.0    & 1.6    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.0    & 3.4    & 1.6    & 0.4    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.2    & 3.5    & 1.5    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.2    & 3.4    & 1.4    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t 4.7    & 3.2    & 1.6    & 0.2    & setosa\\\\\n",
       "\t ⋮ & ⋮ & ⋮ & ⋮ & ⋮\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.9       & 3.2       & 5.7       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.6       & 2.8       & 4.9       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.7       & 2.8       & 6.7       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 2.7       & 4.9       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.3       & 5.7       & 2.1       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.2       & 3.2       & 6.0       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.2       & 2.8       & 4.8       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.1       & 3.0       & 4.9       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.4       & 2.8       & 5.6       & 2.1       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.2       & 3.0       & 5.8       & 1.6       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.4       & 2.8       & 6.1       & 1.9       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.9       & 3.8       & 6.4       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.4       & 2.8       & 5.6       & 2.2       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 2.8       & 5.1       & 1.5       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.1       & 2.6       & 5.6       & 1.4       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 7.7       & 3.0       & 6.1       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 3.4       & 5.6       & 2.4       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.4       & 3.1       & 5.5       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.0       & 3.0       & 4.8       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.9       & 3.1       & 5.4       & 2.1       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.1       & 5.6       & 2.4       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.9       & 3.1       & 5.1       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.8       & 2.7       & 5.1       & 1.9       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.8       & 3.2       & 5.9       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.3       & 5.7       & 2.5       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.7       & 3.0       & 5.2       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.3       & 2.5       & 5.0       & 1.9       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.5       & 3.0       & 5.2       & 2.0       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 6.2       & 3.4       & 5.4       & 2.3       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\t 5.9       & 3.0       & 5.1       & 1.8       & virginica\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "Sepal.Length | Sepal.Width | Petal.Length | Petal.Width | Species | \n",
       "|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.5    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.9    | 3.0    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.7    | 3.2    | 1.3    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.6    | 3.1    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.6    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.9    | 1.7    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.6    | 3.4    | 1.4    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.4    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.4    | 2.9    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.9    | 3.1    | 1.5    | 0.1    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.7    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.8    | 3.4    | 1.6    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.8    | 3.0    | 1.4    | 0.1    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.3    | 3.0    | 1.1    | 0.1    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.8    | 4.0    | 1.2    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.7    | 4.4    | 1.5    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.9    | 1.3    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.5    | 1.4    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.7    | 3.8    | 1.7    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.8    | 1.5    | 0.3    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.4    | 3.4    | 1.7    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.7    | 1.5    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.6    | 3.6    | 1.0    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.1    | 3.3    | 1.7    | 0.5    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.8    | 3.4    | 1.9    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.0    | 1.6    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.0    | 3.4    | 1.6    | 0.4    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.2    | 3.5    | 1.5    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 5.2    | 3.4    | 1.4    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| 4.7    | 3.2    | 1.6    | 0.2    | setosa | \n",
       "| ⋮ | ⋮ | ⋮ | ⋮ | ⋮ | \n",
       "| 6.9       | 3.2       | 5.7       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 5.6       | 2.8       | 4.9       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.7       | 2.8       | 6.7       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 2.7       | 4.9       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.3       | 5.7       | 2.1       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.2       | 3.2       | 6.0       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.2       | 2.8       | 4.8       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.1       | 3.0       | 4.9       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.4       | 2.8       | 5.6       | 2.1       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.2       | 3.0       | 5.8       | 1.6       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.4       | 2.8       | 6.1       | 1.9       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.9       | 3.8       | 6.4       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.4       | 2.8       | 5.6       | 2.2       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 2.8       | 5.1       | 1.5       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.1       | 2.6       | 5.6       | 1.4       | virginica | \n",
       "| 7.7       | 3.0       | 6.1       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 3.4       | 5.6       | 2.4       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.4       | 3.1       | 5.5       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.0       | 3.0       | 4.8       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.9       | 3.1       | 5.4       | 2.1       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.1       | 5.6       | 2.4       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.9       | 3.1       | 5.1       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 5.8       | 2.7       | 5.1       | 1.9       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.8       | 3.2       | 5.9       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.3       | 5.7       | 2.5       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.7       | 3.0       | 5.2       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.3       | 2.5       | 5.0       | 1.9       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.5       | 3.0       | 5.2       | 2.0       | virginica | \n",
       "| 6.2       | 3.4       | 5.4       | 2.3       | virginica | \n",
       "| 5.9       | 3.0       | 5.1       | 1.8       | virginica | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "    Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width Species  \n",
       "1   5.1          3.5         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "2   4.9          3.0         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "3   4.7          3.2         1.3          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "4   4.6          3.1         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "5   5.0          3.6         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "6   5.4          3.9         1.7          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "7   4.6          3.4         1.4          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "8   5.0          3.4         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "9   4.4          2.9         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "10  4.9          3.1         1.5          0.1         setosa   \n",
       "11  5.4          3.7         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "12  4.8          3.4         1.6          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "13  4.8          3.0         1.4          0.1         setosa   \n",
       "14  4.3          3.0         1.1          0.1         setosa   \n",
       "15  5.8          4.0         1.2          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "16  5.7          4.4         1.5          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "17  5.4          3.9         1.3          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "18  5.1          3.5         1.4          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "19  5.7          3.8         1.7          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "20  5.1          3.8         1.5          0.3         setosa   \n",
       "21  5.4          3.4         1.7          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "22  5.1          3.7         1.5          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "23  4.6          3.6         1.0          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "24  5.1          3.3         1.7          0.5         setosa   \n",
       "25  4.8          3.4         1.9          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "26  5.0          3.0         1.6          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "27  5.0          3.4         1.6          0.4         setosa   \n",
       "28  5.2          3.5         1.5          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "29  5.2          3.4         1.4          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "30  4.7          3.2         1.6          0.2         setosa   \n",
       "⋮   ⋮            ⋮           ⋮            ⋮           ⋮        \n",
       "121 6.9          3.2         5.7          2.3         virginica\n",
       "122 5.6          2.8         4.9          2.0         virginica\n",
       "123 7.7          2.8         6.7          2.0         virginica\n",
       "124 6.3          2.7         4.9          1.8         virginica\n",
       "125 6.7          3.3         5.7          2.1         virginica\n",
       "126 7.2          3.2         6.0          1.8         virginica\n",
       "127 6.2          2.8         4.8          1.8         virginica\n",
       "128 6.1          3.0         4.9          1.8         virginica\n",
       "129 6.4          2.8         5.6          2.1         virginica\n",
       "130 7.2          3.0         5.8          1.6         virginica\n",
       "131 7.4          2.8         6.1          1.9         virginica\n",
       "132 7.9          3.8         6.4          2.0         virginica\n",
       "133 6.4          2.8         5.6          2.2         virginica\n",
       "134 6.3          2.8         5.1          1.5         virginica\n",
       "135 6.1          2.6         5.6          1.4         virginica\n",
       "136 7.7          3.0         6.1          2.3         virginica\n",
       "137 6.3          3.4         5.6          2.4         virginica\n",
       "138 6.4          3.1         5.5          1.8         virginica\n",
       "139 6.0          3.0         4.8          1.8         virginica\n",
       "140 6.9          3.1         5.4          2.1         virginica\n",
       "141 6.7          3.1         5.6          2.4         virginica\n",
       "142 6.9          3.1         5.1          2.3         virginica\n",
       "143 5.8          2.7         5.1          1.9         virginica\n",
       "144 6.8          3.2         5.9          2.3         virginica\n",
       "145 6.7          3.3         5.7          2.5         virginica\n",
       "146 6.7          3.0         5.2          2.3         virginica\n",
       "147 6.3          2.5         5.0          1.9         virginica\n",
       "148 6.5          3.0         5.2          2.0         virginica\n",
       "149 6.2          3.4         5.4          2.3         virginica\n",
       "150 5.9          3.0         5.1          1.8         virginica"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(iris_tibble <- as_tibble(iris)) # convert to a tibble"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 4,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>x</th><th scope=col>y</th><th scope=col>z</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 100</td><td>50  </td><td> 150</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 200</td><td>50  </td><td> 250</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 300</td><td>50  </td><td> 350</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 400</td><td>50  </td><td> 450</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 500</td><td>50  </td><td> 550</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 600</td><td>50  </td><td> 650</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 700</td><td>50  </td><td> 750</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 800</td><td>50  </td><td> 850</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 900</td><td>50  </td><td> 950</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>1000</td><td>50  </td><td>1050</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " x & y & z\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t  100 & 50   &  150\\\\\n",
       "\t  200 & 50   &  250\\\\\n",
       "\t  300 & 50   &  350\\\\\n",
       "\t  400 & 50   &  450\\\\\n",
       "\t  500 & 50   &  550\\\\\n",
       "\t  600 & 50   &  650\\\\\n",
       "\t  700 & 50   &  750\\\\\n",
       "\t  800 & 50   &  850\\\\\n",
       "\t  900 & 50   &  950\\\\\n",
       "\t 1000 & 50   & 1050\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "x | y | z | \n",
       "|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n",
       "|  100 | 50   |  150 | \n",
       "|  200 | 50   |  250 | \n",
       "|  300 | 50   |  350 | \n",
       "|  400 | 50   |  450 | \n",
       "|  500 | 50   |  550 | \n",
       "|  600 | 50   |  650 | \n",
       "|  700 | 50   |  750 | \n",
       "|  800 | 50   |  850 | \n",
       "|  900 | 50   |  950 | \n",
       "| 1000 | 50   | 1050 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "   x    y  z   \n",
       "1   100 50  150\n",
       "2   200 50  250\n",
       "3   300 50  350\n",
       "4   400 50  450\n",
       "5   500 50  550\n",
       "6   600 50  650\n",
       "7   700 50  750\n",
       "8   800 50  850\n",
       "9   900 50  950\n",
       "10 1000 50 1050"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tibble(\n",
    "    x = seq(100, 1000, 100),\n",
    "    y = 50,   # vectors of shorter length are automatically expanded\n",
    "    z = x + 50   # variables are created sequentially so can refer to a variable already created\n",
    ")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "To create tibbles by specifiying rows, use `tribble` (for **tr**ansposed t**ibble**)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 5,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>letter</th><th scope=col>Letter</th><th scope=col>number</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>a </td><td>A </td><td> 1</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>f </td><td>F </td><td> 6</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>k </td><td>K </td><td>11</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>p </td><td>P </td><td>16</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>u </td><td>U </td><td>21</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>z </td><td>Z </td><td>26</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " letter & Letter & number\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t a  & A  &  1\\\\\n",
       "\t f  & F  &  6\\\\\n",
       "\t k  & K  & 11\\\\\n",
       "\t p  & P  & 16\\\\\n",
       "\t u  & U  & 21\\\\\n",
       "\t z  & Z  & 26\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "letter | Letter | number | \n",
       "|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n",
       "| a  | A  |  1 | \n",
       "| f  | F  |  6 | \n",
       "| k  | K  | 11 | \n",
       "| p  | P  | 16 | \n",
       "| u  | U  | 21 | \n",
       "| z  | Z  | 26 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  letter Letter number\n",
       "1 a      A       1    \n",
       "2 f      F       6    \n",
       "3 k      K      11    \n",
       "4 p      P      16    \n",
       "5 u      U      21    \n",
       "6 z      Z      26    "
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "tribble(\n",
    "    ~letter, ~Letter, ~number, # note use of R formulas in specifying variables names in tribble()\n",
    "    #--|---|---\n",
    "    \"a\", \"A\", 1,\n",
    "    \"f\", \"F\", 6,\n",
    "    \"k\", \"K\", 11,\n",
    "    \"p\", \"P\", 16,\n",
    "    \"u\", \"U\", 21,\n",
    "    \"z\", \"Z\", 26\n",
    ")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Data frames and tibble print differently"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 6,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "    Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width    Species\n",
      "1            5.1         3.5          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "2            4.9         3.0          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "3            4.7         3.2          1.3         0.2     setosa\n",
      "4            4.6         3.1          1.5         0.2     setosa\n",
      "5            5.0         3.6          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "6            5.4         3.9          1.7         0.4     setosa\n",
      "7            4.6         3.4          1.4         0.3     setosa\n",
      "8            5.0         3.4          1.5         0.2     setosa\n",
      "9            4.4         2.9          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "10           4.9         3.1          1.5         0.1     setosa\n",
      "11           5.4         3.7          1.5         0.2     setosa\n",
      "12           4.8         3.4          1.6         0.2     setosa\n",
      "13           4.8         3.0          1.4         0.1     setosa\n",
      "14           4.3         3.0          1.1         0.1     setosa\n",
      "15           5.8         4.0          1.2         0.2     setosa\n",
      "16           5.7         4.4          1.5         0.4     setosa\n",
      "17           5.4         3.9          1.3         0.4     setosa\n",
      "18           5.1         3.5          1.4         0.3     setosa\n",
      "19           5.7         3.8          1.7         0.3     setosa\n",
      "20           5.1         3.8          1.5         0.3     setosa\n",
      "21           5.4         3.4          1.7         0.2     setosa\n",
      "22           5.1         3.7          1.5         0.4     setosa\n",
      "23           4.6         3.6          1.0         0.2     setosa\n",
      "24           5.1         3.3          1.7         0.5     setosa\n",
      "25           4.8         3.4          1.9         0.2     setosa\n",
      "26           5.0         3.0          1.6         0.2     setosa\n",
      "27           5.0         3.4          1.6         0.4     setosa\n",
      "28           5.2         3.5          1.5         0.2     setosa\n",
      "29           5.2         3.4          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "30           4.7         3.2          1.6         0.2     setosa\n",
      "31           4.8         3.1          1.6         0.2     setosa\n",
      "32           5.4         3.4          1.5         0.4     setosa\n",
      "33           5.2         4.1          1.5         0.1     setosa\n",
      "34           5.5         4.2          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "35           4.9         3.1          1.5         0.2     setosa\n",
      "36           5.0         3.2          1.2         0.2     setosa\n",
      "37           5.5         3.5          1.3         0.2     setosa\n",
      "38           4.9         3.6          1.4         0.1     setosa\n",
      "39           4.4         3.0          1.3         0.2     setosa\n",
      "40           5.1         3.4          1.5         0.2     setosa\n",
      "41           5.0         3.5          1.3         0.3     setosa\n",
      "42           4.5         2.3          1.3         0.3     setosa\n",
      "43           4.4         3.2          1.3         0.2     setosa\n",
      "44           5.0         3.5          1.6         0.6     setosa\n",
      "45           5.1         3.8          1.9         0.4     setosa\n",
      "46           4.8         3.0          1.4         0.3     setosa\n",
      "47           5.1         3.8          1.6         0.2     setosa\n",
      "48           4.6         3.2          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "49           5.3         3.7          1.5         0.2     setosa\n",
      "50           5.0         3.3          1.4         0.2     setosa\n",
      "51           7.0         3.2          4.7         1.4 versicolor\n",
      "52           6.4         3.2          4.5         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "53           6.9         3.1          4.9         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "54           5.5         2.3          4.0         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "55           6.5         2.8          4.6         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "56           5.7         2.8          4.5         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "57           6.3         3.3          4.7         1.6 versicolor\n",
      "58           4.9         2.4          3.3         1.0 versicolor\n",
      "59           6.6         2.9          4.6         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "60           5.2         2.7          3.9         1.4 versicolor\n",
      "61           5.0         2.0          3.5         1.0 versicolor\n",
      "62           5.9         3.0          4.2         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "63           6.0         2.2          4.0         1.0 versicolor\n",
      "64           6.1         2.9          4.7         1.4 versicolor\n",
      "65           5.6         2.9          3.6         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "66           6.7         3.1          4.4         1.4 versicolor\n",
      "67           5.6         3.0          4.5         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "68           5.8         2.7          4.1         1.0 versicolor\n",
      "69           6.2         2.2          4.5         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "70           5.6         2.5          3.9         1.1 versicolor\n",
      "71           5.9         3.2          4.8         1.8 versicolor\n",
      "72           6.1         2.8          4.0         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "73           6.3         2.5          4.9         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "74           6.1         2.8          4.7         1.2 versicolor\n",
      "75           6.4         2.9          4.3         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "76           6.6         3.0          4.4         1.4 versicolor\n",
      "77           6.8         2.8          4.8         1.4 versicolor\n",
      "78           6.7         3.0          5.0         1.7 versicolor\n",
      "79           6.0         2.9          4.5         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "80           5.7         2.6          3.5         1.0 versicolor\n",
      "81           5.5         2.4          3.8         1.1 versicolor\n",
      "82           5.5         2.4          3.7         1.0 versicolor\n",
      "83           5.8         2.7          3.9         1.2 versicolor\n",
      "84           6.0         2.7          5.1         1.6 versicolor\n",
      "85           5.4         3.0          4.5         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "86           6.0         3.4          4.5         1.6 versicolor\n",
      "87           6.7         3.1          4.7         1.5 versicolor\n",
      "88           6.3         2.3          4.4         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "89           5.6         3.0          4.1         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "90           5.5         2.5          4.0         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "91           5.5         2.6          4.4         1.2 versicolor\n",
      "92           6.1         3.0          4.6         1.4 versicolor\n",
      "93           5.8         2.6          4.0         1.2 versicolor\n",
      "94           5.0         2.3          3.3         1.0 versicolor\n",
      "95           5.6         2.7          4.2         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "96           5.7         3.0          4.2         1.2 versicolor\n",
      "97           5.7         2.9          4.2         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "98           6.2         2.9          4.3         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "99           5.1         2.5          3.0         1.1 versicolor\n",
      "100          5.7         2.8          4.1         1.3 versicolor\n",
      "101          6.3         3.3          6.0         2.5  virginica\n",
      "102          5.8         2.7          5.1         1.9  virginica\n",
      "103          7.1         3.0          5.9         2.1  virginica\n",
      "104          6.3         2.9          5.6         1.8  virginica\n",
      "105          6.5         3.0          5.8         2.2  virginica\n",
      "106          7.6         3.0          6.6         2.1  virginica\n",
      "107          4.9         2.5          4.5         1.7  virginica\n",
      "108          7.3         2.9          6.3         1.8  virginica\n",
      "109          6.7         2.5          5.8         1.8  virginica\n",
      "110          7.2         3.6          6.1         2.5  virginica\n",
      "111          6.5         3.2          5.1         2.0  virginica\n",
      "112          6.4         2.7          5.3         1.9  virginica\n",
      "113          6.8         3.0          5.5         2.1  virginica\n",
      "114          5.7         2.5          5.0         2.0  virginica\n",
      "115          5.8         2.8          5.1         2.4  virginica\n",
      "116          6.4         3.2          5.3         2.3  virginica\n",
      "117          6.5         3.0          5.5         1.8  virginica\n",
      "118          7.7         3.8          6.7         2.2  virginica\n",
      "119          7.7         2.6          6.9         2.3  virginica\n",
      "120          6.0         2.2          5.0         1.5  virginica\n",
      "121          6.9         3.2          5.7         2.3  virginica\n",
      "122          5.6         2.8          4.9         2.0  virginica\n",
      "123          7.7         2.8          6.7         2.0  virginica\n",
      "124          6.3         2.7          4.9         1.8  virginica\n",
      "125          6.7         3.3          5.7         2.1  virginica\n",
      "126          7.2         3.2          6.0         1.8  virginica\n",
      "127          6.2         2.8          4.8         1.8  virginica\n",
      "128          6.1         3.0          4.9         1.8  virginica\n",
      "129          6.4         2.8          5.6         2.1  virginica\n",
      "130          7.2         3.0          5.8         1.6  virginica\n",
      "131          7.4         2.8          6.1         1.9  virginica\n",
      "132          7.9         3.8          6.4         2.0  virginica\n",
      "133          6.4         2.8          5.6         2.2  virginica\n",
      "134          6.3         2.8          5.1         1.5  virginica\n",
      "135          6.1         2.6          5.6         1.4  virginica\n",
      "136          7.7         3.0          6.1         2.3  virginica\n",
      "137          6.3         3.4          5.6         2.4  virginica\n",
      "138          6.4         3.1          5.5         1.8  virginica\n",
      "139          6.0         3.0          4.8         1.8  virginica\n",
      "140          6.9         3.1          5.4         2.1  virginica\n",
      "141          6.7         3.1          5.6         2.4  virginica\n",
      "142          6.9         3.1          5.1         2.3  virginica\n",
      "143          5.8         2.7          5.1         1.9  virginica\n",
      "144          6.8         3.2          5.9         2.3  virginica\n",
      "145          6.7         3.3          5.7         2.5  virginica\n",
      "146          6.7         3.0          5.2         2.3  virginica\n",
      "147          6.3         2.5          5.0         1.9  virginica\n",
      "148          6.5         3.0          5.2         2.0  virginica\n",
      "149          6.2         3.4          5.4         2.3  virginica\n",
      "150          5.9         3.0          5.1         1.8  virginica\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(iris)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 7,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "# A tibble: 150 × 5\n",
      "   Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width Species\n",
      "          <dbl>       <dbl>        <dbl>       <dbl>  <fctr>\n",
      "1           5.1         3.5          1.4         0.2  setosa\n",
      "2           4.9         3.0          1.4         0.2  setosa\n",
      "3           4.7         3.2          1.3         0.2  setosa\n",
      "4           4.6         3.1          1.5         0.2  setosa\n",
      "5           5.0         3.6          1.4         0.2  setosa\n",
      "6           5.4         3.9          1.7         0.4  setosa\n",
      "7           4.6         3.4          1.4         0.3  setosa\n",
      "8           5.0         3.4          1.5         0.2  setosa\n",
      "9           4.4         2.9          1.4         0.2  setosa\n",
      "10          4.9         3.1          1.5         0.1  setosa\n",
      "# ... with 140 more rows\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(iris_tibble) # only first 10 rowsm with type info, are printed"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "You can control the default printing behavior in a couple of ways."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 8,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "# A tibble: 234 × 11\n",
      "   manufacturer              model displ  year   cyl      trans   drv   cty\n",
      "          <chr>              <chr> <dbl> <int> <int>      <chr> <chr> <int>\n",
      "1          audi                 a4   1.8  1999     4   auto(l5)     f    18\n",
      "2          audi                 a4   1.8  1999     4 manual(m5)     f    21\n",
      "3          audi                 a4   2.0  2008     4 manual(m6)     f    20\n",
      "4          audi                 a4   2.0  2008     4   auto(av)     f    21\n",
      "5          audi                 a4   2.8  1999     6   auto(l5)     f    16\n",
      "6          audi                 a4   2.8  1999     6 manual(m5)     f    18\n",
      "7          audi                 a4   3.1  2008     6   auto(av)     f    18\n",
      "8          audi         a4 quattro   1.8  1999     4 manual(m5)     4    18\n",
      "9          audi         a4 quattro   1.8  1999     4   auto(l5)     4    16\n",
      "10         audi         a4 quattro   2.0  2008     4 manual(m6)     4    20\n",
      "11         audi         a4 quattro   2.0  2008     4   auto(s6)     4    19\n",
      "12         audi         a4 quattro   2.8  1999     6   auto(l5)     4    15\n",
      "13         audi         a4 quattro   2.8  1999     6 manual(m5)     4    17\n",
      "14         audi         a4 quattro   3.1  2008     6   auto(s6)     4    17\n",
      "15         audi         a4 quattro   3.1  2008     6 manual(m6)     4    15\n",
      "16         audi         a6 quattro   2.8  1999     6   auto(l5)     4    15\n",
      "17         audi         a6 quattro   3.1  2008     6   auto(s6)     4    17\n",
      "18         audi         a6 quattro   4.2  2008     8   auto(s6)     4    16\n",
      "19    chevrolet c1500 suburban 2wd   5.3  2008     8   auto(l4)     r    14\n",
      "20    chevrolet c1500 suburban 2wd   5.3  2008     8   auto(l4)     r    11\n",
      "     hwy    fl   class\n",
      "   <int> <chr>   <chr>\n",
      "1     29     p compact\n",
      "2     29     p compact\n",
      "3     31     p compact\n",
      "4     30     p compact\n",
      "5     26     p compact\n",
      "6     26     p compact\n",
      "7     27     p compact\n",
      "8     26     p compact\n",
      "9     25     p compact\n",
      "10    28     p compact\n",
      "11    27     p compact\n",
      "12    25     p compact\n",
      "13    25     p compact\n",
      "14    25     p compact\n",
      "15    25     p compact\n",
      "16    24     p midsize\n",
      "17    25     p midsize\n",
      "18    23     p midsize\n",
      "19    20     r     suv\n",
      "20    15     e     suv\n",
      "# ... with 214 more rows\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "mpg %>%\n",
    "    print(n = 20, width = Inf)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 9,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "options(tibble.print_min = 20, tibble.print_max = 20, tibble.width = Inf)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 10,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stdout",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "# A tibble: 234 × 11\n",
      "   manufacturer              model displ  year   cyl      trans   drv   cty\n",
      "          <chr>              <chr> <dbl> <int> <int>      <chr> <chr> <int>\n",
      "1          audi                 a4   1.8  1999     4   auto(l5)     f    18\n",
      "2          audi                 a4   1.8  1999     4 manual(m5)     f    21\n",
      "3          audi                 a4   2.0  2008     4 manual(m6)     f    20\n",
      "4          audi                 a4   2.0  2008     4   auto(av)     f    21\n",
      "5          audi                 a4   2.8  1999     6   auto(l5)     f    16\n",
      "6          audi                 a4   2.8  1999     6 manual(m5)     f    18\n",
      "7          audi                 a4   3.1  2008     6   auto(av)     f    18\n",
      "8          audi         a4 quattro   1.8  1999     4 manual(m5)     4    18\n",
      "9          audi         a4 quattro   1.8  1999     4   auto(l5)     4    16\n",
      "10         audi         a4 quattro   2.0  2008     4 manual(m6)     4    20\n",
      "11         audi         a4 quattro   2.0  2008     4   auto(s6)     4    19\n",
      "12         audi         a4 quattro   2.8  1999     6   auto(l5)     4    15\n",
      "13         audi         a4 quattro   2.8  1999     6 manual(m5)     4    17\n",
      "14         audi         a4 quattro   3.1  2008     6   auto(s6)     4    17\n",
      "15         audi         a4 quattro   3.1  2008     6 manual(m6)     4    15\n",
      "16         audi         a6 quattro   2.8  1999     6   auto(l5)     4    15\n",
      "17         audi         a6 quattro   3.1  2008     6   auto(s6)     4    17\n",
      "18         audi         a6 quattro   4.2  2008     8   auto(s6)     4    16\n",
      "19    chevrolet c1500 suburban 2wd   5.3  2008     8   auto(l4)     r    14\n",
      "20    chevrolet c1500 suburban 2wd   5.3  2008     8   auto(l4)     r    11\n",
      "     hwy    fl   class\n",
      "   <int> <chr>   <chr>\n",
      "1     29     p compact\n",
      "2     29     p compact\n",
      "3     31     p compact\n",
      "4     30     p compact\n",
      "5     26     p compact\n",
      "6     26     p compact\n",
      "7     27     p compact\n",
      "8     26     p compact\n",
      "9     25     p compact\n",
      "10    28     p compact\n",
      "11    27     p compact\n",
      "12    25     p compact\n",
      "13    25     p compact\n",
      "14    25     p compact\n",
      "15    25     p compact\n",
      "16    24     p midsize\n",
      "17    25     p midsize\n",
      "18    23     p midsize\n",
      "19    20     r     suv\n",
      "20    15     e     suv\n",
      "# ... with 214 more rows\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "print(mpg)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 11,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "df <- tibble(\n",
    "    x = runif(10),\n",
    "    y = rnorm(10)\n",
    ")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 12,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<ol class=list-inline>\n",
       "\t<li>0.291842243168503</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.841101876692846</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.454985528020188</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.699201250914484</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.287774378899485</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.493122692452744</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.707376756938174</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.817207591608167</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.167490272317082</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.0233497701119632</li>\n",
       "</ol>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{enumerate*}\n",
       "\\item 0.291842243168503\n",
       "\\item 0.841101876692846\n",
       "\\item 0.454985528020188\n",
       "\\item 0.699201250914484\n",
       "\\item 0.287774378899485\n",
       "\\item 0.493122692452744\n",
       "\\item 0.707376756938174\n",
       "\\item 0.817207591608167\n",
       "\\item 0.167490272317082\n",
       "\\item 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\\end{enumerate*}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "1. 0.291842243168503\n",
       "2. 0.841101876692846\n",
       "3. 0.454985528020188\n",
       "4. 0.699201250914484\n",
       "5. 0.287774378899485\n",
       "6. 0.493122692452744\n",
       "7. 0.707376756938174\n",
       "8. 0.817207591608167\n",
       "9. 0.167490272317082\n",
       "10. 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       " [1] 0.29184224 0.84110188 0.45498553 0.69920125 0.28777438 0.49312269\n",
       " [7] 0.70737676 0.81720759 0.16749027 0.02334977"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df$x # extracts a variable, name only"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 13,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<ol class=list-inline>\n",
       "\t<li>0.291842243168503</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.841101876692846</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.454985528020188</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.699201250914484</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.287774378899485</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.493122692452744</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.707376756938174</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.817207591608167</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.167490272317082</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.0233497701119632</li>\n",
       "</ol>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{enumerate*}\n",
       "\\item 0.291842243168503\n",
       "\\item 0.841101876692846\n",
       "\\item 0.454985528020188\n",
       "\\item 0.699201250914484\n",
       "\\item 0.287774378899485\n",
       "\\item 0.493122692452744\n",
       "\\item 0.707376756938174\n",
       "\\item 0.817207591608167\n",
       "\\item 0.167490272317082\n",
       "\\item 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\\end{enumerate*}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "1. 0.291842243168503\n",
       "2. 0.841101876692846\n",
       "3. 0.454985528020188\n",
       "4. 0.699201250914484\n",
       "5. 0.287774378899485\n",
       "6. 0.493122692452744\n",
       "7. 0.707376756938174\n",
       "8. 0.817207591608167\n",
       "9. 0.167490272317082\n",
       "10. 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       " [1] 0.29184224 0.84110188 0.45498553 0.69920125 0.28777438 0.49312269\n",
       " [7] 0.70737676 0.81720759 0.16749027 0.02334977"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df[['x']] # double brackets can extract variables using names"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 14,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<ol class=list-inline>\n",
       "\t<li>0.291842243168503</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.841101876692846</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.454985528020188</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.699201250914484</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.287774378899485</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.493122692452744</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.707376756938174</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.817207591608167</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.167490272317082</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.0233497701119632</li>\n",
       "</ol>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{enumerate*}\n",
       "\\item 0.291842243168503\n",
       "\\item 0.841101876692846\n",
       "\\item 0.454985528020188\n",
       "\\item 0.699201250914484\n",
       "\\item 0.287774378899485\n",
       "\\item 0.493122692452744\n",
       "\\item 0.707376756938174\n",
       "\\item 0.817207591608167\n",
       "\\item 0.167490272317082\n",
       "\\item 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\\end{enumerate*}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "1. 0.291842243168503\n",
       "2. 0.841101876692846\n",
       "3. 0.454985528020188\n",
       "4. 0.699201250914484\n",
       "5. 0.287774378899485\n",
       "6. 0.493122692452744\n",
       "7. 0.707376756938174\n",
       "8. 0.817207591608167\n",
       "9. 0.167490272317082\n",
       "10. 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       " [1] 0.29184224 0.84110188 0.45498553 0.69920125 0.28777438 0.49312269\n",
       " [7] 0.70737676 0.81720759 0.16749027 0.02334977"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df[[1]] # or using positions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "To use `$` or `[[` in a pipe, have to use special placeholder: `.`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 15,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<ol class=list-inline>\n",
       "\t<li>0.291842243168503</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.841101876692846</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.454985528020188</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.699201250914484</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.287774378899485</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.493122692452744</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.707376756938174</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.817207591608167</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.167490272317082</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.0233497701119632</li>\n",
       "</ol>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{enumerate*}\n",
       "\\item 0.291842243168503\n",
       "\\item 0.841101876692846\n",
       "\\item 0.454985528020188\n",
       "\\item 0.699201250914484\n",
       "\\item 0.287774378899485\n",
       "\\item 0.493122692452744\n",
       "\\item 0.707376756938174\n",
       "\\item 0.817207591608167\n",
       "\\item 0.167490272317082\n",
       "\\item 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\\end{enumerate*}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "1. 0.291842243168503\n",
       "2. 0.841101876692846\n",
       "3. 0.454985528020188\n",
       "4. 0.699201250914484\n",
       "5. 0.287774378899485\n",
       "6. 0.493122692452744\n",
       "7. 0.707376756938174\n",
       "8. 0.817207591608167\n",
       "9. 0.167490272317082\n",
       "10. 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       " [1] 0.29184224 0.84110188 0.45498553 0.69920125 0.28777438 0.49312269\n",
       " [7] 0.70737676 0.81720759 0.16749027 0.02334977"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df %>% .$x"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 16,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<ol class=list-inline>\n",
       "\t<li>0.291842243168503</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.841101876692846</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.454985528020188</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.699201250914484</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.287774378899485</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.493122692452744</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.707376756938174</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.817207591608167</li>\n",
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       "\t<li>0.0233497701119632</li>\n",
       "</ol>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{enumerate*}\n",
       "\\item 0.291842243168503\n",
       "\\item 0.841101876692846\n",
       "\\item 0.454985528020188\n",
       "\\item 0.699201250914484\n",
       "\\item 0.287774378899485\n",
       "\\item 0.493122692452744\n",
       "\\item 0.707376756938174\n",
       "\\item 0.817207591608167\n",
       "\\item 0.167490272317082\n",
       "\\item 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\\end{enumerate*}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "1. 0.291842243168503\n",
       "2. 0.841101876692846\n",
       "3. 0.454985528020188\n",
       "4. 0.699201250914484\n",
       "5. 0.287774378899485\n",
       "6. 0.493122692452744\n",
       "7. 0.707376756938174\n",
       "8. 0.817207591608167\n",
       "9. 0.167490272317082\n",
       "10. 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       " [1] 0.29184224 0.84110188 0.45498553 0.69920125 0.28777438 0.49312269\n",
       " [7] 0.70737676 0.81720759 0.16749027 0.02334977"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df %>% .[[1]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 17,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "var_name = \"x\" # store variable name in a variable"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 18,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Warning message:\n",
      "“Unknown column 'var_name'”"
     ]
    },
    {
     "data": {
      "text/plain": [
       "NULL"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df$var_name # doesn't work"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 19,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<ol class=list-inline>\n",
       "\t<li>0.291842243168503</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.841101876692846</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.454985528020188</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.699201250914484</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.287774378899485</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.493122692452744</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.707376756938174</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.817207591608167</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.167490272317082</li>\n",
       "\t<li>0.0233497701119632</li>\n",
       "</ol>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{enumerate*}\n",
       "\\item 0.291842243168503\n",
       "\\item 0.841101876692846\n",
       "\\item 0.454985528020188\n",
       "\\item 0.699201250914484\n",
       "\\item 0.287774378899485\n",
       "\\item 0.493122692452744\n",
       "\\item 0.707376756938174\n",
       "\\item 0.817207591608167\n",
       "\\item 0.167490272317082\n",
       "\\item 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\\end{enumerate*}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "1. 0.291842243168503\n",
       "2. 0.841101876692846\n",
       "3. 0.454985528020188\n",
       "4. 0.699201250914484\n",
       "5. 0.287774378899485\n",
       "6. 0.493122692452744\n",
       "7. 0.707376756938174\n",
       "8. 0.817207591608167\n",
       "9. 0.167490272317082\n",
       "10. 0.0233497701119632\n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       " [1] 0.29184224 0.84110188 0.45498553 0.69920125 0.28777438 0.49312269\n",
       " [7] 0.70737676 0.81720759 0.16749027 0.02334977"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "df[[var_name]]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "We can use backticks to create variable names that are not valid R variable names. E.g., numbers"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 20,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>1</th><th scope=col>2</th><th scope=col>3</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 1  </td><td>  1 </td><td>   1</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 2  </td><td>  4 </td><td>   8</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 3  </td><td>  9 </td><td>  27</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 4  </td><td> 16 </td><td>  64</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 5  </td><td> 25 </td><td> 125</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 6  </td><td> 36 </td><td> 216</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 7  </td><td> 49 </td><td> 343</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 8  </td><td> 64 </td><td> 512</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 9  </td><td> 81 </td><td> 729</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>10  </td><td>100 </td><td>1000</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " 1 & 2 & 3\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t  1   &   1  &    1\\\\\n",
       "\t  2   &   4  &    8\\\\\n",
       "\t  3   &   9  &   27\\\\\n",
       "\t  4   &  16  &   64\\\\\n",
       "\t  5   &  25  &  125\\\\\n",
       "\t  6   &  36  &  216\\\\\n",
       "\t  7   &  49  &  343\\\\\n",
       "\t  8   &  64  &  512\\\\\n",
       "\t  9   &  81  &  729\\\\\n",
       "\t 10   & 100  & 1000\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "1 | 2 | 3 | \n",
       "|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n",
       "|  1   |   1  |    1 | \n",
       "|  2   |   4  |    8 | \n",
       "|  3   |   9  |   27 | \n",
       "|  4   |  16  |   64 | \n",
       "|  5   |  25  |  125 | \n",
       "|  6   |  36  |  216 | \n",
       "|  7   |  49  |  343 | \n",
       "|  8   |  64  |  512 | \n",
       "|  9   |  81  |  729 | \n",
       "| 10   | 100  | 1000 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "   1  2   3   \n",
       "1   1   1    1\n",
       "2   2   4    8\n",
       "3   3   9   27\n",
       "4   4  16   64\n",
       "5   5  25  125\n",
       "6   6  36  216\n",
       "7   7  49  343\n",
       "8   8  64  512\n",
       "9   9  81  729\n",
       "10 10 100 1000"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "(cubes <- tibble(\n",
    "    `1` = 1:10,\n",
    "    `2` = `1`^2,\n",
    "    `3` = `1`^3\n",
    "))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 21,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>x</th><th scope=col>squares</th><th scope=col>cubes</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 1  </td><td>  1 </td><td>   1</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 2  </td><td>  4 </td><td>   8</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 3  </td><td>  9 </td><td>  27</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 4  </td><td> 16 </td><td>  64</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 5  </td><td> 25 </td><td> 125</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 6  </td><td> 36 </td><td> 216</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 7  </td><td> 49 </td><td> 343</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 8  </td><td> 64 </td><td> 512</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 9  </td><td> 81 </td><td> 729</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>10  </td><td>100 </td><td>1000</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " x & squares & cubes\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t  1   &   1  &    1\\\\\n",
       "\t  2   &   4  &    8\\\\\n",
       "\t  3   &   9  &   27\\\\\n",
       "\t  4   &  16  &   64\\\\\n",
       "\t  5   &  25  &  125\\\\\n",
       "\t  6   &  36  &  216\\\\\n",
       "\t  7   &  49  &  343\\\\\n",
       "\t  8   &  64  &  512\\\\\n",
       "\t  9   &  81  &  729\\\\\n",
       "\t 10   & 100  & 1000\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "x | squares | cubes | \n",
       "|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n",
       "|  1   |   1  |    1 | \n",
       "|  2   |   4  |    8 | \n",
       "|  3   |   9  |   27 | \n",
       "|  4   |  16  |   64 | \n",
       "|  5   |  25  |  125 | \n",
       "|  6   |  36  |  216 | \n",
       "|  7   |  49  |  343 | \n",
       "|  8   |  64  |  512 | \n",
       "|  9   |  81  |  729 | \n",
       "| 10   | 100  | 1000 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "   x  squares cubes\n",
       "1   1   1        1 \n",
       "2   2   4        8 \n",
       "3   3   9       27 \n",
       "4   4  16       64 \n",
       "5   5  25      125 \n",
       "6   6  36      216 \n",
       "7   7  49      343 \n",
       "8   8  64      512 \n",
       "9   9  81      729 \n",
       "10 10 100     1000 "
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "rename(cubes, x = `1`, squares = `2`, cubes = `3`)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "# Data import"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "source": [
    "We will focus on the `read_csv()` function but there are other ones available:\n",
    "\n",
    "* `read_csv2()`: uses semicolon as delimiter\n",
    "* `read_tsv()`: uses tab as delimiter\n",
    "* `read_delim()`: can use any delimiter\n",
    "* `read_fwf()`: to read fix width files\n",
    "* `read_table()`: to read fixed wdith files where columns are separated by white space"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 22,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Parsed with column specification:\n",
      "cols(\n",
      "  earn = col_double(),\n",
      "  height = col_double(),\n",
      "  sex = col_character(),\n",
      "  ed = col_integer(),\n",
      "  age = col_integer(),\n",
      "  race = col_character()\n",
      ")\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "heights <- read_csv(\"data/heights.csv\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "To create short examples illustrating read_csv's behavior, we can specify the contents of a csv file inline."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 23,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>a</th><th scope=col>b</th><th scope=col>c</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " a & b & c\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 1 & 2 & 3\\\\\n",
       "\t 4 & 5 & 6\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "a | b | c | \n",
       "|---|---|\n",
       "| 1 | 2 | 3 | \n",
       "| 4 | 5 | 6 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  a b c\n",
       "1 1 2 3\n",
       "2 4 5 6"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "read_csv(\"a, b, c\n",
    "1, 2, 3\n",
    "4, 5, 6\n",
    "\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "You might want to skip a few rows in the beginning that have metadata."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 24,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>a</th><th scope=col>b</th><th scope=col>c</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " a & b & c\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 1 & 2 & 3\\\\\n",
       "\t 4 & 5 & 6\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "a | b | c | \n",
       "|---|---|\n",
       "| 1 | 2 | 3 | \n",
       "| 4 | 5 | 6 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  a b c\n",
       "1 1 2 3\n",
       "2 4 5 6"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "read_csv(\"First row to skip\n",
    "Second row to skip\n",
    "Third row to skip\n",
    "a, b, c\n",
    "1, 2, 3\n",
    "4, 5, 6\n",
    "\", skip = 3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "You can also skip comments line by specifying a comment character."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 25,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>a</th><th scope=col>b</th><th scope=col>c</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " a & b & c\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 1 & 2 & 3\\\\\n",
       "\t 4 & 5 & 6\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "a | b | c | \n",
       "|---|---|\n",
       "| 1 | 2 | 3 | \n",
       "| 4 | 5 | 6 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  a b c\n",
       "1 1 2 3\n",
       "2 4 5 6"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "read_csv(\"# First comment line\n",
    "a, b, c\n",
    "# This separate the header from the data\n",
    "1, 2, 3\n",
    "4, 5, 6\n",
    "# Another comment line\n",
    "\", comment = '#')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "Set `col_names = FALSE` when you don't have column names in the file. The column names are then set to X1, X2, ..."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 26,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>X1</th><th scope=col>X2</th><th scope=col>X3</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " X1 & X2 & X3\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 1 & 2 & 3\\\\\n",
       "\t 4 & 5 & 6\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "X1 | X2 | X3 | \n",
       "|---|---|\n",
       "| 1 | 2 | 3 | \n",
       "| 4 | 5 | 6 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  X1 X2 X3\n",
       "1 1  2  3 \n",
       "2 4  5  6 "
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "read_csv(\"1, 2, 3\n",
    "4, 5, 6\n",
    "\", col_names = FALSE)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "You can specify your own column names."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 27,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>a</th><th scope=col>b</th><th scope=col>c</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>3</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4</td><td>5</td><td>6</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " a & b & c\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 1 & 2 & 3\\\\\n",
       "\t 4 & 5 & 6\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "a | b | c | \n",
       "|---|---|\n",
       "| 1 | 2 | 3 | \n",
       "| 4 | 5 | 6 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  a b c\n",
       "1 1 2 3\n",
       "2 4 5 6"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "read_csv(\"1, 2, 3\n",
    "4, 5, 6\n",
    "\", col_names = c(\"a\", \"b\", \"c\"))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "You can specify how missing values are represented in the file."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 28,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>a</th><th scope=col>b</th><th scope=col>c</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>1 </td><td> 2</td><td>3 </td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>4 </td><td>NA</td><td>6 </td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " a & b & c\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t 1  &  2 & 3 \\\\\n",
       "\t 4  & NA & 6 \\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "a | b | c | \n",
       "|---|---|\n",
       "| 1  |  2 | 3  | \n",
       "| 4  | NA | 6  | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "  a b  c\n",
       "1 1  2 3\n",
       "2 4 NA 6"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "read_csv(\"a, b, c\n",
    "1, 2, 3\n",
    "4, ?, 6\n",
    "\", na = \"?\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {},
   "source": [
    "You can write a tibble to a csv file using `write_csv()`."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 29,
   "metadata": {
    "collapsed": true
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "write_csv(cubes, \"cubes.csv\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 30,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "name": "stderr",
     "output_type": "stream",
     "text": [
      "Parsed with column specification:\n",
      "cols(\n",
      "  `1` = col_integer(),\n",
      "  `2` = col_double(),\n",
      "  `3` = col_double()\n",
      ")\n"
     ]
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "cubes2 <- read_csv(\"cubes.csv\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 31,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "<table>\n",
       "<thead><tr><th scope=col>1</th><th scope=col>2</th><th scope=col>3</th></tr></thead>\n",
       "<tbody>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 1  </td><td>  1 </td><td>   1</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 2  </td><td>  4 </td><td>   8</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 3  </td><td>  9 </td><td>  27</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 4  </td><td> 16 </td><td>  64</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 5  </td><td> 25 </td><td> 125</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 6  </td><td> 36 </td><td> 216</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 7  </td><td> 49 </td><td> 343</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 8  </td><td> 64 </td><td> 512</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td> 9  </td><td> 81 </td><td> 729</td></tr>\n",
       "\t<tr><td>10  </td><td>100 </td><td>1000</td></tr>\n",
       "</tbody>\n",
       "</table>\n"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "\\begin{tabular}{r|lll}\n",
       " 1 & 2 & 3\\\\\n",
       "\\hline\n",
       "\t  1   &   1  &    1\\\\\n",
       "\t  2   &   4  &    8\\\\\n",
       "\t  3   &   9  &   27\\\\\n",
       "\t  4   &  16  &   64\\\\\n",
       "\t  5   &  25  &  125\\\\\n",
       "\t  6   &  36  &  216\\\\\n",
       "\t  7   &  49  &  343\\\\\n",
       "\t  8   &  64  &  512\\\\\n",
       "\t  9   &  81  &  729\\\\\n",
       "\t 10   & 100  & 1000\\\\\n",
       "\\end{tabular}\n"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "\n",
       "1 | 2 | 3 | \n",
       "|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|\n",
       "|  1   |   1  |    1 | \n",
       "|  2   |   4  |    8 | \n",
       "|  3   |   9  |   27 | \n",
       "|  4   |  16  |   64 | \n",
       "|  5   |  25  |  125 | \n",
       "|  6   |  36  |  216 | \n",
       "|  7   |  49  |  343 | \n",
       "|  8   |  64  |  512 | \n",
       "|  9   |  81  |  729 | \n",
       "| 10   | 100  | 1000 | \n",
       "\n",
       "\n"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "   1  2   3   \n",
       "1   1   1    1\n",
       "2   2   4    8\n",
       "3   3   9   27\n",
       "4   4  16   64\n",
       "5   5  25  125\n",
       "6   6  36  216\n",
       "7   7  49  343\n",
       "8   8  64  512\n",
       "9   9  81  729\n",
       "10 10 100 1000"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "cubes2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 32,
   "metadata": {},
   "outputs": [
    {
     "data": {
      "text/html": [
       "TRUE"
      ],
      "text/latex": [
       "TRUE"
      ],
      "text/markdown": [
       "TRUE"
      ],
      "text/plain": [
       "[1] TRUE"
      ]
     },
     "metadata": {},
     "output_type": "display_data"
    }
   ],
   "source": [
    "file.remove(\"cubes.csv\")"
   ]
  }
 ],
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